Southern Technical University

Technical College of Engineering / Basra

Engineering of Control and Automation Techniques

Controlling DC Motor through Virtual Gears

Authors
Mohammed
Zahraa
Reduan
Athraa

Supervisor
Dr Samir M. Falih
I
II
Dedication:

I dedicate this work to my beloved family, who supported and encouraged me

throughout my university studies and during the preparation of this research. I
also dedicate it to my friends and colleagues who have always been by my side,
sharing with me the happy moments and challenges, and providing me with
support and encouragement at every step I take.
I express my deep gratitude to the university community and my esteemed
professors who shared their knowledge and experiences with me, guiding my
steps towards academic success and excellence.
I hope that this research will be a humble contribution from me to my field of
specialization, and that it will have value and benefit for those who read it.

III
 Abstract

‫المحتويات‬
Dedication:................................................................................................................................................10
Abstract.....................................................................................................................................................11
CONTENTS.................................................................................................................................................13
1.Introduction............................................................................................................................................16
1.1components of a typical DC motor.......................................................................................................17
1.2 Types of DC motors.............................................................................................................................21
1.3 Applications of DC Motor....................................................................................................................22
1.4 DC motor Advantages and Disadvantages...........................................................................................23
1.5 Speed Control of DC motor.................................................................................................................24
1.5.1 Flux Control Method........................................................................................................................24
1.5.2 Armature Control Method................................................................................................................25
1.5.3 Voltage Control Method...................................................................................................................26
1.6 Axial-Flux:............................................................................................................................................28
1.6.2 Generalities about Axial-Flux Permanent- Magnet Motor...............................................................29
2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................31
2.2 Scope of the research..........................................................................................................................36
3.5 Open Loop System:.............................................................................................................................45
3.6 Close Loop System:..............................................................................................................................45
1. Proportional controller................................................................................................................47
2.Proportional Integral controller..................................................................................................48
3.Proportional integral derivative controller.................................................................................50
4.1 Desigine matlab...................................................................................................................................53
Fig.12.........................................................................................................................................................53
4.1.1Components:.....................................................................................................................................53
4.1.2Explain:..............................................................................................................................................53
4.2Development:.......................................................................................................................................54
Building the model with Simulink..............................................................................................................55
Building the model with Simscape.......................................................................................................60
4.3Hard ware.............................................................................................................................................66
4.5 Linking method:...................................................................................................................................71
4.5.1Open-loop..........................................................................................................................................71
4.5.2 code open loop system..............................................................................................................71
4.6 Close loop system................................................................................................................................73
4.6.1 code close loop.................................................................................................................................74

IV
CONTENTS

V
VI
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.Introduction
Direct Current (DC) motor is a motor that turns energy from a direct
current and turns this into mechanical energy. The first DC motor was
developed around the 1830’s-1840s. They were commercially
unsuccessful, because these motors were battery powered and batteries
were still very expensive and the quality was low. When the electrical
grid was created and the rechargeable batteries were invented in the late
1800s this all changed. The first commercially viable DC motors
entered the market. DC motors have been improved continuously, but
other types of motors, like the BLDC motor, have been developed in the
meantime too. As a result, the use of brushed Direct Current motors in
several applications is limited today. When it comes to starting and
regulating speed, brushed DC motors have a good performance. The
torque density is relatively high for these motors. A Direct Current
motor runs smoothly and the range of speed regulation is wide. The
overload capability is strong and the electromagnetic interference is
small. A disadvantage of the DC motor is the structure. There is a
sliding contact between the commutator and the brush. This causes
sparks and mechanical wear. Direct Current motors have relatively
short life expectancy because of this and the motor has high
maintenance cost. It also raises reliability concerns. The DC motor has
a rotating part called the rotor and a stationary part called the stator. The
rotor has windings connected to a commutator, and the stator provides
the external magnetic field. When power is applied, the rotor rotates due
to the interaction between these components, when the rotor aligns with
the stator's field magnets, the brushes move to the next commutator
contacts, changing the current direction in the rotor windings and
causing the rotor to continue rotating.
1.1components of a typical DC motor
The key components of a typical DC motor include a rotor (armature), stator,
commutator, brushes, field windings ,yoke, armature windings ,poles, and a
power source (DC supply). Some of the most popular designs for DC motors are
Permanent magnet, Brushless, Shunt, Series, and Compound wound or stabilized
shunt. The DC motor parts are normally the same within these different designs
and the overall operation is similar. How it operates is that a conductor, carrying
the current is implanted in a magnetic field, and the power applied through the
conductors enables the rotation of the motor. The generation of electromagnetic
fields and its place, whether in the rotor or stator is the reason these designs differ
from each other. As getting acquainted and understanding the diverse types of
direct current motors will aid you to figure out how they are used for different
applications and which one is more suitable for the application, in what follows,
here are functions of some of these types.

Fig 1.DC motor inside view

 Fig.2 DC motor key components

A DC motor contains different parts that understanding each one can assist to
know deeply these parts cooperate with each other and in the end how DCs work.
These components are: a stator, a rotor, a yoke, poles, armature windings, field
windings, commutator, and brushes. Many of its parts are the same as parts of AC
motor, but with a little change.

 Stator
A stator is one of the DC motor parts that is, as the name suggests, a static unit
containing the field windings. The stator is the DC Motor part that receives the
supply.
 Rotor
The dynamic part of a DC motor is the rotor that creates the mechanical rotations
of the unit.

 Yoke
Another unit of the DC motor parts is the Yoke. A Yoke is a magnetic frame
made of cast iron or sometimes steel, which works as a protector. This
protective cover keeps the inner parts of the motor safe and sound and also
supports the armature. Yoke also houses the magnetic poles and field windings
of a DC motor to help supporting the field system.
 Poles
DC motor has magnetic poles that fit into the inner wall of the Yoke with the
help of screws to tighten them up. Poles have two parts: The Pole Core and the
Pole Shoe. These two parts are fixed together by hydraulic pressure and are
attached to the Yoke. Each part of the Poles has a specific task based on its
design. The core holds the Pole Shoe over the Yoke while the Pole Shoe is
structured to both carry slots for the field winding and spread the produced flux
by the field windings into the air gap between the rotor and stator. It helps to
reduce the loss caused by reluctance.
 Field Windings
Made with Copper wire (field coils), the Field Windings circle around the slots
carried by the Pole Shoes. The field windings form an electromagnet capable of
producing field flux. The rotor armature rotates inside the field flux, resulting in
the effective flux cutting.
 Armature Windings
Another DC motor parts is armature winding. The armature winding of the DC
motor has two constructions: Lap Winding and Wave Winding. Their difference
is in the number of parallel paths. Armature Winding is attached to the rotor and
alters the magnetic field in the path that it rotates. The result of this procedure is
magnetic losses. Designers try to reduce the magnetic losses by making the
armature core with some low-hysteresis silicon steel lamination. Then, the
laminated steel sheets will be piled up together, creating the cylindrical
structure of the armature core. There are slots designed inside the armature core
with the same material.
  DC Motor Commutator
The commutator is a split ring made up of Copper segments, Commutator is
another DC motor part. The operating system of a DCs is based on the interaction
of the two magnetic fields of rotating armature and a fixed stator. As the north pole
of the armature is attracted to the south pole of the stator and south pole of
armature is attracted to the north pole of the stator, a force is produced on the
armature which makes it to turn. the process in which the field in the armature
windings is switched to produce constant torque in one direction is called
Commutation. the commutator is a device connected to the armature enabling this
switching of current. Different segments of its cylindrical structure are insulated
from each other by Mica. The commutator is designed to commute the supply
current to the armature winding from the mains. The commutator passes through
the brushes of the DC motor.
The basic purpose of commutation is to certify that the torque acting on the
armature is always in the same direction. Naturally, the generated voltage in the
armature is alternating, the commutator converts it to the direct current. To control
the direction the electromagnetic fields are pointing to, the commutator turns the
coils on and off. On one side of the coil, the electricity should always flow away,
and on the other side, electricity should always flow towards. This ensures that the
torque is always produced in the same direction.
 Brushes
The last item on the DC motor parts list is Brushes that are made of Carbon or
Graphite structures. Brushes with the commutator, are working as a bridge to
connect the static electrical circuit to the rotor. Brushes are in contact with the
commutator and relay the produced current to the commutator from an external
circuit. The current then moves into the armature winding.
1.2 Types of DC motors
There are four main types of DC motors have the numerous potential applications
each type of these motors possesses its strengths and weaknesses:
1. Permanent Magnet Motors
Permanent Magnet Motors (also known as a PMDC motor) apply a
permanent magnet to make a field flux. This type of DC motors creates a
great starting torque with a good speed regulation. With limited torque it
has, permanent magnet type typically is used on low horsepower
applications.
2. Shunt Motors
the field of shunt type is connected in parallel with the armature windings.
As the shunt field can excited separately from the armature windings, this
type of motors provides a great speed regulation. Besides, shunt motors also
offer simplified reversing controls.
3. Series Motors
A series DC motor consists of a field wound with some turns of a wire
which carries the current of armature. Like permanent motors, series motors
create a large amount of starting torque. In comparison with permanent
motors, series type can’t regulate speed. In addition, if series motors run
with no load, they can be damaged. These limitations make series motors
unsuitable for variable speed drive applications.
4. Compound Motors
Like shunt DC motors, compound motors possess a shunt field which is
separately excited. Just like permanent and series motors, compound motors
enjoy good starting torque with some problems in speed regulation in
variable speed drive applications.
1.3 Applications of DC Motor.
Due to the fact that there are 4 main types of DCs, a wide range of different
applications is defined for DC motors. The previous sections considered some of
the various parts and types of DCs. In this section, we are going to introduce
different applications and circumstances where DC motors are used for.Generally,
because of some specific advantages of each type of DC motors, there are various
uses of them. At home, small ones are used in tools, toys and many household
appliances. Some other applications of DCs include conveyors and turntables and
in industries, huge DCs usages consist of braking and reversing applications. We
tried to bring some specific examples as the DCs applications:
1-Pumps
Hydraulic pumps as an essential industrial tool are used in almost all industries
such as construction, mining, manufacturing and steel. DC motors because of their
variable speed control and also excellent starting torque are used to empower these
kinds of pumps. Most of the time lower-cost brushless DCs are used in pumps
which make it far easier to maintain on such a large industrial scope.
2-Toys
Due to the fact that small DC motors are easy to use and considerably rugged, they
are the best choice of manufacturer and hobbyists for children’s toys such as
remote-control cars and trains. Toys that require different range of speed and types
of movements need a motor with a wide variety of voltages. Manufacturers find all
of these specifications in DCs.
3-Electric Cars
Another application for DCs is in electric cars. DC motors because of their energy
efficiency and durability are one of most favorite options for electric vehicles.
Moreover, many hobbyist use DCs because of their great and higher starting torque
particularly series-wound motors, and their variable speeds with voltage input.
4-Robots
For many hobbyist and engineering robots are any electromechanical devices
designed to do one or more specific tasks. To activate things like tracks, arm or
cameras,
1.4 DC motor Advantages and Disadvantages
Different sizes of DC motor parts will create different DC motors, suitable for
different needs. As mentioned before, small ones can be used in toys, tools, and
home appliances and larger ones are used in the elevator and hoists and propulsion
of electric vehicles. Although AC motors decreased the selling of DC motors on
account of simple generation and transmission with fewer losses to long distances,
needing less maintenance and can be operated in explosive atmospheres, DCs still
are utilized in where ACs can’t fulfill the needs. DCs have their own unique
features and importance in industries that make up for lots of other advantages that
AC motors have over them.
DC motors are suitable for low-speed torque, or when having an adjustable speed
and constant is necessary. In other words, with DC motors the speed can be
controlled over a wide range. This means they offer a wide range of speed control
both below and above the rated speed. This feature of DC motors can be got in
shunt types. By armature controlling and field controlling, you can enjoy this
unique advantage of DC motors over AC motors. Moreover, DCs have a very high
and strong starting torque compared to normal operating torque. Therefore, DCs
are used in electric trains and cranes having overwhelming burdens in the
beginning conditions. In addition to the above-mentioned advantages, DC motors
have smaller converters and drives as well as higher motor power density. Not to
mention that they have full torque at zero speed.Being around on the market for
more than 140 years, DC motors are often more affordable than AC motors and
have a simpler and more efficient design. Plus, their maintenance is easy and takes
little to no time. If you redesign your current installation to use an AC motor, it
will cost way more than just simply replacing the DC motor inside the installation.
So, you not only repair your system by installing a new unit inside but save lots of
money.
1.5 Speed Control of DC motor
Often we want to control the speed of a DC motor on demand. This intentional
change of the drive speed is known as speed control of a DC motor.
We can control the speed of DC motor manually or through an automatic control
device. This is different to speed regulation – where the speed can regulate against
the natural change in speed due to a change in the load on the shaft
The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to
K ( V −I a∗Ra )
N= (1)
∅
Where, K is a constant.
This implies three things:
1. Speed of the motor is directly proportional to supply voltage.
2. The Speed of the motor is inversely proportional to armature voltage drop.
3. The motor speed is inversely proportional to the flux due to the field
findings
Thus, the speed of a DC motor can control in three ways:
 By varying the flux, and by varying the current through field winding
 By varying the armature voltage, and the armature resistance
 Through the supply voltage

