Lecture 1: Part A : Introduction to Transport Phenomena

Part B : Vector and Tensor Representation

Part A : Introduction to Transport Phenomena
→ Transport Phenomena is the subject which deals with the laws of
transport and associated rational discussion.
→ Transport process are basically categorized into three types:
1. Momentum Transport
2. Energy Transport
3. Mass Transport
→ In a nutshell, this subject presents three basic areas such as fluid flow,
heat transfer and diffusion.
→ Three different types of physical quantities are used in Transport
Phenomena:
• Scalars (e.g. Temperature, Pressure and Concentration)
• Vectors (e.g. Velocity, Momentum and Force)
• Second-order Tensor (e.g. Stress, Momentum Flux and Velocity
Gradient)
→ Summary of Transport Types and Corresponding Laws
Type of Transport What is transferred? Corresponding Laws
Momentum Transport Kinetic Energy Newton’s Laws of
(It is energy associated Motion
with mass when the
mass
is in motion.)
Heat Transport Thermal Energy Fourier’s Law
(It represents the
energy of a system,
which is
liable for its
temperature.)
Mass Transport Chemical Species Fick's Law
Concept of Thermodynamic Systems
❑Open system can exchange matter and energy

❑Closed system can exchange energy but not matter

❑Isolated system can not exchange either matter or energy

Part B : Vector and Tensor Representation

In Transport Phenomena, quantities are represented by scalars, vectors
and tensors. Physical entities such as position, velocity, momentum, stress,
temperature, heat flux, concentration, and mass flux in transport problems -
there is a need to describe them in mathematical terms and manipulate the
representations in various ways.
The mathematical backbone of the "transport phenomena" revolves around
two basic thoughts ;
❖ The rate of change of a physical quantity / entity stuff is proportional to a
specific driving force (means certain physical entity variation depends on
certain corresponding driving force).
❖ Conservation laws of mass and energy.
❑ Scalars
An physical entity such as temperature or concentration that has a
magnitude (and some units that need not concern us right now), but no
sense of direction, is represented by a scalar.
❑ Vectors
In contrast, consider the velocity of a particle or element of fluid; to describe
it fully, we need to specify both its magnitude ( in some suitable units) and
its instantaneous spatial direction. Other examples are momentum, heat
flux, and mass flux. These quantities are described by vectors.

❑Scalar Fields
In reality temperature, velocity, and concentration in a fluid vary from point
to point (and often with time). Thus, we think of fields - temperature field,
velocity field, etc.
❑Vector Fields
In the case of a vector field such as the velocity in a fluid, we need to
represent the velocity at every point in space in the domain of interest. The
advantage of the rectangular Cartesian basis set is that it is invariant as we
translate the triad to any point in space. That is, not only are these base
vectors of unit length, but they never change direction as we move from
one point to another, once we have chosen our x, y, and z directions.
 Scalar Fields Vector Fields

❑ Tensors (Second Order Tensor )

A Tensor must be independent of the adopted coordinate system.
Generally, for the convenient purpose, we need to represent a tensor in a
specific co-ordinate system, hence, we have the concept of tensor
components,
• Tensor → independent of the coordinate system
• Tensor Components → Tensor representation in coordinate system
Properties as Tensors:
Physical properties are measured by the interaction of the material with a
perturbing driving force, i.e., a cause. Some physical (thermodynamic)
response (effect) can then be measured, and the property defined by the
relationship between driving force and response (cause and effect).
Lecture 2: Part A : Concept of Continuum

Part B : Noether’s Theorem and Conservation Laws

Part A : Concept of Continuum
The quantitative Interpretation of a chemical formula

Each container of above contains specific amounts of chemicals in terms of

mass units or moles.
Q) Is absolute smoothness of matter possible ?
No, It is an illusion. Then, explain why?
We know the material world is comprised of atoms and molecules which
are discrete.
Whether a given number of molecules is large enough to warrant the use of
a smooth continuum description of matter depends on the desired
precision. Since matter is never continuous at sufficiently high precision,
continuum physics is always an approximation. But as long as the
fluctuations in physical quantities caused by the discreteness of matter are
smaller than the desired precision, matter may be taken to be continuous.

Molecular Domain and Continuum Domain

The large difference in scales quarantine theories of macroscopic events
from the atomic or molecular domain.
The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous
description of matter where the properties of the matter are considered as
continuous functions of space variables.
Although, any matter is composed of several molecules, the concept of
continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter or
system with no empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of
separate molecules.
Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to assume that
flow variables (pressure , velocity etc.) and fluid properties vary
continuously from one point to another. Mathematical description of flow on
this basis have proved to be reliable and treatment of fluid medium as a
continuum has firmly become established. For example, density ( ρ) at a
point is normally defined as

If Δv is very large, ρ is affected by the inhomogeneities in the fluid medium.

