ELECTROSTATICS

Roadmap Applications
Superposition principle Infinite long straight wire
Infinite Plane sheet
Coulomb’s law
Charged Speherical Shell
ELECTRIC CHARGES
GAUSS’S THEOREM
1
3

2
Electric Field lines
ELECTRIC FIELD Dipole
Torque
Work Done
Electric Charge
It is the intrinsic property of an elementary particle of matter which gives rise to the electric force between
various objects.
CGS unit-statcoulomb
Scalar Quantity SI unit-Coulomb (C)
(e.s.u of charge)

Electrostatics Study of charges at Rest Friction/Static Electricity

Electrodynamics Study of charges in Motion Current Electricity

Types of Charges

Positive Proton +e = + 1.6 x 10-19C

Negative Electron -e = - 1.6 x 10-19 C

Properties of Charges: As a whole in bulk, every material is neutral due to same
no. of protons and electrons. The amount of energy
There exists only two types of charges, namely positive and negative.
required by the electron to escape the nucleus attraction
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. and deposit to other material is called Work function.
The electrons always travel from the body having lower
Charge is a scalar quantity. work function to the body having higher work function.
Charge is additive in nature. eg. +2C + 5C – 3C = + 4C

Charge is Quantized
The energy required as the
i.e. Electric charge exists in discrete packets rather than in continuous amount. work function to escape the
material is provided by the
It can be expressed in integral multiples of fundamental electronic charge (e = 1.6 x 10-19 C) mehanical work done on the
q = ± ne where n = 1, 2, 3, ............ material while rubbing it with
Charge is conserved.
the other material.
i.e. The algebraic sum of positive and negative charges in an isolated system remains constant.
They can be created or destroyed, but the net charge can’t be created or destroyed.
Eg. In Beta Decays- a neutron converts itself into a fresh proton and electron-thus net charge remains same after n before

eg. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, negative charge appears on the silk and an equal amount of positive
charge appear on the glass rod. The net charge on the glass-silk system remains zero before and after rubbing.
It does not change with velocity also.
Conductors
The substances through which the electrons can transfer easily
Eg. Metals, human and animal bodies, graphite etc.

Insulators/Di-electrics
The substances through which the electrons cannot transfer easily

Eg. Non-metals like Glass, Plastic, Diamond, nylon, wood etc.

Charges can move

Major difference between conductor and insulator
due to free electrons.
When some charge is transferred to conductors, its readily gets distributed uniformly over the surface ( SKIN EFFECT)
When some charge is given to an Insulator, its stays at the same place. Charges cannot move due to
absence of free electrons.
Different Methods of charging

Charging by Rubbing/Friction

Charging by Conduction
In this method, we touch a charged body to an uncharged body, due to which the excess electrons transfers to the
uncharged body making it charged.

Uncharged body/Neutral body-

The body which has the same
number of electrons and protons
within itself. Thus, no excess charge
is present with the body.
Charging by Induction
A phenomenon of temporary Electrification of a conductor in which oppposite charges appear at its closer
end and similar charges appear at its farthest end in the presence of a nearby charged body.
Also known as the charging without contact How does a charged Comb attracts pieces of Paper-
Due to Phenomenon of Polarization, the neural atom
tends to get polarised meaning one side + and other -,
so attraction happens
Charging of two spheres by induction
Place two conducting spheres (neutral) in contact on a insulating stand
Bring a charged conductor rod (+) near to one of the sphere
The positive charge on the rod will attract the – e of the sphere in close arena and repel the +e of the sphere
which is farther away.

Without moving the rod away, create a gap between the two sheres Phenomenon of
POLARISATION
Now you have two spheres having opposite charges over them

The charges produced over the spheres are known as the Induced Charges.
Coulomb’s Law
The electrostatic force of interaction (attraction or repulsion) between two point electric charges is directly proportional to the product
of the charges, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and acts along the line joining the two charges.

Strictly speaking, Coulomb’s law applies to stationary point charges only.

Where k is a positive constant of proportionality called

electrostatic force constant or Coulomb constant.

In vacuum
where ε0 is the absolute
permittivity of free space ε0= 8.854 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2 C2N-1m-2 = farad per metre (F/m)

One coulomb of charge is that charge which when placed at rest in

vacuum at a distance of one metre from an equal and similar stationary
charge, repels it and is repelled by it with a force of 9 x 109 N.
Permittivity
It is the property of the medium which determines the Electric force between two charges placed in that medium.
When 2 charges are placed separated in When 2 charges are placed separated in a
vacuum experience a force F medium experience a force Fm
vacuum Water/Medium

r r

ε0 is the absolute εm is the absolute

permittivity of free space permittivity of medium

K is known as Thus this can also be written as -

Relative Permittivity /
Dilecletric Constant

K=1 (vacuum)
K=80 (water)
Continuous Charge Distribution:
Any charge which covers a space with dimensions much less than its distance away from an observation point can
be considered a point charge.
A system of closely spaced charges is said to form a continuous charge distribution.