1.5.1 Flux Control Method

Due to the field winding, the magnetic flux varies in order to vary the speed of the
motor. As the magnetic flux depends on the current flowing through the field
winding, it changes by varying the current through the field winding. This can
achieve using a variable resistor in a series with the field winding resistor.
 Fig.3 flux control of DC motor

Initially, when the variable resistor keeps at its minimum position, the rated current
flows through the field winding due to a rated supply voltage, and as a result, the
speed is kept normal. When the resistance increases gradually, the current through
the field winding decreases. This in turn decreases the flux produced. Thus, the
speed of the motor increases beyond its normal value.
1.5.2 Armature Control Method
The controlling of armature resistance controls the voltage drop across the
armature. With this method, the speed of the DC motor can control. This method
also uses a variable resistor in series with the armature.

Fig.4 Armature Control DC motor

When the variable resistor reaches its minimum value, the armature resistance is at
normal one. Therefore, the armature voltage drops. When the resistance value
gradually increases, the voltage across the armature decreases. This in turn leads to
decrease in the speed of the motor. In this way, this method achieves the speed of
the motor below its normal range.

1.5.3 Voltage Control Method

Both the above mentioned methods cannot provide speed control in the desirable
range. Moreover, the flux control method can affect commutation. Whereas the
armature control method involves huge power loss due to its usage of resistor in
series with the armature. Therefore, a different method is often desirable – the one
that controls the supply voltage to control the motor speed.
In such a method, the field winding receives a fixed voltage, and the armature gets
a variable voltage. One such technique of voltage control method involves the use
of a switch gear mechanism to provide a variable voltage to the armature. Another
one uses an AC motor driven Generator to provide variable voltage to the armature
(named as Ward-Leonard System).
Apart from these two techniques, the most widely used technique is the use of
pulse width modulation to achieve speed control of a DC motor. PWM involves
application of varying width of pulses to the motor driver to control the voltage
applied to the motor. This method proves to be very efficient as the power loss
keeps at minimum, and it doesn’t involve the use of any complex equipment.
PWM is achieved by varying the pulses applied to the enable pin of the motor
driver IC to control the applied voltage of the motor. The variation of pulses is
done by the micro controller, with the input signal from the push buttons.
Therefore , the most usual control method of a Dc motor rpm consists of the
control through pulse width modulation (PWM). The motor rpm variation is
performed by increasing or decreasing the time interval when the control signal has
the logic value 1 (tON). Thus, at a duty-cycle of 100%, the motor will have the
maximum rpm, tON will be maximal and t OFF will be zero. At a duty-cycle of 50 %,
the motor will have half the rated rpm, so tON = tOFF.
 Fig.5 Voltage Control Method

In case of a duty-cycle of 0%, the motor will be stopped, so t OFF will be maximal
whilst tON will be zero. The duty cycle is noted by f and can be calculated through
the relation:
t on
f= ∗100 % (2)
t on +t off

In general, PWM signals are generated by microcontrollers. In an electric drive

system micro-controllers form the logic control or decision part and DC motors
form the acting part. The control part operates with voltage levels of 5V and low
power and the acting part operates with higher voltage and power rates. For this
reason , an interface is necessary between the two parts of the system. Such an
interface is composed of an amplifier that frequently has the role of galvanic
separation between the two parts of the electric drive system. The block diagram
of the DC motor control by means of the H-bridge is shown at Fig. 5.
The electric drive diagram presented above is made on the basis of several
transistor type circuit breakers, GTO etc. The bridge is built of four circuit
breakers, actuated diagonally. When the circuit breakers S1 and S4 are switched
on (and S2 and S3 are switched off), Fig. 6.a, a positive voltage will be applied to
the DC motor that will rotate clockwise. By switching off the circuit breakers S1
and S4 and switching on S2 and S3, Fig. 6.b, the voltage polarity is reversed, thus
making possible the motor rotation counterclockwise.
 a b
Fig. 6. H-bridge functioning diagram.

The H-bridge is generally used for reversing the polarity of the motor supply
voltage but it may be also used for braking the motor (the motor stops suddenly
because of short-circuiting its terminals) or for allowing the motor to freely rotate
until still.
1.6 Axial-Flux:

