Ravi Shankara.M.N.

ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore

Associate Professor [email protected]

Module 4 – Analog and Digital Communication

Communication:
Communication is the process of transferring information meaningfully (voice, picture, text etc) from one point
to another.
Electrical Communication is a process by which the information/message is transmitted from one point to
another, from one person to another, or from one place to another in the form of electrical signals, through some
communication link.
A basic communication system provides a link between the information source and its destination. The process
of electrical communication involves sending, receiving, and processing information in electrical form. The
information to be transmitted passes through a number of stages of the communication system before it reaches
its destination.
Modern Communication System
Fig. below shows a block schematic diagram of the most general form of Modern communication system.
The main constituents of basic communication system are: (i) Information source and input transducer
(ii) Transmitter (iii) Channel or medium (iv) Noise (v) Receiver (vi) Output transducer and final destination.

Information Source: The information source consists of information or intelligence to be communicated. The
information can be in the form text, messages, pictures, images, audio, video music etc. Information source can
be analog or discrete.
Input Transducer: If the information produced by the source is not in an electrical form, hence a transducer is
used to convert the information into electrical form. For example a Microphone converts sound signals into the
corresponding electrical signals. This electrical signal is called the Baseband signal s(t).
[It is also called a message signal, an information signal, an intelligent signal, or an envelope]. The baseband signal can be
Analog or Digital in nature.
Transmitter - The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits that converts and processes the baseband
signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication channel. A Transmitter consist of
modulators, oscillators, amplifiers, filters, frequency synthesizers and other circuits.
Based on the processing, there two types of communication systems.
(a) In Carrier Communication System - the baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is
translated to a higher frequency spectrum and this process is known as Modulation. The translated signals are
transmitted as electro-magnetic waves through transmitting antenna.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

(b) In Baseband Communication System - the baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher
frequency spectrum.
Carrier communication system
If the baseband signal is analog, then the system is known as Analog communication system and analog modulation techniques used for
processing the signal. If the baseband signal is digital, then the system is known as Digital communication system and digital modulation
techniques used for processing the signal

Communication Channel or Communication Medium:

Communication channel is the medium through which the signals from the transmitter is transmitted to the
receiver. Depending on the physical implementations, channels are classified into two groups:
Hardwired channels - Transmission lines, Waveguides, Optical Fiber Cables (OFC) etc
Softwired channels – Free space, Sea etc

The transmitter section converts the electrical signal into EM waves or radiation by using a transmitting antenna. These waves
are radiated into the open space by the transmitting antenna. At the receiver side, the receiving antenna picks up these radio
waves and converts them into corresponding electrical signals.
In Radio communication Systems radio waves to transmitted through open space
Ex- Radio broadcast, Television transmission, satellite communication, and cellular mobile communication .

Noise: Noise n(t) is an undesirable, random electrical energy interferes with the transmitted message and gets
transmitted along with the transmitted message and degrades the information signal. Noise can be natural or
either man made. Noise cannot be completely eliminated; however its effect can be minimized.
Basically two types (i) External noise or extraneous noise - The noise introduced by the transmission medium.
(ii) Internal noise-The thermal agitation of atoms and electrons of electronic components used in the equipment.

Receiver: The receiver is a collection of electronic circuits that accepts the information signal from the channel
and converts it back to its original form. The receiver system receives the transmitted signal and performs some
processing on it to recover the original baseband signal.
The signal received by the receiver is r(t), which contains both the transmitted signal x(t) and the noise n(t),
added to it during transmission. The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise from the received
signal and then recover the original baseband signal by performing some processing on it.

Output transducer and Destination - is the final stage which is used to convert an received electrical message
signal into its original form. For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as
a transducer that converts the electrical signal to original sound signal.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Additional Information on Transmitter Section
Baseband signal processing

Ex- A baseband signal consisting train of pulses that

are to be transmitted can be replaced by a series of
two sine waves of different frequencies prior to
transmission.
Typical Analog Transmitter
One of these two frequencies represents a low and
the other represents a high value of the digital pulse.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Analog Transmitter.
Figure shows a typical Analog transmitter. The baseband signal s(t) and high frequency carrier signal are
applied to the modulated stage in order to translate (modulate) s(t) from low to high frequency spectrum, the
resultant signal is known as modulated
signal x(t). This signal is then applied to
amplifier stage. The voltage of the
modulated signal is amplified to drive the
power amplifier stage. The power
amplifier amplifies the power of the
modulated signal x(t) and thus it carries
enough power to reach the receiver stage of
the communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission medium or channel.
Frequency Spectrum
Radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic (EM) waves, also referred as radio waves, in a radio
communication system. The radio waves have a wide frequency range starting from a few ten kilo Hertz (Hz) to
several thousand Mega Hertz (MHz). This wide range of frequencies is referred as the radio frequency (RF)
spectrum. The RF spectrum is classified according to the applications of the spectrum in different service areas.

