1. How can you define the term “decomposition of set phrases”?

give all
the possible synonyms to this term
The meaning of a set-phrase is understood only from the combination as a whole
(to pull one’s leg, to be over the moon, etc).
The SD of decomposition of set phrases consists in reviving the independent
meaning of the components, in other words, it makes weach word of the
combination acquire its literal meaning:
E.g. ‘safe and sound’ – “I leave Don Juan for the present safe - / Not sound, poor
fellow, but severely wounded. “ [Byron]
“It was raining cats and dogs and two kittens and a puppy landed on my window
sill” [Chesterton]- here the author changes the set expression into a sustained
metaphor, which creates a vivid image of the rain and rain-drops.
Often authors decompose set-units (proverbs, idioms) to create an implication, to
express a complicated idea in a short way:
E.g. “Come!” he said, “milk’s spilt” [Galsworthy]
Decomposed Set expressions add originality to the text.
The SD of decomposition of set phrases is also widely uses in newspapers,
magazines and advertisements. It refers to the process of breaking down and
analyzing fixed expressions or idiomatic phrases into their individual components
or words to understand their meaning and structure.
Possible synonyms for this term include:
- Dissecting set phrases
- Analyzing fixed expressions
- Breaking down idiomatic phrases
- Parsing set phrases
- Deconstructing fixed expressions
2. What is the difference among various types of set phrases
decomposition: substitution, prolongation, phraseological inversion,
inclusion?
Set expressions are usually decomposed for creating a humorous, ironic, sarcastic
effect or even the atmosphere of absurdity.
Here is a good example of the effective use of this device. The poet mocks at the
absurd notion of idealists who deny the existence of every kind of matter
whatsoever:
“When Bishop Berkley said: “there was no matter”
And proved it—’twas no matter what he said.” (Byron)
In the sentence “It was raining cats and dogs, and two kittens and a puppy landed
on my window-sill” (Chesterton) the fusion ‘to rain cats and dogs’ is freshened by
the introduction of “kittens and a puppy,” which changes the unmotivated
combination into a metaphor which in its turn is sustained. The expression ‘to save
one’s bacon’ means to escape from injury or loss.
By decomposing a set phrase the author discloses the inner form of the phrase and
either:
1) pretends to understand the phrase or its constituents literally, i.e. distorting by
'literalizing';
2) revives the additional meanings of the components of which the fusion is made;
3) inserts additional components (words) or replaces the original ones, etc.
There are several types of decomposition of set expressions:
1) inclusion or prolongation
E.G.: She took a desperate hold of his arm;
2) interaction
E.G.: to be fed up with smth + to be fed to the teeth = There are the words of a man
who for some reason not disclosed is fed up to front teeth with the adored object,
3) substitution (partial or complete):
E.G.: Divorces (instead of marriages) are made in heavens. (O. Wilde);
4) changes in spelling (attaining a new meaning and at the same time preserving or
imitating the phonetical form of the original set expression)
E.G.: Sofa, So Good! (instead of So far, so good, when a furniture shop praises its
sofas).
The various types of set phrase decomposition refer to different ways in which a
set phrase can be analyzed or broken down.
Substitution involves replacing one element of the set phrase with a similar
element. For example, in the set phrase "kick the bucket," substituting "bucket"
with "the can" produces a similar phrase with a different word.
Prolongation involves extending the set phrase by adding extra words or elements.
For example, in the set phrase "break the ice," prolongation could involve adding
words to create the extended phrase "break the ice and start a conversation."
Phraseological inversion involves changing the order or structure of the set phrase.
For example, in the set phrase "spick and span," phraseological inversion could
produce the alternative "span and spick."
Inclusion involves adding extra words or elements to the set phrase without
changing its core meaning. For example, in the set phrase "spick and span,"
inclusion could involve adding descriptors to create the extended phrase "spick and
span and sparkling clean."
3. How does phraseological pun differ from pun as a lexical stylistic
device? give all the possible synonyms to the term “phraseological pun”.
Its differ in the way they use language playfully and for rhetorical effect.