Nowadays, the use of internal

combustion engines in
vehicles is one of the principal causes
of several pollution
problems as air and sound ones.
Therefore, the electrical
vehicles constitute an excellent
candidate to avoid these
problems. However, since their
appearance, the major
problems of this type of vehicles
remain in high cost,
weak autonomy and over speed
problems. For that, it
becomes essential to give a particular
care when choosing
the principal element of the electric
traction chain which
is the electric motor.
For electric traction applications,
synchronous or asyn-
chronous motors [1] with radial or axial
fluxes [2,3], can
be used. In order to increase the torque
generation capabil-
ity, these motors can be modulated.
Moreover, the conse-
quent progress of the permanent-
magnet technology makes
permanent magnets synchronous
motors more and more
utilized for variable speed and high
performance systems.
In [4], an effectiveness and mass
comparison study
between radial and axial structures of
a perma-
nent-magnet synchronous motor was
presented. For a
constant power, it was demonstrated
that the axial con-
figuration with 4 pole pairs in rotor
and 6 teeth in stator
has the best compromise
effectiveness-mass. Thus, this
motor appears particularly interesting
for electric vehicle
applications. In fact, the axial-flux
permanent-magnet
motor has many advantages [5] as: 1):
high effectiveness
and high power factor, 2) high specific
power, 3) no
ring-brushes and 4) possibility of
modularity.
As an industrial application we can
mention that
JEUMONT industry used the
technology of axial flux
structures to develop high power
machines intended to
Nowadays, the use of internal
combustion engines in
vehicles is one of the principal causes
of several pollution
problems as air and sound ones.
Therefore, the electrical
vehicles constitute an excellent
candidate to avoid these
problems. However, since their
appearance, the major
problems of this type of vehicles
remain in high cost,
weak autonomy and over speed
problems. For that, it
becomes essential to give a particular
care when choosing
the principal element of the electric
traction chain which
is the electric motor.
For electric traction applications,
synchronous or asyn-
chronous motors [1] with radial or axial
fluxes [2,3], can
be used. In order to increase the torque
generation capabil-
ity, these motors can be modulated.
Moreover, the conse-
quent progress of the permanent-
magnet technology makes
permanent magnets synchronous
motors more and more
utilized for variable speed and high
performance systems.
In [4], an effectiveness and mass
comparison study
between radial and axial structures of
a perma-
nent-magnet synchronous motor was
presented. For a
constant power, it was demonstrated
that the axial con-
figuration with 4 pole pairs in rotor
and 6 teeth in stator
has the best compromise
effectiveness-mass. Thus, this
motor appears particularly interesting
for electric vehicle
applications. In fact, the axial-flux
permanent-magnet
motor has many advantages [5] as: 1):
high effectiveness
and high power factor, 2) high specific
power, 3) no
ring-brushes and 4) possibility of
modularity.
As an industrial application we can
mention that
JEUMONT industry used the
technology of axial flux
structures to develop high power
machines intended to
Nowadays, the use of internal combustion engines in vehicles is one of the
principal causes of several pollution problems as air and sound ones. Therefore, the
electrical vehicles constitute an excellent candidate to avoid these problems.
However, since their appearance, the major problems of this type of vehicles
remain in high cost, weak autonomy and over speed problems. For that, it becomes
essential to give a particular care when choosing the principal element of the
electric traction chain which is the electric motor. For electric traction
applications, synchronous or asyn-chronous motors with radial or axial fluxes ,
can be used. In order to increase the torque generation capabil-ity, these motors can
be modulated. Moreover, the conse-quent progress of the permanent-magnet
technology makes permanent magnets synchronous motors more and more utilized
for variable speed and high performance systems. In ,an effectiveness and mass
comparison study between radial and axial structures of a perma-nent-magnet
synchronous motor was presented. For a constant power, it was demonstrated that
the axial con-figuration with 4 pole pairs in rotor and 6 teeth in stator has the best
compromise effectiveness-mass. Thus, this motor appears particularly interesting
for electric vehicle applications. In fact, the axial-flux permanent-magnet motor
has many advantages as: 1): high effectiveness and high power factor, 2) high
specific power, 3) no ring-brushes and 4) possibility of modularity. As an
industrial application we can mention that JEUMONT industry used the
technology of axial flux structures to develop high power machines intended to
boats and Aeolian alternators driving . This paper presents the design of a high
power – low dimensions axial-flux permanent-magnet motor for a traction
application. First, the design criteria of electrical parameters are highlighted for
trapezoidal and sinusoidal motor configurations. Then, considering the vehicle
specification, the motor geometric parameters are analytically determined for a
comparison based on finite element calculation between both configurations
performances. Finally, a traction chain integrating best con-figuration is modelled
under MATLAB/SIMULINK environment in order to demonstrate the motor
operation on a large speed band without weakening flux method

1.6.2 Generalities about Axial-Flux Permanent- Magnet Motor

Several axial-flux machine configurations exist depending on the stator(s)
position(s) with respect to the rotor(s) ones, as shown in Figure 1. We can find: ●
A structure with one rotor and one stator, Figure 1 (a). ● A structure, in which the
rotor is located between the stators, Figure 1(b). ● A structure, in which the stator
is located between the rotors, Figure 1(c). ● A multistage structure including
several rotors and stators Figure 1(d). In traction applications, more the motor has
higher torque generation capabilities more it is interesting. As

Fig.7 exploded view of Dc motor

 CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
DC motors are widely used in industrial applications, robot controllers and home
appliances due to their high reliability, versatility and low cost, where speed and
position control of the motor is required. engine. This paper deals with the
performance evaluation of different types of conventional controllers and
intelligent controllers implemented with the express purpose of controlling the
speed of independently excited DC motors. PID controllers are commonly used for
motor control applications due to their simple structure and intuitively
understandable control algorithms. The controller parameters are usually set using
the Ziegler-Nichols frequency response method . The Ziegler-Nichols frequency
response method is often used to tune the parameters of a PID controller. However,
it is necessary to put the system into oscillation mode to perform the adjustment
process. But it is not always possible to oscillate most technological settings . In
process control, model-based control systems are mainly used to achieve desired
set points and eliminate small external disturbances. The design of internal model
control (IMC) is based on the fact that the control system contains a certain
representation of the process under control, allowing to achieve perfect control.
Therefore, if the control architecture is developed based on an accurate model of
the process, then perfect control is mathematically possible . Fuzzy logic control
(FLC) is one of the most successful applications of fuzzy set theory, introduced by
L.A. Zadeh in 1973 and applied (Mamdani 1974) to attempt to control systems
with difficult structures. modeling. Since then, FLC has become an extremely
active and fruitful research area with many industrial applications reported . Over
the past three decades, FLC has developed as an alternative or complement to
conventional control strategies in various engineering fields. The analysis and
control of complex, non-linear and/or time-varying systems is a difficult task using
conventional methods due to uncertainties. Fuzzy set theory leads to a new control
method called Fuzzy Control, which is capable of handling system uncertainties.
One of the most important advantages of fuzzy control is that it can be successfully
applied to control complex nonlinear systems using operator experience or control
engineering knowledge. without any mathematical modeling of the installation
process .
Direct currents (DC) motors have been used in variable speed drives for a long
time. The versatile characteristics of dc motors can provide high starting torques
which is required for traction drives. Control over a wide speed range, both below
and above the rated speed can be very easily achieved. The methods of speed
control are simpler and less expensive than those of alternating current motors.
There are different techniques available for the speed control of DC motors. The
phase control method is widely adopted, but has certain limitations mainly it
generates harmonics on the power line and it also has got p .f when operated lower
speeds. The second method is PWM technique, which has got better advantages
over the phase control.
In the proposed project, a DC motors circuitry is designed, and developed using
pulse with modulation (PWM).The pulse width modulation can be achieved in
several ways. In the present project, the PWM generation is done using micro-
controller.
speed control means intentional change of drive speed to a value required for
performing the specific work process. this concept of speed control or adjustment
should not be taken to include the natural change in speed which occurs due to
change in the load on the shaft. any given piece of industrial equipment may have
its speed change or adjusted mechanically by means of stepped pulleys, sets of
change gears, variable speed friction clutch mechanism and other mechanical
devices. historically it is proved to be the first step in transition from non-
adjustable speed to adjustable speed drive. the electrical speed control has many
economical as well as engineering advantages over mechanical speed control the
nature of the speed control requirement for an industrial drive depends upon its
type. some drives may require continues variation of speed for the whole of the
range from zero to full speed or over a portion of this range, while the others may
require two or more fixed speeds, there are many speed control methods of dc
motors which can be listed below:
● Armature or Rheostatic control method.
● Flux control method. It is seen that speed of the motor is inversely
proportional to flux.
● Armature control method.
● Voltage Control Method.
● Variable resistance in series with armature.

In the field of DC motor speed and direction control , many researches have been
done and a lots of controlling methods have been implemented in order to achieve
accurate ,robust , smooth and durable speed controlling method , here are some
reviews of some studies which done in same of our study field of research:
 A.sahithi Priya et al., work on a micro controller MCS 51 series 89c52 and
motor driver, thermal sensor, comparator, key pad,16X2 dot matrix LCD display
and rotation feedback sensor (optical encoder). The program is written in micro
controller to take the input values from the user, then rotates the motor by placing
50% duty cycle pulse on the motor. The motor is rotated at X RPM speed, can be
detected by using feedback sensor and micro controller. If the speed is above the
specified speed, then the micro controller continuously reduces the duty cycle till
the speed comes to a predetermined level. If the detected speed is less than the pre-
determined speed then the micro controller continuously increases the duty cycle
till the determined level. The micro controller keeps on tracking the determined
speed by varying duty cycle in a closed loop control system .
Md Akram Ahmad et al. work on the speed control of a DC shunt motor using
conventional controllers (PID, IMC) and Fuzzy Logic controller based on Matlab
Simulation program. A mathematical model of the process has been developed
using real plant data and then conventional controllers and Fuzzy logic controller
has been designed. A comparative analysis of performance evaluation of all
controllers has been done. In process control, model based control systems are
mainly used to get the desired set points and reject small external disturbances. The
internal model control (IMC) design is based on the fact that control system
contains some representation of the process to be controlled then a perfect control
can be achieved. So, if the control architecture has been developed based on the
exact model of the process then perfect control is mathematically possible.
Jalu A. Prakosa et al. work on Quadcopter drones typically use brushless direct
current (BLDC) motors as rotors due to their high efficiency and small volume.
BLDC motor speed control is very important in determining the drone's position
and speed. Optical sensors can be used to measure the speed of the BLDC motors
during laboratory tests. Speed calculation, use of pulse width modulation (PWM)
techniques for speed control, and serial interface can be implemented using a
microcontroller. The purpose of this study is to control the speed of a BLDC motor
for ground testing of a drone rotor. Measurements have shown that the relationship
between the PWM-controlled speed reference signal and the actual speed is
nonlinear due to the time constant and fan load. Increasing the PWM duty cycle
increases motor speed. You can use the motor's control characteristics to modify
speed control .
Ali N. hamoodi et al. work on a design and implement an aped control of a direct-
current (DC) series motor. The Arduino UNO kit was used with four resistance
armature control, and the approaches available with the Arduino kit enabled us to
build this connection and measure the speed in a straightforward manner. This
speed was measured using a speed meter (Autonics MP5w). Traditional armature
resistance controls and also Arduino armature resistance controls were used. For
each example, the speed readings were recorded. Finally, it was found that the
Arduino control approach is less complicated than the old method.
Palem Lay Krishna et al. provides different aspects of speed control of DC drive.
Different control schemes of DC motor with proper explanation has been provided.
Multi-pulse converter and firing angle control scheme has been discussed.
Simulation results have been provided for the speed control aspect. It is possible to
measure the speed of the motor with a tachometer or incremental encoder. These
tachometers and incremental encoders produce erroneous results as a result of a
variety of factors. the authors provide a strategy for compensating against
imperfections in incremental encoders. In his paper, a study of several speed
control systems for direct current motors is discussed in detail. This paper
discusses many strategies for controlling the speed of a DC motor, including
various speed control schemes. This study discusses and simulates multi-pulse
converter-based DC motor speed control. The results of the simulation reveal that
the motor can be controlled accurately in terms of speed. The speed of the motor
can be measured with a tachometer or incremental encoder .