It is useful to consider the density of a charge

distribution, as we do for density of solid, liquid, gas, etc.

(i) Line or Linear Charge Density ( λ ):

If the charge is distributed over a straight line or over the circumference of a circle or over the edge of a cuboid etc,
then the distribution is called ‘linear charge distribution.

Linear charge density is the charge per unit length. Its SI unit is C / m.
(ii) Surface Charge Density ( σ ):
If the charge is distributed over a surface area, then the distribution is called
‘surface charge distribution’.
Surface charge density is the charge per unit area. Its SI unit is C / m2.

(iii) Volume Charge Density ( ρ ):

If the charge is distributed over a volume, then the distribution is called
‘volume charge distribution’.

Volume charge density is the charge per unit volume. Its SI unit is C / m3.
NOTES:

For Metal conductors (Hollow/Solid)

Charges always lie on the outer surface Skin Effect

Metal conductors have free mobile Electrons to move throughout. Charge and Mass cannot be separated
Thus charges travel on Electrons

Thus No, Volumetric Charge Density occurs for Metal Conductors.

For Insulators (Hollow/Solid)

Charges stay wherever transfered

Insulators doesn’t have free mobile Electrons to move

throughout.
Thus charges doesn’t move.
Electric Field:
The Electrostatic force acts between two charges without being in contact, to understand the nature of this force the concept of
Electric Field is introduced.
Electric field is a region of space around a charge or a system of charges within which other
charged particles experience electrostatic forces.
Theoretically, electric field extends up to infinity but practically it is limited to a certain distance.

Electric Field Strength or Electric Field Intensity or Electric Field:

Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the electrostatic force per unit positive charge
acting on a vanishingly small positive test charge placed at that point.

+q + q0 -q + q0

F F

q – Source charge, q0 – Test charge, F – Force & E - Field

1 q
Lt F F or E= r
E= or E=
∆q → 0 q0 4πε0 r2
∆q

The test charge is considered to be vanishingly small because its presence should not alter the configuration
of the charge(s) and thus the electric field which is intended to be measured.
Note:

1. Since q0 is taken positive, the direction of electric field ( E ) is along the direction of electrostatic force F .

2. Electrostatic force on a negatively charged particle will be opposite to the direction of electric field.

3. Electric field is a vector quantity whose magnitude and direction are uniquely determined at every point in the
field.

4. SI unit of electric field is Newton / Coulomb ( N C-1 ) and Dimension is MLT-3A-1

Non-Uniform Electric Field Uniform Electric Field

Electric Field due to a Point Charge:
Y
Force exerted on q0 by q is

1 q q0 F
F= r + q0
4πε0 r2
r P (x,y,z)
1 q q0 As EF only depends on the
or F= r +q
4πε0 distance, thus from a point
r3
charge equal distance in all O X
direction will have the same
F
Electric field strength is E= EF and the loci of all these
q0 points is a SPHERE. Z
1 q
E (r) = r
4πε0 r3
E
1 q
or E (r) = r
4πε0 r2

The electric field due to a point charge has spherical symmetry.

If q > 0, then the field is radially outwards.
If q < 0, then the field is radially inwards. 0 r2
Electric field in terms of co-ordinates is given by

1 q
E (r) = ( xi + y j + z k )
4πε0 ( x2 + y2 + z2 ) 3/2 F14

Superposition Principle:
- q5
+ q1
The electrostatic force experienced by a charge due to other charges is the + q2
vector sum of electrostatic forces due to these other charges as if they are F15
existing individually.
F12
F1 = F12 + F13 + F14 + F15 F13
+ q4 - q3
N
1 ra - rb
Fa (ra) = ∑ qa qb
4πε0 F12
b=1 │ ra - rb │3
b≠a F1
F15
In the present example, a = 1 and b = 2 to 5.
F13
If the force is to be found on 2nd charge, then a = F14
2 and b = 1 and 3 to 5.
 Note:
The interactions must be on the charge which is to be studied due to other charges.
The charge on which the influence due to other charges is to be found is assumed to be floating charge and others
are rigidly fixed.
For eg. 1st charge (floating) is repelled away by q2 and q4 and attracted towards q3 and q5.
The interactions between the other charges (among themselves) must be ignored. i.e. F23, F24, F25, F34, F35 and F45 are
ignored.