Phraseological pun involves exploiting the meaning of a set phrase or idiom in a

humorous or clever way. This often involves a play on words within the structure
of the set phrase itself. For example, the phrase "butter someone up" uses the word
"butter" in a non-literal sense, playing on the dual meaning of "butter" to convey a
figurative meaning. The humor or cleverness arises from the combination of the set
phrase's established meaning with a new, unexpected interpretation.
On the other hand, pun as a lexical stylistic device involves a play on words at the
level of individual words or phrases. It often relies on the multiple meanings or
similar sounds of words to create a humorous or rhetorical effect. For example, the
pun "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana" relies on the double
meaning of "flies" to create a humorous comparison.
While both phraseological pun and pun as a lexical stylistic device involve
linguistic play and wordplay, phraseological pun specifically uses established set
phrases or idioms as the basis for the wordplay, while pun as a lexical stylistic
device operates at the level of individual words or phrases. Both devices aim to
create humor or rhetorical impact through the use of language.
Some possible synonyms for the term "phraseological pun" include:
1. Idiomatic quip
2. Set phrase wordplay
3. Figurative language pun
4. Proverbial pun
5. Set expression wit
4. give the definition of allusion.
An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary,
mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of
speaking or writing. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing
or person alluded to on the part of the reader or listener. No indication of the
source is given. This is one of the notable differences between quotation and
allusion. Another difference is of a structural nature: a quotation must repeat the
exact wording of the original even though the meaning may be modified by the
new context; an allusion is only a mention of a word or phrase which may be
regarded as the key-word of the utterance. An allusion has certain important
semantic peculiarities, in that the meaning of the word (the allusion) should be
regarded as a form for the new meaning. The primary meaning of the word or
phrase which is assumed to be known ( the allusion) serves as a vessel into which
new meaning is poured. So here there is also a kind of interplay between two
meanings.
“I wonder where are they, those good fellows?
Is old Weller alive or dead?”
Allusions are based on the experience and the knowledge of the writer who
presupposes a similar experience and knowledge in the reader.
Allusions and quotations may be termed nonce - set - expressions because they are
used only for the occasion.
Allusion needs no indication of the source. It is assumed to be known. Therefore
most allusions are made to facts with which the general reader should be familiar.
Allusions are sometimes made to things and facts which need commentary before
they are understood.
Allusions are used in different styles, but their function is everywhere the same.
The deciphering of an allusion, however, is not always easy. In newspaper
headlines allusions may be decoded at first glance, as, for instance:
"'Pie in the sky' for Railmen"
Most people in the USA and Britain know the refrain of the workers' song: "You'll
get pie in the sky when you die."
Linguistically the allusion 'pie in the sky' assumes a new meaning, viz. nothing but
promises. Through frequency of repetition it may enter into the word-stock of the
English language as a figurative synonym.
5. do we have the indication of the source in allusion? prove your answer.
No indication of the source is given. This is one of the notable differences between
quotation and allusion. When an individual makes an allusion, they are referencing
a well-known person, event, or literary work, assuming that the audience will
recognize the reference. The allusion relies on the audience's familiarity with the
source material. Therefore, the indication of the source is not always explicitly
provided within the allusion itself.
6. how many words constitute the stylistic device of allusion?
The number of words constituting an allusion can vary widely depending on the
context and the specific reference being made. In general, an allusion is a brief and
indirect reference to a person, place, event, or literary work that the author expects
the reader to be familiar with. It can be as short as a single word or it can be a
phrase or a few sentences. The purpose of an allusion is to evoke a comparison,
add deeper meaning, or to convey a certain tone. The effectiveness of an allusion
often lies in its brevity and the reader's ability to recognize the reference. Overall,
the length of the allusion in terms of words is not as important as its ability to
enrich the text.
7. What is a proverb / saying?
Proverbs and sayings are facts of language. They are collected in dictionaries.
There are special dictionaries of proverbs and sayings. It is impossible to arrange
proverbs and sayings in a form that would present a pattern even though they have
some typical features by which it is 1 possible to determine whether or not we are
dealing with one. These [typical features are: rhythm, sometimes rhyme and/or
alliteration. But the most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies not |fn
its formal linguistic expression, but in the content-form of the utter-pnce. As is
known, a proverb or a saying is a peculiar mode of utterance Vhich is mainly
characterized by its brevity. The utterance itself, taken at Bits face value, presents a
pattern which can be successfully used for other liitterances. The peculiarity of the
use of a proverb lies in the fact that Ithe actual wording becomes a pattern which
needs no new wording to [suggest extensions of meaning which are contextual. In
other words, la proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of two meanings:
[the face-value or primary meaning, and an extended meaning drawn Hrom the
context, but bridled by the face-value meaning. In other words, [the proverb itself
becomes a vessel into which new content is poured. IThe actual wording of a
proverb, its primary meaning, narrows the [field of possible extensions of meaning,
i. e. the filling up of the form. •That is why we may regard the proverb as a pattern
of thought. Soit is I'm every other case at any other level of linguistic research.
Abstract [formulas offer a wider range of possible applications to practical pur-
Iposes than concrete words, though they have the same purpose.
Almost every good writer will make use of language idioms, by-[phrases and
proverbs. As Gorki has it, they are the natural ways in ^hich speech develops.