Noise Parameters
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) - SNR is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power. It is the measure of the
signal power delivered to the noise power at a particular point in the circuit.
S PS
If 𝑃𝑠 is the signal power and 𝑃𝑛 is the noise power, then SNR is given as =
N Pn
S VS
If 𝑉𝑠 is signal voltage and 𝑉𝑛 is noise voltage, then SNR can be expressed in dB as = 20Log dB
N dB Vn

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Example: If, at a particular point in a circuit, the signal and noise voltages are given as 3.5 mV and 0.75 mV
respectively, calculate SNR in dB.
Solution: Given, 𝑉𝑠 = 3.5 𝑚𝑉 and 𝑉𝑛 = 0.75 𝑚V
(S/N)dB = 20Log(VS/Vn) = 20Log(3.5/0.75) = 13.38 dB

Noise Figure (F) - The noise figure is defined as ratio of the signal-to-noise power at the input of the circuit
and the signal-to-noise power at the output of the circuit. The noise figure (F) is the measure of the noise
introduced by the circuit and can be expressed as
S
power at the input terminals of the circuit
Noise Figure F = N
S
N power at the output terminals of the circui
If F=1, the noise power introduced by the circuit is 0, as both the input and output S/N powers are the same
Communication Channel
The channel is a very important part of a communication system. Its characteristics add many constraints to the
design of the communication system. The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand the
channel noise. The channel characteristics also impose constraints on the bandwidth. The channel
characteristics are also taken into consideration as a design parameter while designing the transmitter and
receiver.
Hardwired channels - These are manmade structures and there is always a physical link exists between the
transmitter and receiver in hardware channels and communication system that makes use of a hardware channel
is called as a line communication system. e.g. landline telephony and cable TV network. There are following
three possible implementations of the hardware channels: Transmission lines, Waveguides, Optical Fiber
Cables (OFC)
Softwired channels - There are certain natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for
signals. Ex- Air or free-space and sea water.. There is no physical link between the transmitter and the
receiver. The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves, also called radio waves.

Bandwidth of the Communication Channel

Bandwidth of the communication channel is defined as the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies that communication channel permits to pass through it and BW must be greater than or equal to the
bandwidth of the message signal.
Total banadwidth of the channel
Number of channels (N) =
Bandwidth needed per channel
Typical Receiver:
The receiver system receives the transmitted signal and performs some processing on it to recover the original
baseband signal. The signal received by the receiver is r(t), which contains both the transmitted signal x(t), and
the noise n(t), added to it during transmission.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

The detailed block diagram of a typical receiver section is shown in figure.

The received signal is r(t) due to attenuation in the channel is a weak signal, hence an voltage amplifier is used
to make it strong enough for further processing. This signal is applied to the demodulator in which the baseband
signal is separated from the high-frequency carrier signal. After recovering the original baseband signal s’(t), its
voltage and power is amplified before send to the final destination block.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique which allows more than one signal to be transmitted through a single channel.
Multiplexing facilitates the simultaneous transmission of multiple messages over a single transmission channel.
Multiplexing allows the maximum possible utilization of the available bandwidth of the system. The use of
multiplexing also makes the communication system economical because more than one signal can be
transmitted through a single channel. Multiplexing is possible in communication system only through
modulation.