Superposition principle holds good for electric field also.

Electric Lines of Force:

An electric line of force is an imaginary straight or curved path along which a unit positive charge is supposed
to move when free to do so in an electric field.
Electric lines of force do not physically exist but they represent real situations.

E
Electric Lines of Force
1. Electric Lines of Force due to a Point Charge:

a) Representation
of electric field in
terms of field
vectors:
The size of the
arrow represents
the strength of
electric field.

q>0 q<0

b) Representation
of electric field in
terms of field
lines
(Easy way of
drawing)
2. Electric Lines of Force due to a pair of Equal and 3. Electric Lines of Force due to a pair of Equal and
Unlike Charges: (Dipole) Like Charges:

+q P
E Electric lines of
+q force exert lateral
(sideways)
pressure to
.N represent repulsion
between two like
charges.
-q
+q

Electric lines of force contract lengthwise to represent

attraction between two unlike charges.

E
4. Electric Lines of Force due to a Uniform Field: + -
+ -
+ -
+ +1 C -
Properties of Electric Lines of Force or Field Lines:

1. The electric lines of force are imaginary lines.

2. A unit positive charge placed in the electric field tends to follow a path along the
field line if it is free to do so.
3. The electric lines of force emanate from a positive charge and terminate on a
negative charge.
4. The tangent to an electric field line at any point gives the direction of the electric
field at that point.
. E
P
5. Two electric lines of force can never cross each
other. If they do, then at the point of intersection,
there will be two tangents. It means there are two
values of the electric field at that point, which is not
possible. E1
Further, electric field being a vector quantity, there E E
can be only one resultant field at the given point, IB L
S S
represented by one tangent at the given point for the
T PO E2
given line of force.
NO
6. Electric lines of force are closer (crowded) where
the electric field is stronger and the lines spread
out where the electric field is weaker.
7. Electric lines of force are perpendicular to the Q q
surface of a positively or negatively charged
body.

Q > q

8. Electric lines of force contract lengthwise to represent attraction between two unlike charges.
9. Electric lines of force exert lateral (sideways) pressure to represent repulsion between two like charges.
Electric Dipole:

Electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a very small distance.
The electric field produced by a dipole is known as dipole field.
Electric dipole moment is a vector quantity used to measure the strength of an electric dipole.

p
p = (q x 2l) l -q +q
2l

The magnitude of electric dipole moment is the product of magnitude of either charge and the distance between
the two charges.
The direction is from negative to positive charge.
The SI unit of ‘p’ is ‘coulomb metre (C m)’.
Electric Field Intensity due to an Electric Dipole:

i) At a point on the axial line: EP = EB - EA

A B EA EB
Resultant electric field intensity at the point P is
-q O +q P
EP = EA + EB p
The vectors EA and EB are collinear and opposite. l l
x
│EP │ = │EB│ - │EA│
1 2px
1 q │EP │ =
EA = i 4πε0 (x2 – l2)2
4πε0 (x + l)2
q 1 2px
1 EP = i
EB = i 4πε0
4πε0 (x - l)2 (x2 – l2)2

q q 2p
│EP │ =
1
4πε0
[ (x - l) 2
-
(x + l)2
] If l << x, then EP ≈
4πε0 x3

1 2 (q . 2l) x The direction of electric field intensity at a point on the axial

│EP │ = line due to a dipole is always along the direction of the
4πε0 (x2 – l2)2 dipole moment.
ii) At a point on the equatorial line:

Resultant electric field intensity at EB

the point Q is EB EB sin θ
EQ = EA + EB
θ
EQ Q EB cos θ θ
θ
EQ Q
EA EA cos θ θ
The vectors EA and EB are acting at an angle 2θ.
y EA sin θ
1 q EA
EA = i A θ θ B
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 ) O
-q +q
1 q p
EB = i
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 ) l l

2 q l
The vectors EA sin θ and EB sin θ are opposite EQ =
to each other and hence cancel out. 4πε0 ( x2 + l2 ) ( x2 + l2 )½

1 q . 2l
EQ =
The vectors EA cos θ and EB cos θ are acting 4πε0 ( x2 + l2 )3/2
along the same direction and hence add up.
1 p
EQ = EA cos θ + EB cos θ EQ =
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 )3/2
 1 p
EQ = (- i )
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 )3/2

If l << y, then

p
EQ ≈
4πε0 y3

The direction of electric field intensity at a point on the equatorial line due to a dipole is parallel and opposite to the
direction of the dipole moment.