Proverbs and sayings have certain purely linguistic features which [must always be
taken into account in order to distinguish them from [ordinary sentences. Proverbs
are brief statements showing in condensed [form the accumulated life experience
of the community and serving as |conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas.
They are usually I didactic and image bearing. Many of them through frequency of
repetition have become polished and wrought into verse-like shape, as in the
[following:
"to cut one's coat according to one's cloth."
"Early to bed and early to rise,
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
Brevity in proverbs manifests itself also in the omission of connec-|fives, as in:
"First come, first served." "Out of sight, out of mind."
But the main feature distinguishing proverbs and sayings from ordinary utterances
remains their semantic aspect. Their literal meaning is suppressed by what may be
termed their transferred meaning. In other words, one meaning (literal) is the form
for another meaning (transferred) which contains the idea. Proverbs and sayings, if
used appropriately, will never lose their freshness and vigour. The most noticeable
thing about the functioning of sayings, proverbs and catch-phrases is that they may
be handled not in their fixed form (the traditional model) but with modifications.
These modifications, however, will never break away from the invariants to such a
degree that the correlation between the invariant model of a word-combination and
its variant ceases to be perceived by the reader. The predictability of a variant of a
word-combination is lower in comparison with its invariant. Therefore the use of
such a unit in a modified form will always arrest our attention, causing a much
closer examination of the wording of the utterance in order to get at the idea. Thus,
the proverb 'all is not gold that glitters' appears in Byron's "Don Juan" in the
following form and environment where at first the meaning may seem obscure:
"How all the needy honourable misters,
Each out-at-elbow peer or desperate dandy,
The watchful mothers, and the careful sisters (Who, by the by, when clever, are
more handy
At making matches where "t'is gold that glisters" l' Than their he relatives), like
flies o'er candy
Buzz round the Fortune with their busy battery,
To turn her head with waltzing and with flattery."
Out of the well-known proverb Byron builds a periphrasis, the meaning of which is
deciphered two lines below: 'the Fortune', that is, 'a marriageable heiress').
It has already been.pointed out that Byron is fond of playing with stable word-
combinations,.sometimes injecting new vigour into the components, sometimes
entirely disregarding the semantic unity of the combination. In the following lines,
for instance, each word of the phrase safe and sound gets its full meaning.
"I leave Don Juan for the present, safe— Not sound, poor fellow, but severely
wounded;"
The proverb Hell is paved with good intentions and the set expression to mean well
are used by Byron in a peculiar way, thus making the reader re-appraise the
hackneyed phrases.
(< ................ if he warr'd
Or loved, it was with what we call the best Intentions, which form all mankind's
trump card,
To be produced when brought up to the test, The statesman, hero, harlot, lawyer—
ward
Off each attack, when people are in quest
1 the archaic form of glitters
Of their designs, by saying they meant well. ['Tis pity that such meaning should
pave hell"
The stylistic effect produced by such uses of proverbs and sayings is the result of a
twofold application of language means, which, as has already been emphasized, is
an indispensable condition for the appearance of all stylistic devices. The modified
form of the proverb is perceived against the background of the fixed form, thus
enlivening the latter. Sometimes this injection of new vigour into the proverb
causes a slight semantic re-evaluation of its generally accepted meaning. When a
proverb is used in its unaltered form it can be qualified as an expressive means
(EM) of the language; when used in a modified variant it assumes the one of the
features of an SD, it acquires a stylistic meaning, though not becoming an SD.
We shall take only a few of the numerous examples of the stylistic use of proverbs
and sayings to illustrate the possible ways of decomposing the units in order
simply to suggest the idea behind them:
"Come!" he said, "milk's spilt." (Galsworthy) (from 'It is no use crying over spilt
milk!').
"But to all that moving experience there had been a shadow (a dark lining to the
silver cloud), insistent and plain, which disconcerted her," (Maugham) (from
'Every cloud has a silver lining').
"We were dashed uncomfortable in the frying pan, but we should have been a
damned sight worse off in the fire" (Maugham) (from 'Out of the frying-pan into
the fire').
"You know which side the law's buttered." (Galsworthy) (from 'His bread is
buttered on both sides').
This device is used not only in the belles-lettres style. Here are some instances
from newspapers and magazines illustrating the stylistic use of proverbs, sayings
and other word-combinations:
"...and whether the Ministry of Economrc Warfare is being allowed enough
financial rope to do its worst." (from 'Give a thief rope enough and he'll hang
himself).
"The waters will remain sufficiently troubled for somebody's fishing to be
profitable" (Economist) (from 'It is good fishing in troubled waters').
A newspaper editorial once had the following headline:
"Proof of the Pudding" (from 'The proof of the pudding is in the eating').
Here is a recast of a well-known proverb used by an advertizing agency:
"Early to bed and early to rise
No use—unless you advertize"
(from 'Early to bed and early to rise* }
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise')*
Notice this recast by Lewis Carroll of a well-known saying:1
"Take care of the sense and the sounds will take care of themselves."
8. What is an epigram?
An epigram (2) is a stylistic device akin to a proverb, the only difference being that
epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the
coinage of the people. We are always aware of the parentage of an epigram and
therefore, when using one, we usually make a reference to its author.
Epigrams are terse, witty, pointed statements, showing the ingenious turn of mind
of the originator. They always have a literary-bookish air about them that
distinguishes them from proverbs. Epigrams possess a great degree of
independence and if taken out of the context, will retain the wholeness of the idea
they express. They have a generalizing function and are self-sufficient. The most
characteristic feature of an epigram is that the sentence gets accepted as a word-
combination and often becomes part of the language as a whole. Like proverbs,
epigrams can be expanded to apply to abstract notions. Brevity is the essential
quality of the epigram. Epigrams are often confused with aphorisms and
paradoxes. It is difficult to draw a demarcation line between them, the distinction
being very subtle. Real epigrams are true to fact and that is why they win general
recognition and acceptance.
"Art is triumphant when it can use convention as an instrument of its own purpose.
This sentence is not a model epigram because it lacks one essential quality, viz.
brevity. It is too long and therefore cannot function in speech as a ready-made
language unit. It lacks other features- rhythm, alliteration and often rhyme. It
cannot be expanded to other spheres of life, it does not generalize.
"A God that can be understood is no God.
This sentence seems to meet all the necessary requirements of the epigram: it is
brief, generalizing, witty and can be expanded in its application
“… in the days of old men made manners
Manners now make man
“A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
Writers use epigrams to characterize the hero of their work or when they seek