Each signal is translated to a different frequency spectrum, such that every signal differs in its transmitted
frequency. This is done through modulation. At the transmitter they can be mixed and transmitted. At the
receiver, the different signals can be easily separated because they are at different frequencies, and these can be
delivered to the next stages of the receiver for further processing.
Types of Communication Systems
Communication systems can be categorised based on their physical infrastructure and the specifications of the
signals they transmit.
(a) Based on Physical infrastructure
(i) Line Communication System - Presence of physical link called the hardware channel, between the
transmitter and the receiver. Ex- landline telephony
(ii) Radio communication system - No physical link between the transmitter and the receiver and natural
resources, such as space and water are used as softwire channels. • e.g. radio broadcast

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

(b) Communication Systems based on Signal Specifications

There are two types of communication systems based on the nature of baseband signal:
i. Analog Communication System. Ex- TV transmission
ii. Digital communication system. Ex- HDTV, Internet
There are two types of communication systems based on the nature of transmitted signal:
i). Baseband Communication System. Ex- landline telephony, fax
ii) Carrier communication system. Ex- TV transmission, radio broadcast, cable TV
(c) Based on nature of communication
Also there are two types of communication systems based on one-way or two-way transmission feature:
(ii) Simplex Communication System - The single can be transmitted only in one direction (one-way
transmission). Ex- TV transmission, Radio broadcast
(ii) Duplex communication system - Signals can be sent and received from a point (two-way transmission)
(a) Half-duplex – two-way transmission is carried out, but not simultaneously. Walkie - Talkie
(b) Full-duplex – two-way transmission is carried out simultaneously. Ex - telephony
Modulation
Modulation is a process in which some characteristic or property of a high frequency signal called carrier signal
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
The carrier signal is a sinusoidal signal that can be represented as
v𝒄(t) = VC sin(2πfct + )
The characteristic of the carrier wave that is modified may be amplitude VC, frequency fC or phase angle 𝜃.
Accordingly, in analog modulation there are three types:
(i) Amplitude Modulation (ii) Frequency Modulation and (iii) Phase Modulation.
Need for Modulation
(a) Reduces the size of the antenna (b) Modulation avoids the mixing of signals and allows multiplexing of
signals (c) Increases the range of communication. (d) Allows adjustments and improvement in Bandwidth
(e) Reduces noise and interference and improves quality of reception.
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a modulation technique in which the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the analog modulating signal to be
transmitted.
The modulating signal is an analog baseband signal which is random and has a low frequency, while the carrier
signal is always a sinusoidal wave with high frequency. The variations in amplitude of carrier signal represent
the information carried.
Let the modulating signal be m(t) = Amcos2πfmt and

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

The carrier signal be c(t) = AC cos2πfct.

The resultant Am signal is given by

Where µ is the modulation index (0 < µ <1) which specifies the

depth of modulation.
Am (V −V )
µ= = (V max +V min ) and Bandwidth BW = 2fm
AC max min

Limitations of Amplitude Modulation

(i) Poor efficiency (33.33%) (ii) Noisy reception and (iii) Poor audio quality

Frequency Modulation
Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and phase are kept constant.
The original frequency of the carrier signal is called the centre
or resting frequency and denoted as fC
The expression for FM wave is given by
s(t) = AC cos[2πfct + β sin2πfmt]
Where β is called modulation index and is given by
Frequency deviation f f
β= =
Modulating signal freqency fm fm
The amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave
changes or shifts above or below the resting frequency is
called frequency deviation ∆f
fmax + fmin
Frequency deviation ∆f =
2
Carrier swing CS = 2f and
Bandwidth BW = 2(β+1)fm
FM has good efficiency and is used in TV and Commercial
FM broadcast.
Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation is defined as a process in which the
phase of the high frequency carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal,
keeping the amplitude and frequency of the carrier
constant.

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Associate Professor [email protected]

The time domain expression for the phase modulated wave is given by the expression
s(t) = AC cos[2πfct + Kp m(t)]
Where Kp = Phase sensitivity of the modulator and m(t) is the message signal.
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems.
Pulse Modulation Techniques
Pulse Modulation may be used to transmit analog information such as continuous speech or data. Continuous
waveforms are sampled at regular intervals. It has the advantage of ability to use constant amplitude pulses.
Pulse modulation is classified into (i) Analog and (ii) Digital.
Analog Pulse modulations are of three types based on the characteristics of the pulse as –
(i) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
(ii) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and
(iii) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
(i) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Message signal is sampled at regular intervals using carrier
pulse train. The amplitude of each pulse is directly
proportional to the instantaneous values of amplitude of the
modulating signal at the time of pulse occurrence.