Khather et al. work on the implementation of a Proportional-Integral-Derivative

(PID) controller for regulating the speed of a closed loop four quadrant chopper fed
DC motor. The PID controller is combined with a Dual Fuzzy Logic Controller to
form a DFPID controller for enhancing the performance of speed control of the DC
motor. The DFLC is optimized using a metaheuristic algorithm known as Harmony
Search Algorithm (HSA). The major aim of his research is to gain an effective
control over the speed of the motor in the closed loop environment. For achieving
this, the parameters for the DFPID are selected through time domain analysis
which aims to satisfy the requisites such as settling time and peak overshoot.
Initially, the fuzzy logic controller in the DFPID controls the coefficients of the
PID achievement gain an effective control over the system error and rate of error
change. Further, the DFPID is improved by the HAS for obtaining a precise
correction. The solutions obtained by tuning the DFPID controller are evaluated
from simulation analysis conducted on a MATLAB/SIMULINK platform. The
closed loop performance is analyzed in both time and frequency domain analysis
and the performance of DFPID is optimized using the HSA algorithm to obtain
precise value of the control process. As observed from the Simulation analysis, the
DFPID-HSA generates optimized control signals to the DC motor for controlling
the speed. The performance of the intended speed control approach is analyzed in
terms of different evaluation metrics such as motor speed, torque and armature
current. Experimental outcomes show that the proposed approach achieves better
control performance and faster speed of DC motor compared to conventional PID
controllers and SMC controllers .

Nassim Messaadi et al. designed a DC motor whose speed can be controlled by a

PID controller. The proportional, integral and derivative gains (KP, KI, KD) of the
PID controller are adjusted according to Fuzzy logic. First of all, the fuzzy logic
controller is designed according to rules so that the systems is basically robust.
There are 25 rules for the auto-tuning of each parameter of the PID controller. The
FLC (fuzzy logic controller) has two inputs. The first is the motor speed error
between the reference (setpoint) and the actual speed. The second is the variation
of the speed error (derivative of the speed error). Secondly the output of the FLC is
the parameters of the PID controller which are used to control the speed of the DC
motor. The study shows that both the precise characters of PID controllers and the
flexible characters of fuzzy controllers are present in the fuzzy self-tuning PID
controller. The fuzzy auto-tuning approach implemented on a conventional PID
structure was able to control the speed of the DC motor. It also improved the
dynamic and static response of the system. The comparison between the
conventional response and the fuzzy self-tuning response was performed based on
the simulation result obtained by MATLAB/SIMULINK. The simulation results
show that the designed self-adaptive PID controller achieves good dynamic
behavior of the DC motor, perfect speed tracking with short rise and settling times,
zero overshoot and steady state error and thus gives better performance compared
to the conventional PID controller. They then model the fuzzy PID using simple
code on Arduino IDE and perform a practical experiment, to confirm our
theoretical results .
2.2 Scope of the research
The aims of the research are to develop an algorithm in which we can achieve
desired speed of a DC motor on simulation, created in Simulink-MATLAB. The
algorithm is furthermore implemented on hardware system to check the actual
response of DC motor. Moreover, simulated response is compared with actual
response of hardware system in order to observe the accuracy and precision. The
algorithm which would be used here is based on proportional integral derivative
(PID) theory of control engineering.
Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers are commonly used in DC motor
speed control. To make it easier to identify the correct values of the PID
controller's parameters for the DC motor under control at any set point, a suitable
tuning process was required . Controller tuning techniques give controller
parameters in the form of formulae or algorithms. They ensure that the obtained
control system is stable and achieves the desired results. Because of their excellent
performance, ease of control, and high efficiency, direct current motor drives are
used in a wide range of speed and position control systems . The PID controller is
in the forward path, and its output determines the voltage provided to the motor's
armature. The controller computes an error value by dividing a measured process
variable by the set-point value. It then seeks to decrease the error by increasing or
decreasing the control inputs to the process, bringing the process variable closer to
the set point .
CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
In this system, voltage is input while the speed of the DC motor is our output.
Voltage supply is connected with the motor driver. The voltage that is being
supplied to the DC motor is controlled through PWM. Now here, output speed of
the DC motor is our actual value of output. When it is equal to the set-point which
we have already set in our controller, the controller will not vary the input.
However, when the actual RPMs, sensed by the encoder attached with the DC
motor, change from the set-point value, an error signal generates. The controller,
through the PID algorithm, tunes the error signal with proportional, integral, and
derivative gains. Furthermore, that error signal, that is basically a difference of
actual and set values, triggers the controller to vary the input voltage to the DC
motor through the motor driver L298N. Consequently, the output is varied in
accordance with the voltage on the input side of the DC motor. This process
continues as long as the actual speed of the motor varies from the set-point speed
of the motor. The hardware system of the developed system of the speed control of
DC motor through Arduino UNO is shown in the fig.8.

Fig.8 Setup for DC Motor Speed Control

The speed of DC motors is often abnormal due to external constraints or changes
in parameters from the fabrication, so it is necessary to try the controller design.
The controller designed using PID consists of 3 types of settings combined, namely
the P (Proportional), I (Integral), and D (Derivative) controls. Switching to the PID
control set on the keypad and the best time (Time Sampling) obtained to obtain
stability from the coveted DC motor speed ATMega328 Microcontroller. In This
study explains the adjustment of a single-phase induction motor in this study
utilizing a Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller to adjust the motor
speed to maintain a constant speed along with load change, this speed setting is
controlled by PWM pulses to obtain a frequency corresponding to the reference
speed. In this study, no-load testing obtained motor rise time will accelerate at
smaller reference speeds. It is also focused on determining the value of PID control
parameters that worked optimally using the manual trial error tuning method.
We use a PID control system with a feedback encoder as feedback based on
microcontroller Arduino UNO and its application to a no-load DC motor by using
variable resistance as an interface that functions to input set point values in PID
parameters and present data in graphs in real time.

The process of identifying problems in the DC motor was carried out, where the
rotation of the DC motor needs to be controlled at speed in accordance with the
function and use of the motor. The factors that are considered in this study are
motor speed control and calculation of controlling values. To get optimal results, a
study was carried out and subsequently the appropriate hardware was made and the
manufacture of software to operate the system from the driver motor and DC
motor. After that, tool testing is carried out to obtain data to be processed and
compared with previous studies. The research flow chart of the automatic feeding
system can be seen in Fig.9.
 Fig.9 Research Flowchart

3.2 Hardware Design

The hardware design of this dc motor's angular velocity control system rests on the
Arduino Uno controller, which controls all sensors and actuators. The hardware
design block diagram can be seen in Fig.10.

Fig.10 System design block diagram

The design of this DC motor angular velocity control system uses an Arduino
UNO microcontroller to regulate a DC motor that has an encoder in it, Arduino
will send a voltage signal to the driver motor to be subsequently discharged to the
DC motor according to the voltage calculation results of the PID controller.
The voltage value in the DC motor is influenced by the PID controller, depending
on the set point value and the value of each Proportional-integral-derivative
controller, the result of the PID controller is the angular velocity of the DC motor.
PID control results in addition to the rotation results on the DC motor, this study
also displays the PID control results through a graph displayed by the serial
monitor.

Fig. 11. Wiring diagram

Fig.11 shows the wiring circuit of this system, all components are connected by
the Arduino UNO with a power supply coming from a 12 Volt adapter. The motor
driver and DC motor are directly connected with the Arduino pins. The pins used
on the Arduino UNO can be seen in Table 1.
 No. Arduino Pin Information
1 D5 ENB pin on L298N motor driver
2 D6 IN 3 pin on L298N motor driver
3 D7 IN 4 pin on L298N motor driver
4 GND GND Arduino to GND L298N motor driver
5 D2 To Encoder Chanel B motor DC pin
6 D3 To Encoder Chanel A motor DC pin
7 GND To Encoder GND , LCD GND, Potentiometer GND
8 5V To Encoder VCC, LCD VCC, Potentiometer VCC
9 A1 Analog input from potentiometer
10 A4 SCL of LCD
11 A5 SDA of LCD
Table 1. Arduino Uno Input and Output Pins

3.3 Software design

Software design, that is, the program for the Arduino UNO controller is created
through the Arduino IDE application and downloaded via a USB cable to the node
board. Fig. is an explanation of the system flow chart. Based on Fig.12 , it can be
understood that the motor speed control system uses the PID control method,
starting with the inclusion of the values of the coefficients P, I and D and the
desired set-point value. The program will process the PID input and later the
physical output is in the form of the angular speed of the DC motor, the speed of
the DC motor is obtained from the voltage given after being given a PID controller.
The speed of the DC motor will always be monitored and detected by the encoder
sensor, the encoder will always calculate what speed the motor is rotating, if the
speed of the motor is different from the PID value (Reference Value) then the
encoder will send the next error value, the error value will be processed and
corrected, the repair results will again be issued by the Arduino in the form of DC
motor rotation in accordance with the PID value (reference value).
 Fig.12 System flow chart

3.4 PID controller in discrete form

We know from the definition of PID control that the controller multiplies,
integrates and derives the error , therefore what we must do is establish the
following sum[20]:

Fig.13 sum of PID controller

If we want to discretize this controller, we must then put a retainer at the input, in
this case it will be, for example, a zero-order retainer.