aesthetic precision. Poetry is epigrammatic in essence. It strives for brevity of
expression, leaving to the mind of the reader the pleasure of amplifying the idea.
9. What is a quotation?
A quotation (3) is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the
like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further
speculation on the matter in hand.
By repeating a passage in a new environment, we attach to the utterance an
importance it might not have had in the context whence it was taken. We give it
the status of a stable language unit. What is quoted must be worth quoting, since a
quotation will inevitably acquire some degree of generalization. If repeated
frequently, it may be recognized as an epigram, if, of course, it has some of the
linguistic properties of the latter
Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas (""), dashes (—),
italics
They are mostly used accompanied by a reference to the author of the quotation,
unless he is well known to the reader or audience. The reference is made either in
the text or in a foot-note and assumes various forms:
"as (so and so) has it"; "(So and so) once said that"...; "Here we quote (so and so)".
A quotation is the exact reproduction of an actual utterance made by a certain
author. The work containing the utterance quoted must have been published or at
least spoken in public; for quotations are echoes of somebody else's words
Utterances, when quoted, undergo a peculiar and subtle change. They are rank-
and-file members of the text they belong to, merging with other sentences in this
text in the most natural and organic way, bearing some part of the general sense the
text as a whole embodies; yet, when they are quoted, their significance is
heightened and they become different from other parts of the text. Once quoted,
they are no longer rank-and-file units. If they are used to back up the idea ex-
pressed in the new text, they become "parent sentences" with the corresponding
authority and respect and acquire a symbolizing function; in short, they not
infrequently become epigrams.
A quotation is always set against the other sentences in the text by its greater
volume of sense and significance. This singles it out, particularly if it is frequently
repeated, as any utterance worth committing to memory generally is. The use of
quotations presupposes a good knowledge of the past experience of the nation, its
literature and culture. The stylistic value of a quotation lies in the fact that it com-
prises two meanings: the primary meaning, the one which it has in its original
surroundings, and the applicative meaning, i.e. the one which it acquires in the new
context.
Quotations, unlike epigrams, need not necessarily be short. A whole paragraph or a
long passage may be quoted if it suits the purpose. Sometimes a quotation in a new
environment may assume a new shade of meaning, a shade necessary or sought by
the quoter, but not intended by the writer of the original work.
"Socrates said, our only knowledge was
"To know that nothing could be known" a pleasant
Science enough, which levels to an as
Each man of Wisdom, future, past or present
Newton (that proverb of the mind) alas!
Declared with all his grand discoveries recent
That he himself felt only "like a youth
Picking up shells by the great ocean—Truth." (Byron)
"Ecclesiastes said, "that all is vanity"— Most modern preachers say the same, or
show it by their examples of the Christianity..." (Byron)
Quotations are used as a stylistic device with the aim of expanding the meaning of
the sentence quoted and setting two meanings one against the other, thus
modifying the original meaning. In this quality they are used mostly in the belles-
lettres style. Quotations used in other styles of speech allow no modifications of
meaning, unless actual distortion of form and meaning is the aim of the quoter.
Quotations are also used in epigraphs. The quotation in this case possesses great
associative power and calls forth much connotative meaning.
10.Why should we use quotations as a stylistic device? What for?
Quotations are used for a variety of reasons: to enrich, illuminate the meaning or
support the arguments of the work in which it is being quoted, to pay homage to
the original work or author, to make the user of the quotation seem well-read and
even to ridicule the original author.
Using quotations as a stylistic device can serve multiple purposes in writing.
Firstly, quotations can be used to provide evidence or support for a particular point
or argument. By including a direct quote from a credible source, writers can add
authority and validity to their claims.
Quotations also allow writers to incorporate the perspectives and voices of others
into their own work. This can be particularly effective in showcasing differing
opinions or adding depth to a discussion.
Additionally, quotations can help to liven up a piece of writing by introducing
variety in language and style. They can also serve as a way to highlight key ideas
or powerful language used by the original speaker or writer.
Overall, the use of quotations as a stylistic device can enhance the clarity,
credibility, and richness of a piece of writing.
11.compare proverbs / sayings, epigrams and quotations from the
following angles: 1) indication of the source, 2) brevity, 3) coinage of the
people / individual.
1) indication of the source:
Proverbs and sayings are traditional, well-known expressions that are passed down
through generations, and they often reflect the wisdom and values of a particular
culture. They are typically anonymous and do not have a specific source, as they
have been in use for so long that their origins are unknown. On the other hand,
epigrams are short, clever, and memorable statements that are attributed to a
specific author. They are usually meant to be thought-provoking or witty.
Quotations are excerpts from a speech, book, or other text, and they are attributed
to a specific source, such as the person who said or wrote them.
2) brevity:
Proverbs and sayings are often brief, condensed expressions of wisdom or advice,
such as "a stitch in time saves nine" or "actions speak louder than words." These
are usually short and to the point, conveying a universal truth or piece of advice in
a memorable manner. Epigrams, too, are known for their brevity, encapsulating a
clever or insightful idea in a concise form. For example, Oscar Wilde's famous
epigram "I can resist everything except temptation" succinctly captures a complex
thought in just a few words. Quotations, while also brief, can vary in length. Some
are very short, such as "to be or not to be" from Shakespeare's Hamlet, while others
may be longer, depending on the context in which they were originally spoken or
written. However, like proverbs and epigrams, they are still meant to capture a key
idea or statement in a succinct manner.
3) coinage of the people / individual:
Proverbs and sayings are generally the "coinage of the people." They are
expressions that have been passed down through generations, often reflecting the
collective wisdom, experiences, and values of a particular culture or community.
While the specific origin of many proverbs and sayings is often unknown, they are
a product of cultural and communal wisdom rather than the creation of a specific
individual.
Epigrams are typically the individual creation of a specific author or speaker. They
are known for their wit, insight, and cleverness, and are often attributed to a
particular individual. This individual authorship distinguishes epigrams from
proverbs and sayings, which are more communal and collective in nature.
Quotations, like epigrams, are attributed to a specific individual. They are excerpts
from a person's speech, writing, or work, and are ascribed to the original source.
The individual authorship of quotations, as with epigrams, sets them apart from the
communal nature of proverbs and sayings.