Advantages: PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation. Its

implementation is quite easy.
Disadvantages: The transmission bandwidth required is very large
Due to variation in amplitude, transmission power also varies
Less immune to noise due to amplitude variation
Applications: used in LED lighting, in the Ethernet communication
system, etc

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM ) or Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM)

PWM is a modulation technique in which the width or duration of each pulse is made proportional to
instantaneous values of the modulating signal. That means, starting time and amplitude of PWM signal is
constant as carrier pulses, but the width is varied in
accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Advantages: Noise is less, since in PWM, amplitude is held

constant. Signal and noise separation is very easy.
Disadvantage: Variable pulse width causes variation in the
transmission power. Large bandwidth is required.
Application: used in telecommunications, brightness controlling of
light, speed control of DC motors

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Principle:
In PPM, the position of the pulse relative to its un-
modulated time of occurrence is varied in accordance with
the message signal. The position of the pulses is
proportional to the instantaneous values of the analog signal
(the message signal).In PPM, the amplitude and width of the
pulses are kept constant and only the position of the pulses
is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the message
signal.
PPM signal is generated in reference to a PWM signal.
Thus, the trailing edge of the PWM signal acts as the
beginning point of the pulses of PPM signal.

Pulse position modulation (PPM) is a modified form Pulse width Advantages: Recovering a PPM signal from distorted PPM is
modulation. The long pulses in PWM expend considerable quite easy. Transmission power is constant. Noise is less than
amount of power during the pulse duration while bearing no PAM and PWM, since in PPM signal amplitude and width is held
additional information. By removing the unused power, while constant.
preserving the time transitions of the pulse, power can be Disadvantage: Large bandwidth is required
conserved, which results in an efficient modulation technique
Applications: used in an optical communication system, in radio
called as Pulse Position Modulation
control and in military applications.

Sampling Theorem
Sampling theorem governs the conversion of continuous time signal into discrete-time signal Sequence of samples uniquely defines
the original analog signal and a suitable sampling rate to be used
The Sampling Theorem states that
Any continuous time signal can be completely
represented in its samples and recovered back if the
sampling frequency is greater than or equal to twice the
highest frequency component of base band signal, that
is, sampling frequency, 𝑓𝑠 > 2𝑓𝑚.
where 𝑓𝑚 is the highest frequency in base band
continuous time signal.
When the sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2𝑓𝑚 samples per second, then it is called Nyquist rate.
Nyquist rate is the minimum Sampling rate.

Interpolation.
A low pass filter is used to recover the original signal from its samples. The process of reconstructing the
continuous-time signal from its samples is known as Interpolation.

Aliasing - When the sampling frequency is less than the Nyquist rate, aliasing problem occurs. Aliasing is the
phenomenon in which a high frequency components in the frequency spectrum of the signal takes the identity
of a lower frequency components in the spectrum of the sampled signal.
To avoid aliasing:
(i) Prealias filter must be used to limit the band of frequencies of the signal to 𝑓𝑚 Hz.
(ii) Sampling frequency must be selected such that 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚.

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Associate Professor [email protected]

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), is a digital process in which the message is sampled and rounded off to the
nearest value of a finite set of allowable values. The rounded values are coded. PCM generator produces a
series of numbers or digits. Each one of these
digits, in binary code, represents the amplitude of
the signal sample at that instant. Signals are
transmitted as binary code.
PCM Process involves
Sampling: Converting an analog signal to a
discrete time signal by multiplying the analog signal with periodic impulse train.
Quantization: Quantizer unit rounded off the samples to the nearest value of a finite set of allowable values.
Encoding: The rounded off values are binary coded using an encoder producing a serial binary stream of
consisting of zeros and
ones
Advantages:
(i) Immune to channel
induced noise
(ii) Secured data
transmission
(iii) Ensures uniform
transmission quality
Disadvantages:
Requires large
transmission bandwidth
and more complex than
other systems.

Radio Wave Propagation

Radio waves are electromagnetic (EM) waves, consists of electric and magnetic field components and are
transverse in nature. Radio signals can travel from one end to another over vast distances and exhibit properties
(like light) such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering.
Radio propagation is the way of transmitting radio signals in different ways. There are three different modes of
propagation of EM waves
i) Ground or Surface Wave Propagation
Radio waves are guided by the earth and move along its curved surface
from the transmitter to the receiver. They are strongly influenced by
the electrical properties of the ground.
This is useful only at low frequencies as high frequency waves are
strongly absorbed by ground.
Ground wave transmission is reliable whatever the atmospheric conditions be.
Frequency range: 30 kHz to 3 MHz
Transmission distance: 100 to 1000 km
Example: AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas.
ii) Space or Tropospheric Wave Propagation
In space wave (or line of sight propagation), radio waves move in the earth’s troposphere within about 12 KM
over the surface of the earth. Frequency range: 3MHz to 30 MHz. Ex- TV signal transmission.
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Associate Professor [email protected]