Fig.14 zero order retainer at the input

Now, let’s drive the equation of discrete PID controller as follow :

[ ( )] ……………………………………(1)
−T S 2
Cv (z ) 1−e Kd S + KpS+ Ki
s

PIDd = =Z
E (z) S S

[ ( Kp+ KiS + KdS )]………………………………………………..(2)

−T s S
1−e
¿Z
S

¿(1−Z −1)Z
[ Kp Ki
]
+ + Kd …………………………….……………………(3)
S S2

¿(1−Z )
Kp
−1
+
[Ki T s Z−1 Kd
+
(1−Z−1) ( 1−Z−1 )2 T s ]
…………………………….................(4)

[ ]
Kd 2
Kp (1−Z−1)+ Ki T s Z−1 + ( 1−Z −1)
Cv(z ) Ts ………………………………………..(5)
=
E (z) (1−Z −1)

Cv(z )
=¿
E (z)
−1 −1 −1 Kd Kd −2 Kd −1
Cv ( z )−Cv ( z ) Z =KpE ( z ) −KpE ( z ) Z + Ki T s E ( z ) Z + E ( z )+ E ( z ) Z −2 E(z)Z
Ts Ts Ts
………………………………………….……….(7)

Equation No.7 will be used in Arduino code in order to evaluate the Control value
(Cv) of the controller , knowing that E stand for error signal ,Ki ,Kp, Kd stand for
integral ,proportional and derivative controller constant respectively .
 3.5 Open Loop System:
An open-loop system is a type of control system where the output is not directly
fed back to the input for correction. In an open-loop system, the control action is
determined solely by the input commands, without considering the actual output or
system response. This means that there is no feedback mechanism to adjust the
control action based on the system's performance. An example of an open-loop
system is a washing machine that runs through a predefined cycle without
monitoring the cleanliness of the clothes. Once the cycle is initiated, it proceeds
according to a predetermined sequence of operations regardless of the actual state
of the clothes. Open-loop systems are simpler and less expensive to implement
compared to closed-loop systems, but they are typically less accurate and less
robust in dealing with disturbances or changes in the system[21].

Fig.15 open loop system

3.6 Close Loop System:

A closed-loop system, also known as a feedback control system, is a control
system where the output of the system is monitored and compared to a reference or
desired value. Based on this comparison, corrective action is taken to adjust the
system's behavior and bring the output closer to the desired value. The primary
components of a closed-loop system are[22]:

1. Controller: The controller is responsible for processing the error signal, which is
the difference between the desired reference value and the actual output of the
system. It generates a control signal based on this error signal to adjust the system's
behavior.
2. Plant or Process: The plant or process represents the system being controlled. It
could be a mechanical, electrical, or chemical system. The plant receives the
control signal from the controller and produces an output.
3. Feedback Loop: The feedback loop is the mechanism by which the output of the
system is fed back to the controller. This feedback allows the controller to
continuously monitor the system's performance and make necessary adjustments to
maintain or achieve the desired output.
4. Sensors: Sensors are used to measure the output or performance of the system and
provide feedback to the controller. They sense the actual output or state of the
system and transmit this information to the controller for comparison with the
reference value.
5. Actuators: Actuators are devices that receive the control signal from the controller
and exert control over the system to bring its output closer to the desired value.
They could be motors, valves, heaters, or any other devices that can manipulate the
system's behavior. Closed-loop systems are widely used in various applications,
including industrial control systems, automotive control systems, robotics,
aerospace, and more. They offer several advantages over open-loop systems, such
as improved accuracy, stability, and robustness to disturbances and uncertainties.
Additionally, closed-loop systems can adapt to changes in the system or the
environment, making them suitable for dynamic and uncertain environments.

Fig.16 close loop system

3.7 open loop vs closed loop

The main differences between the two type of controlling methods could be listed
below:
 Basis For Open Loop System Closed Loop System
Comparison
Definition The system whose control In closed loop, the output
action is free from the output depends on the control action of
is known as the open loop the system.
control system.
Other Name Non-feedback System Feedback System
Components Controller and Controlled Amplifier, Controller,
Process. Controlled Process, Feedback.
Construction Simple Complex
Reliability Non-reliable Reliable
Accuracy Depends on calibration Accurate because of feedback.
Stability Stable Less Stable
Optimization Not-Possible Possible
Response Fast Slow
Calibration Difficult Easy
System Affected Not-affected
Disturbance
Linearity Non-linear Linear
Examples Traffic light, automatic Air conditioner, temperature
washing machine, immersion control system, speed and
rod, TV remote etc. pressure control system,
refrigerator, toaster.
Table .2 comparison between open and close loop[22].

3.8 The Characteristics of The P, I, And D Terms

1. Proportional controller

Now we will discuss P or proportional term of the PID controller. As we see in

block diagram of PID controller, the error essentially goes through each PID block
and their outputs are summed up and form a control signal that drives the process
to the desired set point. However, in order to understand the advantage and
disadvantage of using one or more term, we will break down the controllers
operation by dealing with each term separately. Now let’s see how a closed loop
system performs with just proportional control. So let’s say we have a positive step
change in the set point and therefore we get a positive error. Since all the P
controller does is multiply the error by the control constant Kp. It’s quite apparent
why this is known as proportional control because with a fixed Kp constant the
control signal is proportional to the error. If our errors large, we’ll get a large
control signal if our errors are small. we’ll get a small control signal. And thus we
can adjust our control effort by simply increasing or decreasing this Kp constant.

Fig.17 Proportional constant

Main disadvantage of proportional control is that we can never drive the error to
zero because that would mean our control effort is zero. Now there is a way to
remove the offset or bring the error to zero. Looking at the normal structure of the
controller if we were to add a bias signal to our controllers output, this can
potentially drive the process enough such that we reach our desired set point. But
the disadvantage of this method is that for every new set point we’re going to have
to manually change the bias. Now although the proportional controller is easy to
implement and can drive the process close to our set point, it can never eliminate
the offset automatically. These issues can be automatically solved by adding
integral controller.

2.Proportional Integral controller

It is used to mediate some of the flaws of the proportional controller. PI controllers

main flaw was its inability to bring the steady state error to zero. we have this
steady state error AND we need a controller to somehow act on it in a way that will
allow our control signal to accumulate until the desired set point is reached. This is
easily achieved by taking the integral of the error. Let’s add the integral term to our
original controller to form a PI controller.
 Fig.18 Proportional integral controller

The main advantage of integral control is that it allows us to eliminate the steady
state error completely. Now by tuning the Ki term we can adjust the control effort
of our integral controller. Now in this case for a high Ki value, we can see that we
get a steeper slope and this would make our control signal more aggressive.

Fig.19 Step response

Now just like with proportional control, we can’t just arbitrarily choose an integral
constant. The output behaves relatively upon varying the integral constant. If Ki is
too low, we end up with the large rise time and overall a very slow response. This
is bad when it comes to rejecting disturbances or constant changes in the set point.
You can see we reached our set point much sooner with just a small amount of
overshoot. But in an attempt to get a faster response, increasing this gain even
further can lead to larger overshoots and this should be avoided when trying . we
learned that the proportional controller provided us with a fast rise time but with a
steady state offset. The PI controller solves that using the integral control to reduce
the error to zero. But when neither the controller can solve is the large overshoots
and ringing. In order to reduce or dampen this response, we will need to add a
differential controller and they will quickly respond fast enough to keep the output
from overshooting or undershooting the set point.

3.Proportional integral derivative controller

We have seen that P controller eliminates the stay state error through the interval
term. But we also made it clear that neither the p term or I term can contribute to
actively dampening the overshoots. This is where the derivative comes into play.
Let’s look at how this new term handles the error signal the job of the derivative
term is to take the rate of change of the error as its control signal. The proportional
term decreases the rise time the interval term eliminates a steady state error and the
derivative term reduces the overshoots and ringing.

Fig. 20 PID controller output

Increasing the proportional gain (Kp) has the effect of proportionally increasing the
control signal for the same level of error. The fact that the controller will "push"
harder for a given level of error tends to cause the closed-loop system to react more
quickly, but also to overshoot more. Another effect of increasing Kp is that it
tends to reduce, but not eliminate, the steady-state error. The addition of a
derivative term to the controller (Kd) adds the ability of the controller to
"anticipate" error. With simple proportional control, if Kp is fixed, the only way
that the control will increase is if the error increases. With derivative control, the
control signal can become large if the error begins sloping upward, even while the
magnitude of the error is still relatively small. This anticipation tends to add
damping to the system, thereby decreasing overshoot. The addition of a derivative
term, however, has no effect on the steady-state error. The addition of an integral
term to the controller (Ki) tends to help reduce steady-state error. If there is a
persistent, steady error, the integrator builds and builds, thereby increasing the
control signal and driving the error down. A drawback of the integral term,
however, is that it can make the system more sluggish (and oscillatory) since when
the error signal changes sign, it may take a while for the integrator to "unwind."
The general effects of each controller parameter (Kp, Kd, Ki) on a closed-loop
system are summarized in the table below. Note, these guidelines hold in many
cases, but not all. If you truly want to know the effect of tuning the individual
gains, you will have to do more analysis, or will have to perform testing on the
actual system.