Morphological Stylistic devices

1. What is stylistics of morphology?

Morphological stylistics deals with morphological expressive means and stylistic

devices. Words of all parts of speech have a great stylistic potential. Being placed
in an unusual syntagmatic environment which changes their canonized
grammatical characteristics and combinability, they acquire stylistic significance.
The central notion of morphological stylistics is the notion of
transposition. Transposition is a divergence between the traditional usage of a
neutral word and its situational (stylistic) usage.

Words of every part of speech are united by their semantic and grammatical
properties. General lexico-grammatical meaning of nouns is substantivity, i. e. the
ability to denote objects or abstract notions. Due to the diverse nature of
substantivity, nouns are divided into proper, common, concrete, abstract, material
and collective. Cases of transposition emerge, in particular, when concrete nouns
are used according to the rules of proper nouns usage, or vice versa. It results in
creation of stylistic devises named antonomasia or personification. For
example: The Pacific Ocean has a cruel soul or John will never be a Shakespeare.

Besides general lexico-grammatical meaning, nouns possess grammatical

meanings of the category of number and the category of case. These meanings may
also be used for stylistic objectives. According to the category of number, nouns
are classified into countable and uncountable. Each group has its own regularities
of usage. When these regularities are broken for stylistic reasons, speech becomes
expressive. Uncountable singularia tantum nouns, or countable nouns in the
singular, occasionally realizing the meaning of more than oneness, evoke
picturesque connotations: to hunt tiger - to hunt tigers; to keep chick = to keep
chicks; snow = snows; sand = sands; water = waters;
time = times; бить зайца = охотиться на зайцев; ходить на медведя = охо
титься на медведей. Normally, the genitive case form is a form of animate
nouns. When inanimate nouns are used in this form, their initial meaning of
inanimateness is transposed. In such cases they render the meanings of time or
distance (mile's walk, hour's time), part of a whole (book's page, table's leg), or
qualitative characteristics (plan's failure, winter's snowdrifts, music's voice).

Stylistic potential of nouns is significantly reinforced by transpositions in the usage

of articles as noun-determiners. Such transpositions occur against generally
accepted normative postulates which run: articles are not used with names of
persons and animals, some classes of geographical names, abstract nouns and
names of material. Uncommon usage of articles aims at importing specific shades
of meaning into speech. Thus, the indefinite article combined with names of
persons may denote one representative of a family (Mary will never be a
Brown), a person unknown to the communicants (Jack was robbed by a Smith), a
temporary feature of character (That day Jane was different. It was a silly
Jane). Not less expressive are cases when the name of a person is used as a
common noun preceded by the indefinite article: Mike has the makings of a
Byron. Stylistic usage of the definite article takes place when names of persons are
modified by limiting attributes (You are not the John whom I married), when a
proper name denotes the whole family (The Browns are good people), or when a
name of a person is modified by a descriptive attribute denoting a permanent
feature of character (I entered the room. There she was - the clever
Polly). Suchlike deviations in the usage of articles are possible with other semantic
classes of nouns: geographical names, abstract and material nouns.

Transposition of verbs is even more varied than that of nouns. It is explained by a

greater number of grammatical categories the meanings of which may be
transposed. Most expressive are tense forms, mood forms and voice forms. One of
peculiar features of English tense forms is their polysemantism. The same form
may realize various meanings in speech. Deviation from the general (most
frequently realized) meaning makes verbs stylistically coloured. Commonly, the
present continuous tense denotes an action which takes place at the moment of
speaking. But it may also denote a habitual action (John is constantly
grumbling), an action which occupies a long period of time (Sam is wooing Mary
now), and an action of the near future (Pete is starting a new life tomorrow). In
such cases the present continuous tense becomes synonymous with the present or
future indefinite. But there is a difference. While the sentence "John constantly
grumbles" is a mere statement, the sentence "John is constantly
grumbling " introduces the negative connotations of irritation, condemnation,
regret, sadness and others.

There is a rule that verbs of sense perception and mental activity are not I used in
the continuous tense forms. This rule is often broken by the speaker intentionally
or subconsciously. In both cases verbal forms convey additional stylistic meanings
of subjective modality (I am seeing you = I am not blind; I am understanding
you = You need not go into further details; I am I feeling your touch = So tender
you are, etc. ).

One of peculiar verbal transpositions is the change of temporary planes of

narration when events of the past or future are described by present tense forms.
Such transposition brightens the narration, raises its emotional tension, expresses
intrigue, makes the continuity of events visual and graphic: It was yesterday and
looked this way. The perpetrator comes to his victim, takes a long dagger out of
his inner pocket and stabs the poor man right into his belly without saying a word.
The man falls down like a sack, a fountain of blood spurting from the wound.