The space wave is made up of two components:

(a) a direct or line-of- sight wave from the transmitting to the
receiving antenna and
(b) an indirect or ground-reflected wave traversing form the
transmitting antenna to ground and reflected to the receiving
antenna.
iii) Sky wave Propagation or Ionospheric Propagation
Radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after reflection from the
ionosphere (the earth’s upper atmosphere). Sky wave is responsible for short wave transmission around the
globe via successive reflections at the ionosphere and the
earth’s surface.
Ionosphere is the ionized region extending about 80 km to
700 km above the earth’s surface. In ionosphere radiation
from the sun ionizes atoms and molecules that liberate
electrons and ions from molecules. The height of the
ionosphere varies with in daylight and night.
Advantages of sky wave propagation
1. It supports large distance propagation.
2. The frequency range of operation is considerably high.
(few MHz to 40 MHz)
3. Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less.
Disadvantages of sky wave propagation
1. Long-distance propagation requires large-sized antennas.
2. Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day respectively there exists variation in
signal transmission in day and night.
Applications
Sky wave propagation is widely used in mobile and satellite communications.

Digital Modulation Schemes

In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is required to transmit digital
signals, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the incoming
digital data.
Digital modulation schemes are classified as
(i) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) (ii) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and (iii) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
ASK - Amplitude Shift Keying
ASK represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. ASK signal can generated when the
incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier are applied a product modulator as inputs.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

FSK - Frequency Shift Keying

Principle - In Frequency Shift Keying the digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes
of a carrier signal. The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to
transmit binary information (0's and 1's).

PSK - Phase Shift Keying

Phase shift keying conveys data by changing (modulating) the phase of constant frequency carrier. Each
symbol (pattern of bits) is represented by a particular phase. The simplest form of PSK is Binary PSK (BPSK).
It uses phases 0° and 180°.
For example:
1-bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t)
0-bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t +180°) = − Vc cos(2πfc t)

BPSK is widely used in wireless LANs, RFID and Bluetooth communications.

Radio Signal Transmission

Figure shows the basic architecture (components) of a transmitter
in an wireless communication system.
The transmitter accepts a stream of bits from the application
software. It then encodes these bits onto a radio wave, known as a
carrier, by adjusting parameters of the wave such as its amplitude
or phase.
The transmitter usually processes the information in two stages.
Modulator – accepts the incoming bits, and computes symbols
that represent the amplitude and phase of the outgoing wave.
Analogue transmitter – generates the radio wave.
The modulation scheme used is known as Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying (QPSK). A QPSK modulator takes the incoming bits two
at a time and transmits them using a radio wave that can have
four different states.

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Associate Professor [email protected]

The states have phases of 45°, 135°, 225° and 315° which correspond to bit combinations of 00, 10, 11 and 01
respectively and the states can be represented using the constellation diagram.
The distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the transmitted wave, while angle
measured anti-clockwise from x-axis represents the phase.
Each symbol is conveniently represented by two components: in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q).
I = a cos Φ --------- (real part) and Q = a sin Φ --------- (imaginary part)
where a is the amplitude and Φ is the phase.

LTE Modulation Scheme

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile devices (marketed
as 4G). LTE uses four modulation schemes together as given below.
(i) Binary Phase Shift Keying – BPSK (ii) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying - QPSK
(iii) 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation -16 QAM (iv) 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation – 64 QAM

BPSK QPSK 16 - QAM 64 - QAM

BPSK sends one bit at a QPSK sends two bits at 16 - QAM sends four bits 64 - QAM sends six bits at a
time using two states (0 a time using 4 states (00, at a time using 16 states time using 64 states to
and 1) representing 01, 10 and 11) to to represent amplitude represent amplitude and
phases of 0o and 180o or represent amplitude and and phase phase.
signal amplitudes of +1 phase by 45o, 135o,
and -1 225o, and 315o

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple access is a technique to provide communication service to multiple users over a single channel.
It allows multiple mobile users share the allotted spectrum in the most effective manner. Three types of
multiple access techniques are used
Frequency Division Multiple Access Time Division Multiple Access Code Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
(FDMA) (TDMA)

Available frequency band is split Various users can transmit Mobiles receive signals on the same
into smaller frequency channels, at the same frequency band carrier frequency and at the same time.
and different channels are assigned at different times. Every But the signals are labeled by the use of
to different users. The carriers are user is permitted to transmit codes, which allows a mobile to
separated by guard bands, which only in specific time slots separate its own signal from the others.
avoid the interference between the using a common frequency CDMA is the common platform on
users. band. which 3G technologies are built.