Closed Response Rise Time Overshoot Settling Time S-S Error

Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Decrease
Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease No Change
Table 3. effects of PID constants
Chapter four
Design
4.1 Desigine matlab

Fig.12

4.1.1Components:
1. Dc machine
2. Step
3. Display
4. Dc voltage source
5. Powergui
6. Connecting wires

4.1.2Explain:
At the beginning, we made a design on the Matlab program with a simple circuit that contains
the components mentioned above in order to see the process and principle of the motor
working on a voltage of 100V, knowing that the method of recommendation is as in the image
shown above
4.2Development:

 Here we have started to develop the design of the matlab and develop it

A common actuator in control systems is the DC motor. It directly provides rotary motion and,
coupled with wheels or drums and cables, can provide translational motion. The electric circuit of
the armature and the free-body diagram of the rotor are shown in the following figure:

Fig .22

For this example, we will assume that the input of the system is the voltage
source ( ) applied to the motor's armature, while the output is the rotational
speed of the shaft . The rotor and shaft are assumed to be rigid. We further
assume a viscous friction model, that is, the friction torque is proportional to shaft
angular velocity.
The physical parameters for our example are:
(J) moment of inertia of the rotor 0.01 kg.m^2
(b) motor viscous friction constant 0.1 N.m.s

(Ke) electromotive force constant 0.01 V/rad/sec

(Kt) motor torque constant 0.01 N.m/Amp

(R) electric resistance 1 Ohm

(L) electric inductance 0.5 H

In general, the torque generated by a DC motor is proportional to the armature

current and the strength of the magnetic field. In this example we will assume
that the magnetic field is constant and, therefore, that the motor torque is
proportional to only the armature current by a constant factor as shown in
the equation below. This is referred to as an armature-controlled motor.
(1)
The back emf, , is proportional to the angular velocity of the shaft by a constant
factor .
(2)
In SI units, the motor torque and back emf constants are equal, that is, ;
therefore, we will use to represent both the motor torque constant and the
back emf constant.
Building the model with Simulink
This system will be modeled by summing the torques acting on the rotor inertia
and integrating the acceleration to give velocity. Also, Kirchoff's laws will be
applied to the armature circuit. First, we will model the integrals of the rotational
acceleration and of the rate of change of the armature current.

(3)

(4)
To build the simulation model, open Simulink and open a new model window.
Then follow the steps listed below.
 Insert an Integrator block from the Simulink/Continuous library and draw lines
to and from its input and output terminals.
 Label the input line "d2/dt2(theta)" and the output line "d/dt(theta)" as shown
below. To add such a label, double-click in the empty space just below the line.
 Insert another Integrator block above the previous one and draw lines to and
from its input and output terminals.
 Label the input line "d/dt(i)" and the output line "i".

Fig.23
Next, we will apply Newton's law and Kirchoff's law to the motor system to
generate the following equations:

(5)
(6)
The angular acceleration is equal to 1 / J multiplied by the sum of two terms (one
positive, one negative). Similarly, the derivative of current is equal to
1 / L multiplied by the sum of three terms (one positive, two negative). Continuing
to model these equations in Simulink, follow the steps given below.
 Insert two Gain blocks from the Simulink/Math Operations library, one
attached to each of the integrators.
 Edit the Gain block corresponding to angular acceleration by double-clicking it
and changing its value to "1/J".
 Change the label of this Gain block to "Inertia" by clicking on the word "Gain"
underneath the block.
 Similarly, edit the other Gain's value to "1/L" and its label to "Inductance".
 Insert two Add blocks from the Simulink/Math Operations library, one
attached by a line to each of the Gain blocks.
 Edit the signs of the Add block corresponding to rotation to "+-" since one term
is positive and one is negative.
 Edit the signs of the other Add block to "-+-" to represent the signs of the
terms in the electrical equation.

Fig.24

Now, we will add in the torques which are represented in the rotational equation.
First, we will add in the damping torque.
 Insert a Gain block below the "Inertia" block. Next right-click on the block and
select Rotate & Flip > Flip Block from the resulting menu to flip the block from
left to right. You can also flip a selected block by holding down Ctrl-I.
 Set the Gain value to "b" and rename this block to "Damping".
 Tap a line (hold Ctrl while drawing or right-click on the line) off the rotational
Integrator's output and connect it to the input of the "Damping" block.
 Draw a line from the "Damping" block output to the negative input of the
rotational Add block.

Next, we will add in the torque from the armature.

 Insert a Gain block attached to the positive input of the rotational Add block
with a line.
 Edit its value to "K" to represent the motor constant and Label it "Kt".
 Continue drawing the line leading from the current Integrator and connect it to
the "Kt" block.

Fig. 25

Now, we will add in the voltage terms which are represented in the electrical
equation. First, we will add in the voltage drop across the armature resistance.
 Insert a Gain block above the "Inductance" block and flip it from left to right.
 Set the Gain value to "R" and rename this block to "Resistance".
 Tap a line off the current Integrator's output and connect it to the input of the
"Resistance" block.
 Draw a line from the "Resistance" block's output to the upper negative input of
the current equation Add block.

Next, we will add in the back emf from the motor.

 Insert a Gain block attached to the other negative input of the current Add
block with a line.
 Edit it's value to "K" to represent the motor back emf constant and Label it
"Ke".
 Tap a line off the rotational Integrator's output and connect it to the "Ke"
block.
 Add In1 and Out1 blocks from the Simulink/Ports & Subsystems library and
respectively label them "Voltage" and "Speed".
The final design should look like the example shown in the figure below.
 Fig 26

In order to save all of these components as a single subsystem block, first select all of
the blocks, then select Create Subsystem from Selection after right-clicking on the
selected portion. Name the subsystem "DC Motor" and then save the model. Your
model should appear as follows

Fig.27
Building the model with Simscape
In this section, we alternatively show how to build the DC Motor model using the
physical modeling blocks of the Simscape extension to Simulink. The blocks in the
Simscape library represent actual physical components; therefore, complex multi-
domain models can be built without the need to build mathematical equations
from physical principles as was done above by applying Newton's laws and
Kirchoff's laws.
Open a new Simulink model and insert the following blocks to represent the
electrical and mechanical elements of the DC motor.
 Resistor, Inductor and Rotational Electromechanical Converter blocks from the
Simscape/Foundation Library/Electrical/Electrical Elements library
 Rotational Damper and Inertia blocks from the Simscape/Foundation
Library/Mechanical/Rotational Elements library
 Four Connection Port blocks from the Simscape/Utilities library
Double-click on the Connection Port blocks to make the location of ports 1 and 2
from the Left and the location of ports 3 and 4 from the Right.
Connect and label the components as shown in the following figure. You can
rotate a block in a similar manner to the way you flipped blocks, that is, by right-
clicking on the block then selecting Flip Block from the Rotate & Flip menu.

Fig.28
Complete the design of the DC motor Simscape model by assigning values to the
physical parameters of each of the blocks to match our assumed values. To assign
the necessary values, double-click on the Resistor, Inductor, Inertia, Rotational
Damper, and Rotational Electromechanical Converter blocks and enter the
following parameters and associated units:
Resistance = R [Ohm]

Inductance = L [H]

Inertia = J [kg*m^2]

Constant of Proportionality = K [V/(rad/s)]

Damping coefficient = b [N*m/(rad/s)]

The Rotational Damper block serves to model the viscous friction of the motor.
This type of friction model was chosen because it is linear. In most cases real
friction is more complicated than this. If you wish to employ a more complicated
friction model, for instance to add Coulomb friction to the model, then you may
use the Rotational Friction block from the Simscape/Foundation
Library/Mechanical/Rotational Elements library.
Also note that in the above you generated a DC Motor model from the individual
mechanical and electrical aspects of the motor. The Simscape library also includes
a DC Motor block under the Simscape/Electronics/Actuators & Drivers/Rotational
Actuators library.

The physical parameters must now be set. Enter the following commands at the
MATLAB prompt.

J = 0.01;

b = 0.1;

K = 0.01;
R = 1;
L = 0.5;

These values are the same ones listed in the physical setup section.
You can then save these components in a single subsystem. Select all of the blocks
and then select Create Subsystem from Selection after right-clicking on the
selected portion. You can also change the subsystem block color by right-clicking
on the block and choosing Format > Background Color from the resulting menu.
This subsystem block can then be used to simulate the DC motor

Fig.29

In order to simulate the response of this system it is further necessary to add

sensor blocks to the model to simulate the measurement of various physical
parameters and a voltage source to provide excitation to the motor. Furthermore,
blocks are needed to interface Simscape blocks with tradtional Simulink blocks
since the Simscape signals represent physical quantities with units, while the
Simulink signals are dimensionless numbers. Add the following blocks to the
model you just built to address these functions.
 Current Sensor block from the Simscape/Foundation
Library/Electrical/Electrical Sensors library
 Controlled Voltage Source block from the Simscape/Foundation
Library/Electrical/Electrical Sources library
 Three PS-Simulink Converter blocks, one Simulink-PS block and a Solver
Configuration block from the Simscape/Utilities library
 Electrical Reference block from the Simscape/Foundation
Library/Electrical/Electrical Elements library
 Ideal Rotational Motion Sensor block from the Simscape/Foundation
Library/Mechanical/Mechanical Sensors library
 Mechanical Rotational Reference block from the Simscape/Foundation
Library/Mechanical/Rotational Elements library
 Three Out1 blocks and one In1 block from the Simulink/Ports & Subsystems
library
The Ideal Rotational Motion Sensor block represents a device that measures the
difference in angular position and angular velocity between two nodes. In this
case, we employ the block to measure the position and velocity of the motor
shaft as compared to a fixed reference represented by the Mechanical Rotational
Reference block. You can leave the Initial angle of the Rotational Motion Sensor
block as the default 0 radians.
The Current Sensor block represents another sensor, specifically it measures the
current drawn by the motor. The ground for the electrical portion of our system is
defined by the Electrical Reference block.
The Controlled Voltage Source block serves as the power source for the motor
where you can externally define the voltage signal by connecting an input to the
block.
The PS-Simulink blocks convert physical signals to Simulink output signals, while
the Simulink-PS block conversely converts a Simulink input signal to a physical
signal. These blocks can be employed to convert the Simscape signals, which
represent physical quantities with units, to Simulink signals, which don't explicitly
have units attached to them. These blocks, in essence, can perform a units
conversion between the physical signals and the Simulink signals. In our case, we
can leave the units undefined since the input and output of each of the
conversion blocks have the same units. In general, the Simscape blockset is
employed to model the physical plant, while the Simulink blockset is employed to
model the controller.
The Solver Configuration block is employed for defining the details of the
numerical solver employed in running the Simscape simulation. We will use the
default settings for this block.
Next, connect and label the components so that they appear as in the figure
below. Double-click on the lines which are connected to the Out1 blocks and label
them "Current", "Position", and "Speed". Also double-click on the In1 block and
label it "Voltage".