Transposition is not the only way to make verbs expressive. A good many verbal
forms are expressive in themselves. The imperative mood forms are not just
commands, invitations, requests or prohibitions. They are a perfect means of
rendering an abundance of human emotions. The sentence Just come to me
now may contextually imply love or hate, threat or warning, promise or desire. A
wide range of subjunctive mood forms offers a good stylistic choice of
synonymous ways to verbalize one and the same idea. Compare the following
synonymous pairs of sentences: It is time for me to I go = It is time that I went; It
is necessary for him to come = It is neces- I sary that he come; We must go now
not to be late = We must go now lest I we be late; Let it be = So be it. The first
sentence of each pair is stylistically neutral while the second sentence is either
bookish or obsolescent. In many contexts passive verbal forms are more expressive
than their active counterparts. Compare: A round table occupied the centre of the
room = The centre of the room was occupied by a round table; They answered
him nothing = He was answered nothing; They forgave him his rudeness = He was
forgiven his rudeness.
General lexico-grammatical meaning of adjectives is that of qualitative-ness.
Qualitative adjectives are always estimative, that is why they are used as
epithets (picturesque' view, idiotic shoe-laces, crazy bicycle, tremendous achieve
ments) and can form degrees of comparison. Relative adjectives normally do not
form degrees of comparison and serve as logical (non-stylistic) attributes (red
colour, Italian car, dead man). However, they may be occasionally transposed
into qualitative. Such transposition imports originality and freshness in
speech: This is the reddest colour I've ever seen in my life; "Ferrari" is the most
Italian car which you can meet in this remote corner of the world; Garry was the
deadest men ever present in that ambitious society. Expressiveness of adjectives
may be as well enhanced by non-grammatical transpositions in the formation of the
degrees of comparison, when well-known rules of their formation are intentionally
violated: My bride was becoming beautifuller and beautifuller; You are
the bestest friend I've ever met.

Expressive devices may be created by transposition of pronouns. When objective

forms of personal pronouns are used predicatively instead of nominative forms,
sentences obtain colloquial marking (It is him; It is her; It is me; It is them; It is
us). The meaning of the pronoun I may be contextually rendered by the
pronouns we, you, one, he, she and others. The so-called "scientific we" is used in
scientific prose instead of / for modesty reasons. The same replacement in a routine
conversation creates a humoristic effect (a tipsy man coming home after a workday
and addressing his wife cheerfully, about himself: Meet us dear! We have
come!). When the pronoun you is replaced by the pronoun one, the statement
becomes generalized, its information being projected not only to the listeners, but
to the speaker himself: One should understand, that smoking is really
harmful! When / is substituted by he, she, or nouns (the guy, the chap, the fellow,
the fool, the girl, etc), the speaker either tries to analyse his own actions with the
eyes of a stranger, externally, or he is ironical about himself. Stylistic effects may
also be achieved by the usage of archaic pronouns: the personal pronoun thou (2
person singular) and its objective form three, the possessive pronoun thy and its
absolute form thine, the reflexive pronoun thyself. These obsolete pronouns create
the atmosphere of solemnity and elevation, or bring us back to ancient times.

The basic unit of morphemic level is a morpheme of course and we’ll see how a
morpheme becomes a vehicle of additional information – logical, emotive and
expressive.

So morphological stylistics deals with morphological expressive means and

stylistic devices. Words of all parts of speech have a great stylistic potential.
Repetition – we can repeat both root and affixational morphemes in a word. When
we do that repetition serves to focus the attention and stress the logical emotive
and evaluative m-g and add to the rhythmical effect and text unity. Ex.:

She couldn’t stand watching him,

talking to him, thinking of him.

In case of repetition a morpheme gains much independence and bear major

responsibility for the creation of additional information and stylistic effect.

Occasional words – while using a morpheme we can form some new words. They
are not neologisms because they are created only for special communicational
situation. They are used to give the additional information and are characterised by
freshness, originality of their inner form and morphemic structure. Ex.: Bernard
Show: “I am an undersecretary in an underbureau”.

2. define the term “transposition”.

transposition refers to the act of changing the form or structure of a text while
maintaining its essential meaning. This can involve altering the order of words,
phrases, or sentences, as well as changing the tone, style, or perspective of the
original text. Transposition is often used as a creative technique to enhance the
impact or readability of a piece of writing
3. What grammatical categories of a noun are closely linked to the stylistic
power of this part of speech? Name some possible noun transpositions.

The stylistic power of a noun is closely linked to the grammatical categories this
part of speech possesses. First of all these are the categories of number, person and
case.

The use of a singular noun instead of an appropriate plural form creates

a generalized, elevated effect often bordering on symbolization.

4. What pronoun transpositions do you know? enumerate some of them.

The stylistic functions of the pronoun also depend on the disparity between the
traditional and contextual (situational) meanings. This is the grammatical metaphor
of the first type based on the transposition of the form, when one pronoun is
transposed into the action sphere of another pronoun.
So personal pronouns We, You, They and others can be employed in the meaning
different from their dictionary meaning.

Possessive pronouns may be loaded with evaluative connotations and devoid of

any grammatical meaning of possession.

Watch what you're about, my man! (Cronin)

Your precious Charles or Frank or your stupid Ashley! (Mitchell)

The same function is fulfilled by the absolute possessive form in structures

like Well, you tell that Herman of yours to mind his own business. (London)

The range of feelings they express may include irony, sarcasm, anger, contempt,
resentment, irritation, etc.

Demonstrative pronouns may greatly enhance the expressive colouring of the

utterance.

5. What basic grammatical category of the adjective is related to its stylistic

function? What are the possible adjective transpositions?