Duplexing: FDD and TDD

Duplexing allows users to send information simultaneously to the base station, while receiving information
from the base station. The wireless telephony applies duplexing technique where talking and listening is
enabled at a time.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) - Base station and mobile will transmit and receive at the same time,
but using different carrier frequencies. FDD uses two separate frequency bands for every user. A sufficient
guard band needs to separate the transmitting and receiving channels, so they do not interfere with one another.
FDD is suitable for radio communication systems. Base station to mobile is carried through downlink and
mobile to base station is through uplink.

Time Division Duplexing (TDD) –

Base station and mobile will transmit and receive on the same carrier frequency but at different times. Time
slots could be dynamically allocated separated by a guard band. A guard period ensures that UL and DL
transmissions do not collide. TDD is more suitable for fixed wireless systems. It uses time for uplink and
down link.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Multipath and Fading

As a result of reflections and diffractions, the signals can take several different paths from the transmitter to the
receiver. This phenomenon is known as multipath.
At the receiver end, the incoming rays can add together in
different ways, which are classified as constructive interference
and destructive interference.
If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide, then they reinforce
each other, a situation known as Constructive interference.

If the peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of another, the
result is Destructive interference, in which the rays cancel and
degradation of signal takes plce..

Destructive interference can make the received signal power drop to a very low level, a situation known as
Fading.

If the mobile moves from one place to another, then the ray geometry changes, so the interference pattern changes
between constructive and destructive interference. Hence Fading is therefore a function of time.
The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a time scale called the Coherence Time Tc that can be
1
estimated as 𝑇𝐶 =
𝑓𝐷
𝑣 Mobile Doppler frequency is
Where fD is Mobile Doppler frequency, given by 𝑓𝐷 = 𝑐
𝑓𝑐
the change in wave frequency
Where, fc is carrier frequency, v is speed of mobile and c is speed of light. during the relative motion b/n
a wave source and its
observer.
If the carrier frequency changes, then the wavelength of the radio signal also
The Coherence Bandwidth
changes, this makes the pattern change between constructive and destructive is the statistical measure of the
interference. The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a scale frequency range over which
1 the channel is considered to be
called the Coherence Bandwidth, BC that can be estimated as 𝐵𝐶 =  flat.
Where,  is Delay Spread of radio channel. Delay Spread indicates how
much the signal get dispersed
in time domain
Error Management
Noise and interference lead to errors in wireless communication which affects the voice quality/information loss in
web pages and e-mails at the receiver. Hence the need for an error detection and correction required at the receiver.
Two methods used to mitigating the errors are –
(i) Forward Error Correction (FEC) (ii) Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
(i) Forward Error Correction (FEC)
The transmitted information is represented using a codeword that is typically two or three times as long.
The extra bits supply additional redundant data that allow the receiver to recover the original information
sequence.
For example, a transmitter might represent the information sequence 101 (3-bits) using the codeword
110010111 (9-bits). After an error in the second bit, the receiver might recover the codeword 100010111.
If the coding scheme has been well designed, then the receiver can conclude that this is not a valid codeword,
and that the most likely transmitted codeword was 110010111.
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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Coding rate - Number of information bits divided by the number of transmitted bits. Coding rate is 1/3 in the
example above.
Forward error correction algorithms operate with a fixed coding rate. A wireless transmitter can still adjust the
coding rate using the two- stage process shown in the figure.
In the first stage, the information bits are
passed through a fixed rate coder. The main
algorithm used by LTE is known as Turbo
coding and has a fixed coding rate of 1/3.
In the second stage, called Rate Matching,
some of the coded bits are selected for
transmission, while the others are discarded in
a process known as Puncturing.

The receiver has a copy of the puncturing

algorithm, so it can insert dummy bits at the
points where information was discarded.
It can then pass the result through a turbo
decoder for error correction. A trade-off
between coding rate and SINR has to be
achieved for effective FEC.