If the observation point is far away or when the dipole is very short, then the electric field intensity at a point on the
axial line is double the electric field intensity at a point on the equatorial line.

i.e. If l << x and l << y, then EP = 2 EQ

Torque on an Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field:

The forces of magnitude qE act opposite to each

other and hence net force acting on the dipole due +q
to external uniform electric field is zero. So, there is 2l qE
no translational motion of the dipole. p
qE θ
-q
E
However the forces are along different lines of
action and constitute a couple. Hence the dipole will
rotate and experience torque. p

Torque = Electric Force x distance θ

E
t = q E (2l sin θ)
= p E sin θ t

t = pxE Case i: If θ = 0°, then t = 0 (Stable Equilibrium)

Case ii: If θ = 90°, then t = pE (maximum value).
Direction of Torque is perpendicular and into the Case iii: If θ = 180°, then t = 0 (Unstable Equilibrium)
plane containing p and E.
SI unit of torque is Newton metre (Nm).
Work done on an Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field:
When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, it experiences torque and tends to allign in such a
way to attain stable equilibrium.

dW = tdθ
qE
= p E sin θ dθ dθ + q q E
θ is the angle 2l θ1 θ2
θ2 between p and E -q
W = ∫ p E sin θ dθ qE
θ1
qE E

W = p E (cosθ1 - cos θ2)

If Potential Energy is arbitrarily taken zero when the dipole is at 90°, then P.E in rotating the dipole and inclining it at
an angle θ is
Potential Energy U = - p E cos θ

Note: Potential Energy can be taken zero arbitrarily at any position of the dipole.

Stable Equillibrium-
Case i: If θ = 0°, then U = - pE (Stable Equilibrium) It returns to its Original Position
Case ii: If θ = 90°, then U = 0
Un-Stable Equillibrium-
Case iii: If θ = 180°, then U = pE (Unstable Equilibrium)
It doesn’t return to its Original Position
Area Vector: n
Small area of a surface can be represented by a vector. dS

dS = dS n
dS
Electric Flux: S
Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the total number of electric lines of force that normally pass
through that surface.

Electric flux dΦ through a small area element dS due to an dS dS

electric field E at an angle θ with dS is 90°
θ

dS
dΦ = E . dS = E dS cos θ
dS
Total electric flux Φ over the whole surface S due to an θ E
electric field E is S

Φ= E . dS = E S cos θ =E.S
S
θ
Electric flux is a scalar quantity. But it is a property of vector field. dS
SI unit of electric flux is N m2 C-1 or J m C -1 or Vm
 Special Cases:

1. For 0° < θ < 90°, Φ is positive.

2. For θ = 90°, Φ is zero.
3. For 90° < θ < 180°, Φ is negative.

Solid Angle:
Solid angle is the three-dimensional equivalent of an ordinary two-dimensional plane angle.
SI unit of solid angle is steradian.
Solid angle subtended by area element dS at the Centre O of a sphere of radius r is
r
dS cos θ
dΩ =
r2
θ n
dS
dS cos θ
Ω = dΩ = = 4π steradian r
r2
S S
dΩ
Gauss’s Theorem:
The surface integral of the electric field intensity over any closed hypothetical surface (called
Gaussian surface) in free space is equal to 1 / ε0 times the net charge enclosed within the surface.

1 n
ΦE = E . dS = ∑ qi
ε0 i=1
S

Proof of Gauss’s Theorem for Spherically Symmetric Surfaces:

1 q
dΦ = E . dS = r . dS n E
4πε0 r2

1 q dS
dΦ = r . n r dS
4πε0 r2
O •
+q r
Here, r . n = 1 x 1 cos 0° = 1

1 q dS
dΦ =
4πε0 r2
1 q 1 q q
dS = 4π r2 =
ΦE = dΦ =
4πε0 r2 4πε0 r2 ε0
S S
Gauss’s Surface:

Any Hypothetical close surface enclosing the charge is called Gaussian Surface.

Conditions for Surface :

The Electric field should be same at the surface due to the charges
The angle between the Area vector and Electric field should be constant throughout the Gaussian surface

Notes:

Gauss Theorem is valid for any closed surface of any shape and for any general Charge Distribution.

If the net charge enclosed by a closed surface is zero, then flux associated is also Zero

The net flux through a closed surface due to charge lying outside the closed surface is Zero

The charge q appearing in the gauss theorem includes the sum of all the charges located anywhere inside the closed surface.