Fig.30
You can save these components in a single subsystem with one input and three
outputs. Select all of the blocks and then select Create Subsystem from
Selection after right-clicking on the selected portion. Also label the subsystem and
signals as shown in the following figure.
 Fig.31

Here we have completed the design

4.3Hard ware

components fig .32

"Arduino" is an open-source electronic

platform used for developing interactive
devices or devices that interact with the
environment around them. Arduino relies
on a variety of small, easy-to-use electronic
boards that contain an integrated
processor and multiple input and output ports.

Arduino is widely used in a variety of applications including robotics, interactive

art projects, smart home devices, wearables, and more. With its large and active
community, users can easily find resources, documentation, and share projects
and ideas.

Arduino is known for its ease of use and learning, making it ideal for beginners,
hobbyists, and professionals alike. It provides an open-source and free
development environment for programming using the Arduino language based on
Wiring, which is based on C/C++.

2-
The L298N is a popular dual H-bridge motor driver
integrated circuit (IC) commonly used to control DC
motors and stepper motors. It is designed to drive
inductive loads, such as motors, with high efficiency
and low heat dissipation.

Key features of the L298N include:

1. Dual H-Bridge Configuration: The L298N contains two H-bridge circuits,

allowing it to control two separate motors independently or control one stepper
motor with two phases.

2. High Current Capability: It can handle peak currents of up to 3 amperes per

channel and a continuous current of 2 amperes per channel, making it suitable for
driving a wide range of motors.

3. Built-in Diodes: The IC has built-in flyback diodes (also known as freewheeling
diodes) to protect the circuit from back electromotive force (EMF) generated by
the motors when they are turned off.
4. Direction and Speed Control: The L298N allows for both direction and speed
control of motors through PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signals.

5. Logic Compatibility: It is compatible with both TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic)

and CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) logic levels, making it
easy to interface with microcontrollers and other digital circuits.

7. Thermal Protection: The IC includes built-in thermal shutdown protection

to prevent overheating under high load conditions

3-A variable resistor is an electronic

component used to adjust the resistance level
in electronic circuits. Its operation principle
relies on changing the resistance value based
on the physical state of the element inside it.

There are several types of variable resistors,

including:

Fig.33
1. Potentiometer: Also known as a pot, it consists of a rotating body controlled by
hand and containing a conductive track and a wiper that moves along it. Rotating
the body changes the distance between the track and the wiper, thus altering the
resistance value.
2. Pressure-Sensitive Variable Resistor: It changes resistance value when pressure
is applied. It's used in applications such as touchscreens and pressure sensors.

3. Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR): Also known as a

photocell, its resistance value changes based on the
intensity of light it's exposed to. It's used in applications
such as light monitoring and light sensors.

4-

A DC (Direct Current) motor is an electrical device that converts electrical energy

into mechanical energy. It operates based on the principle of electromagnetism,
where a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a
force.
Fig .34
Key features of DC motors include:

1. Construction: DC motors typically consist of a stator (stationary part) and a

rotor (rotating part). The stator contains the stationary magnets or field windings,
while the rotor includes the armature and commutator.

2. Brushes and Commutator: In most DC motors, brushes and a commutator are

used to switch the direction of current flow in the armature windings, ensuring
continuous rotation. However, brushless DC motors (BLDC) use electronic
commutation instead of brushes.

3. Direction Control: The direction of rotation in a DC motor can be controlled by

reversing the polarity of the applied voltage or by reversing the direction of
current flow through the armature.
4. Speed Control: DC motors can be speed-controlled by adjusting the voltage
applied to them or by using pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques.

5. Applications: DC motors are used in a wide range of applications, including

robotics, industrial machinery, automotive systems (such as power windows and
windshield wipers), consumer electronics, and more. They are preferred for their
simplicity, reliability, and ease of control.

DC motors come in various types and sizes, such as brushed DC motors, brushless
DC motors (BLDC), and coreless DC motors, each suited to different applications
based on factors like torque requirements, speed, and efficiency.

5- Connecting wires
4.5 Linking method:

4.5.1Open-loop
1. We prepare the Arduino with a power source
2. We connect l298n(drive)
 We connect enable to one of the pins on the Arduino that supports PWM and which
contains an analog signal
 We connect enable to one of the pins on the Arduino that supports PWM and which
contains an analogue signal
 Then we connect the drive to the DC motor by connecting one of the poles to the positive
out pin and the other to the negative.
 We equip the drive with a power source. Let us assume that it is a 12 volt battery. We take
a wire from the negative and put it in the GND pin of the Arduino.

3. We connect the screen to the Arduino to display the values of the variables
4. We connect the joystick to control the change in resistance to change the speed of the DC motor

4.5.2 code open loop system

#include <Wire.h>
#include <LiquidCrystal_I2C.h>

LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd(0x27,20,4); // set the LCD address to 0x27 for a 16 chars

and 2 line display
const int in1Pin = 2; // ‫ توصيل‬IN1 ‫ لمتحكم‬L298N
const int in2Pin = 3; // ‫ توصيل‬IN2 ‫ لمتحكم‬L298N
const int enablePin = 9; // ‫ توصيل التحكم بالسرعة لمتحكم‬L298N
const int joystickXPin = 0; // ‫ توصيل محور‬X ‫للجوستيك‬
//const int joystickSwitchPin = 4; // ‫توصيل زر الجوستي‬
void setup()
{
lcd.init(); // initialize the lcd
lcd.init();
lcd.backlight();
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(in1Pin, OUTPUT); // ‫ تعيين‬IN1 ‫كتوصيلة إخراج‬
pinMode(in2Pin, OUTPUT); // ‫ تعيين‬IN2 ‫كتوصيلة إخراج‬
pinMode(enablePin, OUTPUT); // ‫تعيين التحكم بالسرعة كتوصيلة إخراج‬

void loop()
{
// ‫ قراءة قيمة محور‬X ‫من الجوستيك‬
int joystickValue = analogRead(joystickXPin);

// 255 ‫ إلى‬255- ‫تحويل قيمة المحور إلى نطاق من‬

Serial.println(joystickValue);
// )‫تحديد اتجاه الحركة (قد يختلف تبًعا لتوصيالت المحرك‬
if (joystickValue <= 500) {
// ‫الحركة لألمام‬
int motorSpeed = map(joystickValue, 500, 0, 0, 255);
digitalWrite(in1Pin, HIGH);
digitalWrite(in2Pin, LOW);
analogWrite(enablePin, motorSpeed);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("mot_Spd=");
lcd.setCursor(8,0);
lcd.print(int (motorSpeed*3.92156863));
lcd.setCursor(13,0);
lcd.print("RPM");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("direction=");
lcd.setCursor(11,1);
lcd.print("C.W");

} else if (joystickValue > 550) {

// ‫الحركة للخلف‬
 int motorSpeed = map(joystickValue, 550, 1023, 0, 255);
digitalWrite(in1Pin, LOW);
digitalWrite(in2Pin, HIGH);
analogWrite(enablePin, motorSpeed);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("mot_Spd=");
lcd.setCursor(8,0);
lcd.print(int (motorSpeed*3.92156863));
lcd.setCursor(13,0);
lcd.print("RPM");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("direction=");
lcd.setCursor(11,1);
lcd.print("C.C.W");

} else {
// ‫إيقاف المحرك‬
digitalWrite(in1Pin, LOW);
digitalWrite(in2Pin, LOW);
analogWrite(enablePin, LOW);
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("direction=");
lcd.setCursor(11,1);
lcd.print("STOP");

}
}

4.6 Close loop system

A Closed Loop System is an engineering and control system used to measure,

monitor, and adjust to achieve a desired goal. The system consists of several key
components:

1. Input: The variable or signal that enters the system.

2. Process: The part of the system that transforms the input into the output.

3. Controller: The component that measures the output, compares it to the

desired target, and makes decisions to achieve the desired balance.

4. Output: The result or signal that exits the system after processing.

5. Feedback: The signal that returns from the output to the controller, providing
information about the system's performance and allowing necessary
adjustments.