Automatic Repeat Request

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is an error management technique, which is illustrated in figure

Transmitter takes a block of information bits and uses them to compute some extra bits that are known as a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). It appends these to the information block and then transmits the two sets of data.
Receiver separates the two fields and uses the information bits to compute the expected CRC bits. If the observed
and the expected CRC bits are the same, then it concludes that the information has been received correctly and sends
positive acknowledge (ACK) back to the transmitter. If CRC bits are the different, then it concludes that the error
has occurred and sends negative acknowledge (NACK) back to the transmitter to request retransmission.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Antennas
An antenna is a device for converting electromagnetic radiations in space into electrical currents in conductors
or vice-versa, depending on whether it is being used for receiving or for transmitting, respectively. Antennas
transform wire propagated waves into space propagated waves. Antennas receive electromagnetic waves and
pass them onto a receiver or they transmit electromagnetic waves which have been produced by a transmitter.
Features of Antennas - (i) The radiation pattern of the antenna. (ii) The intensity of radiation. (iii) Unobtrusive
design (iv) Effective aperture. (v) Power gain and radiation efficiency (vi) Effective length. (vii) Polarization of the
antenna (viii) Bandwidth (ix) Directivity (x) Support for intermodulation
Types of Antennas
(i) Omni-directional Antennas (ii) Dipole Antennas (iii) Collinear Omni Antennas (iv) Directional Antennas
(v) Patch Antennas (vi) Patch Array Antennas (vii)Yagi Antennas.
(i) Omni-directional Antenna - An omni-directional antenna is an antenna that has a non-
directional pattern (circular pattern) in a given plane with a directional pattern in any orthogonal
plane. It radiates equal power in all directions perpendicular to the axis. Ex- dipoles and collinear
antennas.
(ii) A Dipole Antenna - most commonly refers to a half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole. The
physical antenna is constructed of conductive elements whose combined length is
about half of a wavelength at its intended frequency of operation. This is a simple
antenna that radiates its energy out toward the horizon.
(iii) Collinear Omni Antennas - A collinear antenna consists of an array of
dipole elements. These dipoles are parallel and collinear with each other. This type
of antenna has an enhanced gain. Higher gain implies same power radiated in a more
focused way. Applications: Base station antenna for dispatcher for police, fire,
ambulance, and taxi services.
(iv) Directional Antennas - A directional antenna is one that radiates its energy most effectively in one
direction than the others. They have one main lobe and several minor lobes. They are used for coverage as well
as point-to point links. Examples of directional antennas are patch, dish and horn antennas.
(v) Patch Antennas - A patch antenna, in its simplest form is a single rectangular (or circular)
conductive plate that is spaced above a ground place. Patch antennas are attractive due to their ease
of fabrication.
(vi) Patch Array Antennas A patch array antenna is an arrangement of multiple
patch antennas that are all driven by the same source. This arrangement consists of
patches arranged in orderly rows and columns. The reason for this arrangement is higher gain.
(vii) Yagi antenna
A Yagi antenna is a directional antenna that radiates signals in one main
direction. It consists of a long transmission line with a single driven element
consisting of two rods connected on either side of the transmission line.
A typical Yagi antenna has one reflector and one or more directors.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Review Questions
1. Describe the blocks of the basic communication system.

2. Define the following terms: (i) Carrier communication system (ii) Baseband communication system with neat and
suitable waveforms.

3. Define and explain SNR, Noise Figure, channel types.

4. What is modulation? Explain types of analog modulation with the help of waveforms.

5. Explain the following with the help of waveforms

(i) PAM (ii) PWM (iii) PPM (iv) PCM
6. Define sampling theorem and explain when aliasing can happen. Also mention the different ways in which the
aliasing can be avoided.

7. With suitable waveforms explain digital modulation schemes.

8. Present the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter and its modulation scheme QPSK with
waveforms and constellation diagrams.

9. Discuss the transmission modes used in mobile communication system.

10. Discuss the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network.

11. Briefly explain the concept of radio propagation methods.

12. Describe the classification of RF (Radio Frequency) spectrum with applications in communications systems.

13. Define the following terms: (i) Multipath, (ii) Constructive and destructive interference, (iii) Coherence time
(iv) coherence bandwidth, (v) Delay spread

14. Explain different types of radio wave propagation with a neat diagram.

15. Write short notes on: (i) Forward Error Correction and (ii) Automatic Repeat Request.

16. Define an antenna and discuss different types of antennas.

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