The Electric Field E appearing in the Gauss Equation is the Electric Field due to all the charges present inside and outside the
closed Surface
Proof of Gauss’s Theorem for a Closed Surface of any Shape:

1 q E
dΦ = E . dS = r . dS n
4πε0 r2
r
θ n
1 q dS
dΦ = r . n
dS
4πε0 r2
r

Here, r . n = 1 x 1 cos θ = cos θ dΩ

+q •
q dS cos θ
dΦ =
4πε0 r2

q q q
ΦE = dΦ = dΩ = 4π =
4πε0 4πε0 ε0
S S
Deduction of Coulomb’s Law from Gauss’s Theorem:
From Gauss’s law,

q
ΦE = E . dS =
ε0 E
S

Since E and dS are in the same direction, r dS

q O •
ΦE = +q r
E dS =
ε0
S

q
or ΦE = E dS =
ε0
S
q q
E x 4π r2 = or E=
ε0 4πε0 r2

If a charge q0 is placed at a point where E is calculated, then

qq0
F = q0E = which is Coulomb’s Law.
4πε0 r2
Applications of Gauss’s Theorem:
1. Electric Field Intensity due to an
Infinitely Long Straight Charged Wire: E
ℷ =q/l is the
dS linear charge
density
C
r

-∞ B A +∞
dS dS

From Gauss’s law,

E l E Gaussian surface is a closed surface,
q around a charge distribution, such that
ΦE = E . dS =
ε0 the electric field intensity has a single
S fixed value at every point on the surface.

E . dS = E . dS + E . dS + E . dS
S A B C

E . dS = E dS cos 90° + E dS cos 90° + E dS cos 0° = E dS = E x 2 π r l

S A B C C
 q λl
= ε (where λ is the liner charge density)
ε0 0

λl
Ex2πrl= ε0

1 λ
or E=
2 πε0 r

or 1 2λ
E=
4 πε0 r

1 2λ
In vector form, E (r) = r
4 πε0 r

The direction of the electric field intensity is radially outward from the positive line charge. For negative line charge,
it will be radially inward.
Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinitely Long Thin Plane Sheet of Charges:

σ
σ = q/A is the surface
charge density dS

l
E

E dS r C E
A
B dS

From Gauss’s law,

q
ΦE = E . dS =
ε0
S TIP:
The field lines remain straight,
parallel and uniformly spaced.
E . dS = E . dS + E . dS + E . dS
S A B C

E . dS = E dS cos 0° + E dS cos 0° + E dS cos 90° = 2E dS = 2E x π r2

S A B C
 q σ π r2
= (where σ is the surface charge density)
ε0 ε0

σ π r2
2Exπ r2 =
ε0

σ σ
or E= In vector form,
2 ε0 E (l) = l
2 ε0

The direction of the electric field intensity is normal to the plane and away from the positive charge distribution.
For negative charge distribution, it will be towards the plane.

Note:
The electric field intensity is independent of the size of the Gaussian surface constructed.
It neither depends on the distance of point of consideration nor the radius of the cylindrical surface.
If the plane sheet is thick, then the charge distribution will be available on both the sides.
So, the charge enclosed within the Gaussian surface will be twice as before.
Therefore, the field will be twice.

σ
E=
ε0
Electric Field Intensity due to a Uniformed Charged This Spherical Shell:

E
i) At a point P outside the shell:
r dS

From Gauss’s law, •P

q
ΦE = E . dS = ε0
S q O• R σ = q/A is the surface
Since E and dS are in the same direction, charge density
HOLLOW
q
ΦE = E dS = ε0 ……… Gaussian Surface
S
q
or ΦE = E dS = ε0
S
q q
E x 4π r2 = or E=
ε0 4πε0 r2 Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical
shell at a point outside the shell is such as if the whole
Since q = σ x 4π R2, charge were concentrated at the centre of the shell.
σ R2
E=
ε0 r2
ii) At a point A on the surface of the shell:

From Gauss’s law, E

q dS
ΦE = E . dS = ε0
S •
A
Since E and dS are in the same direction,
q O• R
q
ΦE = E dS = ε0 HOLLOW
S
q
or ΦE = E dS =
ε0 σ = q/A is the surface
S charge density
q q
E x 4π R2 = or E=
ε0 4πε0 R2

Since q = σ x 4π R2, σ
E=
ε0 Electric field due to a uniformly
charged thin spherical shell at a point
on the surface of the shell is maximum.
iii) At a point B inside the shell:

From Gauss’s law, E

dS
q
ΦE = E . dS = B
ε0
S •
q O• R
Since E and dS are in the same direction,
r’
q
ΦE = HOLLOW
E dS = ε0
S
q
or ΦE = E dS =
ε0 E
S
q 0 Emax
E x 4π r’2 = or E=
ε0 4πε0 r’2

(since q = 0 inside the Gaussian surface)

E=0
O
R r
This property E = 0 inside a cavity is used for
electrostatic shielding. END