In a closed-loop system, negative feedback is typically used to maintain the

system at the desired state. The controller compares the actual signal with the
target and takes actions to minimize the difference between them

4.6.1 code close loop

#include <Wire.h>
#include <LiquidCrystal_I2C.h>
LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd(0x27,16,2);
int POT_sp=1;
float sp;
int PWM_output=6;
float pv;
int pinA=3;
volatile int counter=0;
unsigned long previousMillis=0;
long interval =100;
int IN1=4;
int IN2=5;
float cv;
float cv1;
float error;
float error1;
float error2;
float kp=1;
float ki=5;
float kd=0.001;
float Tm=0.1;

void setup() {
pinMode(pinA,INPUT);
pinMode(PWM_output,OUTPUT);
pinMode(POT_sp,INPUT);
Serial.begin(115200);
attachInterrupt(1,interruption,RISING);
pinMode(IN1,OUTPUT);
pinMode(IN2,OUTPUT);
///lcd////
lcd.init();
lcd.backlight();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("SP = ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("PV = ");
lcd.setCursor(12,0);
lcd.print("RPM");
lcd.setCursor(12,1);
lcd.print("RPM");
}

void loop() {
unsigned long currentMillis=millis();
if ((currentMillis - previousMillis)>=interval)
{previousMillis=currentMillis;
pv=10*counter*(60.0/550.0);
counter=0;
}
sp=analogRead(POT_sp)*(200.0/1023);
error=sp-pv;
cv=cv1+(kp+kd/Tm)*error+(-kp+ki*Tm-2*kd/Tm)*error1+(kd/Tm)*error2;
cv1=cv;
error2=error1;
error1=error;
if (cv>500.0){
cv=500.0;
}
if (cv<30.0){
 cv=30.0;
}
analogWrite(PWM_output,cv *(255.0/550.0));
digitalWrite(IN1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(IN2,LOW);
Serial.print("SP: ");
Serial.print(sp);
Serial.print(" ");
Serial.print("PV: ");
Serial.println(pv);
lcd.setCursor(4,0);
lcd.print(sp);
lcd.setCursor(4,1);
lcd.print(pv);
delay(100);

}
void interruption(){
counter++;}

used pid controller

 Chapter Five
Results and Discussion
5.1 Open loop results
Open loop control has been established by connecting the necessary components in
order to achieve the required connection set up , fig. shows the set up hardware for
open loop controller , after the set up done , the source voltage has been supplied
and the required set point is set up by the software through Arduino IDE , since
this type of controller has no feedback signal , the (PV)value which represent the
actual speed of the DC motor in RPM never been reach and it keeps fluctuating
depending on the amount of supplied voltage , fig. shows the response of the
controller vs the set up speed ,while fig. shows the LCD readings of the sit point
speed and the actual speed values .

Fig.35 open loop response vs set point speed of 120 RPM

 Fig36. LCD readings for open loop controller

2.2 Close loop results

After hardware have been set and connected properly with wires and the voltage
source supply the configuration with the required amount (12 VDC) , the
configuration of the research connected to the Arduino IDE and the source code
has been uploaded to the Arduino UNO , the set-point is changing by the
potentiometer in order to see the response of the set to achieve the required speed
(RPM) , after that, a manual tuning process has been done to achieve the optimal
values of the PID controller constants (Kp,Ki,Kd) , The results are shown below :
 Fig37. response of the controller with Kp =1.

Here we fixed the values of Kd and Ki as (0.001 and 5 ) respectively and tuning
the value of Kp in order to see its effect on the response knowing that the Blue
curve represent the set point while the Red one represent the process value (actual
value ).
 Fig38. response of the controller with Kp =5.

Fig39. response of the controller with Kp =10.

After that , the values of Kp and Ki as (1 and 5 ) respectively and tuning the value
of Kd in order to see its effect on the response .
Fig40. response of the controller with Kd =1.

Fig41. response of the controller with Kd =10.

 Fig42. response of the controller with Kd =0.001.

Finally, the values of Kp and Kd as (1 and 0.001 ) respectively and tuning the
value of Ki in order to see its effect on the response .

Fig43. response of the controller with Ki =1.

Fig44. response of the controller with Ki =5.

Fig45. response of the controller with Ki =10.

2.3 Discussion of the results
The values of the PID controller constant play major role in the output response
which can be shown clearly from the above figures, Kp value affected on the
overshoot and the rise time as well as the steady state error , by changing the kp
value from (1 , 5 and 10) , overshoot increased by approximately (30% ) while the
rise time decreased by approximately (3) seconds , steady state error has been
decreased also in this case while there were no major effect on the settling time .
After that , the value of kd has been changed from (0.001 ,1,10) , overshoot
decreased by approximately (15% ) while the rise time didn’t change
significantly , steady state error also didn’t change significantly either , the
settling time has been decrease significantly by approximately (15 seconds) .
And finally , the value of ki has been changed from (1,5,10) , overshoot increased
significantly by approximately (25% ) while the rise time decreased by
approximately (8 seconds ) , steady state error also decreased significantly , the
settling time has been increase significantly by approximately (10 seconds) .
At the end of tuning process, the optimal values of the PID controller have been
found as (Kp=1 , Ki=5 and Kd=0.001) and were implemented in the Arduino
code .
Fig. shows the response of the PID controller with its optimal constants values
( set point is 100 RPM) while fig. shows the results shown on the LCD and fig.
shows the reading from Arduino serial port .
Fig46. PID response at its optimal performance

Fig47. PID response shown on LCD

Fig48. shows PID response to different set points inputs

Fig49. readings from Arduino serial port

References

[1] Lopes, J. A. P., Soares, F. J., & Almeida, P. M. R. (2010). Integration of

electric vehicles in the electric power system. Proceedings of the IEEE, 99(1), 168-
183.
[2] Munoz-Hernandez, G. A., Mino-Aguilar, G., Guerrero-Castellanos, J. F., &
Peralta-Sanchez, E. (2020). Fractional order PI-based control applied to the
traction system of an electric vehicle (EV). Applied Sciences, 10(1), 364.
[3] Badamasi, Y. A. (2014, September). The working principle of an Arduino. In
2014 11th international conference on electronics, computer and computation
(ICECCO) (pp. 1-4). IEEE.
[4] Severance, C. (2014). Massimo banzi: Building arduino. Computer, 47(1), 11-
12.
[5] 28 Bansal, H. O., Sharma, R., & Shreeraman, P. R. (2012). PID controller
tuning techniques: a review. Journal of control engineering and technology, 2(4),
168-176.
[6] Sabir, M. M., & Khan, J. A. (2014). Optimal design of PID controller for the
speed control of DC motor by using metaheuristic techniques. Advances in
artificial neural systems, 2014.
[7] Bouyedda, H., Ladaci, S., & Schulte, H. (2019, October). Cruise control design
for an Electric Vehicle using a fractional order PI λ D μ with Genetic Algorithms
optimization. In 2019 8th International Conference on Systems and Control (ICSC)
(pp. 158-163). IEEE.
[7] Husain Ahmed and Gagansingh, “Controlling of D.C. Motor using Fuzzy Logic
Controller”, Conference on Advances in Communication and Control Systems
2013 (CAC2S 2013)
[8] Katsuhiko Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”. 5thedition 2010.
[9] M.Saranya and D.Pamela, “A Real Time IMC Tuned PID Controller for DC
Motor”, International Journal of Recent
Technology and Engineering, ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-1, Issue-1, April 2012
[10] H.X.Li and S.K.Tso, "Quantitative design and analysis of Fuzzy Proportional-
Integral- Derivative Control- a Step
TowardsAutotuning", International journal of system science, Vol.31, No.5, 2000,
pp.545-553.
[11] Zadeh, L. A., Fuzzy Sets. Information and Control, 8, 338-353, 1965.
[12] Assilian, S. and Mamdani, E.H., An Experiment in Linguistic Synthesis with a
Fuzzy Logic Controller. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 7(1), 1-13,
1974.
[13]. A.SAHITHI PRIYA, Speed Control of DC Motor Using PWM, Dept of ECE,
Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Science, Warangal.
[14]. Md Akram Ahmad, Kamal Kishor, Pankaj Rai. Speed Control of a DC Motor
Using Controllers. Automation, Control and Intelligent Systems. Special Issue:
Impact of Gesture Recognition in the Technological Era. Vol. 2, No. 6-1, 2014, pp.
1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.acis.s.2014020601.11.
[15]. Prakosa Jalu A., Samokhvalov Dmitry V., Ponce Gabino R. V., Fuad Sh. Al-
Mahturi . Speed Control of Brushless DC Motor for Quad Copter Drone Ground
Test. 2019 IEEE Conference of Russian Young Researchers in Electrical and
Electronic Engineering (ElConRus). January 28-30, 2019. 978-1-7281-0339-
6/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE.
[16]. Ali N. HAMOODI, Rasha A. MOHAMMED, Safwan A. HAMOODI.
Automatic Speed Control of DC Series Motor by Using Arduino. PRZEGLĄD
ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 99 NR
3/2023 .doi:10.15199/48.2023.03.24
[17]. Palem Lay Krishnaa, K. Varalakshmib , K. V. S. Ramachandra Murthy,
Advanced Production and Industrial Engineering R.M. Singari and P.K. Kankar
(Eds.). doi:10.3233/ATDE220808
[18]. Khather, S. I., Ibrahim, M. A., Ibrahim, M. H. (2023). Dual fuzzy logic PID
controller based regulating of DC motor speed control with optimization using
Harmony Search algorithm. Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies,
4 (8 (124)), 6–14. doi: https://doi.org/10.15587/1729-4061.2023.282830
[19]. Nassim Messaadi , Abdelkader Amroun . Preprint submitted to Elsevier,
Department of Instrumentation and Automation, University of Science and
Technology Houari Boumediene.
[20] 28 Bansal, H. O., Sharma, R., & Shreeraman, P. R. (2012). PID controller
tuning techniques: a review. Journal of control engineering and technology, 2(4),
168-176.
[21] Bouyedda, H., Ladaci, S., & Schulte, H. (2019, October). Cruise control
design for an Electric Vehicle using a fractional order PI λ D μ with Genetic
Algorithms optimization. In 2019 8th International Conference on Systems and
Control (ICSC) (pp. 158-163). IEEE.