The only grammatical category of the Enghsh adjective today is that of

comparison. Comparison is only the property of qualitative and quantitative
adjectives, but not of the relative ones.

When adjectives that are not normally used in a comparative degree are used with
this category they are charged with a strong expressive power.

General lexico-grammatical meaning of adjectives is that of qualitativeness.

Qualitative adjectives are always estimative, that is why they are used as epithets
(picturesque view, idiotic shoe-laces, crazy bicycle, tremendous achievements) and
can form degrees of comparison. Relative adjectives normally do not form degrees
of comparison and serve as logical (non-stylistic) attributes (red colour, Italian car,
dead man). However, they may be occasionally transposed into qualitative. Such
transposition imports originality and freshness in speech: This is the reddest colour
I've ever seen in my life; "Ferrari" is the most Italian car which you can meet in
this remote corner of the world; Garry was the deadest men ever present in that
ambitious society. Expressiveness of adjectives may be as well enhanced by non-
grammatical transpositions in the formation of the degrees of comparison, when
well-known rules of their formation are intentionally violated: My bride was
becoming beautifuller and beautifuller; You are the bestest friend I've ever met.
6. how can you characterize the stylistic properties of a verb?
The stylistic properties of a verb can be characterized by looking at the way it is
used in a particular context. This includes aspects such as tense (past, present,
future), aspect (simple, continuous, perfect), mood (indicative, imperative,
subjunctive), voice (active, passive), and modality (possibility, necessity,
permission). Additionally, the verb's choice of synonyms, antonyms, and
collocations can also contribute to its stylistic properties. These aspects
collectively impact the overall style and tone of the language used in a particular
text.
7. describe the stylistic potential of an adverb.
Adverbs gain a special stylistic value due to their polysemy. This can be illustrated
by the adverb NOW:
In scientific prose NOW serves as a means of logical connection of statements. It
can be substituted by connective phrases (then, so, in the present manual, later on)
thus helping the scientist to arrange his ideas clearly and precisely.
In a literary text NOW functions as the time-adverbial (modifier), creating the
time-background of narration, indicating the present moment, period, stating
clearly the time of the action going on. The adverb THEN is frequently employed
to show the sequence of events.
NOW in E. Hemingway's novel "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and THEN in E.
Hemingway's short story "In Another Country" are regarded as key words
organizing the complex combination and interrelation of the past, present and
future events in the lives of the protagonists.
Adverbs NOW, BEFORE, AFTER are made conspicuous in American press when
reference is made to the events of 9/11 (September 11, 2001). They help to
underline the depth of national tragedy.
The stylistic power of adverbs is also connected with various transpositions:
Adverb of location EVERYWHERE can be transposed into the class of nouns and
serve as the poetic equivalent of the author's overwhelming feeling of sadness and
dejection:
The stupid heart that will not learn
The everywhere of grief (G. Baker).
Demonstrative pronouns THIS / THAT are frequently transposed into adverbs in
informal communication in order to intensify the degree of some quality expressed
by an adjective: Is it that funny? (= so, very); Don't be that silly!
Adjectives can be used as intensifiers — instead of adverbs modifying the
following adjectives. In conversational informal English such use conveys
spontaneity: real nice (= really nice); He was dead drunk (= absolutely drunk); He
is pretty tall (= quite tall).
Some adjectives and adverbs are used interchangeably without involving a
difference in meaning, but the adjective form tends to be more informal, e.g.: He
drove slow/slowly for the next mile; She buys her clothes cheap/ cheaply.
Time adverbial JUST in spoken English is used in requests to make them sound
more polite, less direct: Could I just borrow your pen for a second? Can I just ask
you something?
Adverb ABSOLUTELY is transposed into the class of interjections and jS used
instead of the yes-answer to yes-no questions: — Did you like the performance? —
Absolutely.
8. how are numerals used in the stylistic function?
Numerals are used in the stylistic function for various purposes. They can add a
sense of precision to writing, particularly in technical or scientific contexts. For
instance, using specific numerals to communicate exact measurements or
quantities can convey a sense of accuracy and authority. Additionally, numerals
can create emphasis or contrast in a sentence by providing a visual break from
written text. In creative writing, numerals can be used to evoke a specific mood or
tone, especially when referencing specific dates or times, adding a sense of realism
or immediacy to the writing. Overall, numerals can serve a stylistic function by
shaping the tone, precision, and emphasis of a piece of writing.
 Practice

2. Find out the cases of phraseological stylistic devices (except the

decomposition of set phrases) given in the sentences below.

1. And the reviews, shocking. I saw one that said, "This is the worst thing to
happen to cats since dogs."(Quotation) (R. Gervais, https://www.hollywood-
reporter.com/news/general-news/.. 2020-opening-monologue- 1266516/)
2. I'm glad you finally got here, even though your car had a flat tire on the way.
All's well that ends well.(Saying) (A. Yadav, https://lemongrad.com)
3. The kindergarteners were frightened of the new principal who reminded them of
Cruella De Ville. (Allusion) (https://www.dentonisd.org)
4. Gatsby is not to be regarded as a personal failure. "Gatsby turned out all right at
the end" (2), according to Nick. (Quotation)
(https://writing.wisc.edu/ handbook/assignments/quoliterature/)
5. There are no gains without pains. Epigram (B. Franklin, https://byjus.com)
6. I'm attending graduate school at 35, but I guess it's better late than never. (A.
Yadav, https://lemongrad.com) (Saying)
7. Although the earthquake did a great deal of damage, it was nothing like the
disaster of 9/11. (Allusion) (https://www.dentonisd.org)
8. The Child is father of the Man. (W. Wordsworth, https://byjus.com) (Epigram)
9. His Goliath frame seemed to dwarf the other football players. (Allusion)
(https:// www.dentonisd.org)
10. He snarled over his shoulder as he left, "I'll be back!". (https://www.
yumpu.com) (Epigram)
11. I haven't spoken to my college friend in years, and now I don't even like to
make the call. I guess I've moved on. Long absent, soon forgotten (A.
Yadav, https://lemongrad.com(Proverb)
12. Vera decided to forgive her brother and extended an olive branch to him.
(https://www.mathworksheets4kids.com.com) (Allusion)
13. I think you should just explain what happened, rather than trying to cover your
tracks. Honesty is the best policy, after all. (A. Yadav, https:// lemongrad.com)
14. In the midst of discussing the fate of the Abame tribe, Uchendu presents his
own theory: "There is no story that is not true" (141). (Quotation)
(https:// writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/quoliterature/
15. The best thing to hold onto in life is each other. (A. Hepburn,
https:// byjus.com) (Epigram)
16. Walking through Geraldine's house, Pecola "wanted to see everything slowly,
slowly" in order to fully appreciate its comparative order and opulence (Morrison
89). (https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/ quoliterature/)(Quotation)
17. My daughter has been working in Australia for nearly five years now.
At first, I used to get worried when I didn't hear from her, but now I know that no
news is good news. (A. Yadav, https://lemongrad.com) (Proverb)
18. The speech opened up a Pandora's box of problems. (https://www.
mathworksheets4kids.com) (Allusion)
19. "Our baby was a boy," (Quotation) Shukumar tells his wife in the conclusion
of Lahiri's "A Temporary Matter" (22). This admission is a death knell, tolling the
end of their failing marriage.
(https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/ assignments/quoliterature/)(Allusion)
20. Live simply, so that others may simply live. (Mother Teresa, https://
byjus.com) (Epigram)
21. The digging work was a Herculean task for the construction team
(https://www.mathworksheets4kids.com). (Allusion)
22. More startups have two cofounders than one. That's because they very well
understand that two heads are better than one. (Proverb) (A. Yadav,
https:// lemongrad.com)
23. Within Othello, Cassio represents not only a political but also a personal threat
to lago: "He hath a daily beauty in his life / That makes me ugly...". (5.1.19-20)
(Quotation) (https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/ quoliterature/)
24. Tourism is the golden goose for many countries. (Allusion)
(https://www.mathworksheets4kids.com)
25. Satan's motion is many things; he "strides" through the air (55), arrives like a
"rattling" cloud (56), and later explodes - "wandering," "hovering and blazing" like
a fire (270). (Quotation)
(https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/ assignments/quoliterature/)(Quotation)
26. Experience is the name everyone gives to their mistakes. (O. Wilde,
https://byjus.com) (Epigram)
27. She may not talk much, but she is one of the smartest persons in the
organization. Still water runs deep. (A. Yadav, https://lemongrad.com)
28. Chocolate and fried chicken are Liam's kryptonite. (Allusion)
(https://www.mathworksheets4kids.com)
29. For Nick, who remarks that Gatsby "turned out all right" (2), the hero deserves
respect but perhaps does not inspire great admiration. (Quotation)
(https:// writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/quoliterature/)
30. X: I've built a strong vocabulary by learning a word a day for the last three
years. // Y: Mine has been much less, even though I've had days when I polished
off ten words. I guess slow and steady wins the race. .(Saying) (A.
Yadav, https://lemongrad.com)

3. Find out the cases of various parts of speech transpositions given in the
sentences below. Name the part of speech, whose function is transposed from
a grammatical into a stylistic one. Explain the transposition in each case.

1. Garry was the deadest (adj., superlative degree) men ever present in that
ambitious society.
2. The stupid heart that will not learn // The everywhere (adverb, to emphasize the
ubiquity of grief rather than to modify a verb or adjective directly) of grief.
3. Jack was robbed by a Smith. (using indefinite article with a proper name)
4. I do not claim to be a Caruso. (using indefinite article with a proper name)
5. Pete told me about Lisa. They did (verb, intensifying function) have an affair.
6. Oh, that's Joe Pesci, sorry. I love you (noun, to show camaraderie or familiarity
with Joe Pesci) man.
7. Mike has the makings of a Byron. (using indefinite article with a proper name)
8. It seems to me that for the last 100 years (numerals, to emphasize the long
duration of time spent in bed) I have lain in this bed either listening to their rotten
noises or waiting for them to come.
9. The stars are as numberless (adj., adding suf. –less, to create a poetic
comparison) as the sands on a beach.
10. Do remember (intensifying function) that even if you don't win today, the fact
that you are helping make your school such a supportive and friendly place is so
important.
11. You are not the John (Definite article to show that the person is different)
whom I married.
12. If he is seeing (verb, to suggest a deeper level of understanding or perception
rather than just physical sight) me, he is not pleased with me.
13. The pistol snapped its penultimate shot and ripped a valuable Sidney Cooper.
(noun)
14. Could I just (adverb) borrow your pen for a second (indefinite article, are used
stylistically to soften the request)?
15. So, if you do win (verb) an award tonight, don't use it as a platform to make a
political speech.