Considering another extreme if is Δv very small, random movement of
atoms (or molecules) would change their number at different times. In the
continuum approximation point density is defined at the smallest magnitude
of Δvc, before statistical fluctuations become significant. This is called
continuum limit and is denoted by

Molecular Density
→ One of the factors considered important in determining the validity of
continuum model is molecular density.
→ It is the distance between the molecules which is characterised by mean
free path ( λ ). It is calculated by finding statistical average distance the
molecules travel between two successive collisions.
→ If the mean free path is very small as compared with some characteristic
length in the flow domain (i.e., the molecular density is very high) then the
gas can be treated as a continuous medium. If the mean free path is large
in comparison to some characteristic length, the gas cannot be considered
continuous and it should be analysed by the molecular theory.
Knudsen number
→ A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen number,
Kn = λ / L,
Where, λ is the mean free path
and L is the characteristic length.
→ It describes the degree of departure from continuum. Usually when K n>
0.01, the concept of continuum does not hold good.
Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the flows are known as slip
flow (0.01 < Kn < 0.1), transition flow (0.1 < Kn < 10) and free-molecule
flow (Kn > 10).
→ However, for the flow regimes considered in this course ,Kn is always
less than 0.01 and it is usual to say that the fluid is a continuum. Other
factor which checks the validity of continuum is the elapsed time between
collisions. The time should be small enough so that the random statistical
description of molecular activity holds good.
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity,
thermal conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as
continuous functions of space and time.
Important Points about Knudsen Number:-
❑The Knudsen number is an important dimensionless quantity which
allows characterizing the boundary conditions of a fluid flow.
❑It gives a numerical account of whether or not the continuum hypothesis
can be applied.
❑Remember that the mean free path is the length that a molecule can
travel before encountering a collision event with a second molecule.
❑One thing to keep in mind is that for gases, the compressibility must be
considered. If the pressure is increased, the average mean free path is
decreased and thus, the Knudsen number reduces. As liquids are
incompressible, the mean free path can be considered a constant.

Part B : Noether’s Theorem and Conservation Laws

Steven Weinberg has written “it is increasingly clear that the symmetry
group of nature is the deepest thing we understand about the world today.”
Lee Smolin said “The connection between symmetries and conservation
laws is one of the great discoveries of twentieth century physics . But I think
very few non-experts will have heard either of it or its maker — Emmy
Noether, a great German mathematician. But it is as essential to twentieth
century physics as famous ideas like the impossibility of exceeding the
speed of light.”
What is Symmetry?
In classical physics, the transformations are thought of as applying to a
mechanical system — for example, physically shifting it, or rotating it, or
imagining reflecting it in a mirror — or else to generalized coordinates or
other observables and/or parameters describing the configuration and/or
behaviour of the system. The symmetry manifests as the invariance of
certain properties of the system or its dynamical evolution, and/or of certain
observable quantities associated with the system.
Noether's theorem or Noether's first theorem states that
every differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a
corresponding conservation law.
In regard to Newtonian Mechanics, we are reminded that some quantities
(energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum) are conserved.
- That is , they remain constant if no external influence acts on a system.

Lecture 3:- Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by
applying dimensional homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant
variables.
Primary dimensions : Mass, Length, Time, Temperature and Charge.
Dimension is basically a measure of a physical quantity. There are different
ways of presenting in dimension systems
❑MLT system: Mass (M), Length (L), Time (T)

❑FLT system: Force (F), Length (L), Time (T)

The systematic procedure of identifying the variables in a physical
phenomena and correlating them to form a set of dimensionless group is
known as dimensional analysis.
 • Dimensional Homogeneity
Every term in an equation when reduced to the fundamental
dimensions(MLT or FLT) must contain identical powers of each dimension.
• Dimensionless Numbers
Quantities that do not have dimensions Like 2,θ
• Non-dimensionalization
Removal of units from physical quantities by suitable substitution of
variables.
Benefits of non-dimensionalization
The reduction of parameter count is potentially a huge simplification.
Consider an exhaustive lift-measurement experiment where the effect of all
parameters is to be determined.
Let’s assume that in this experiment we need to give each parameter 5
distinct values in order to adequately ascertain its effect on the lift. If we
work with the 6 dimensional parameters in statement (1), then the number
of possible parameter combinations and experimental runs required is 56 =
15625 (!). But if we work with the 3 dimensionless parameters in statement
(2), the number of parameter combinations and experimental runs is only
53 = 125, which is more than a hundredfold reduction in effort.
Nondimensionalization is clearly a powerful technique for minimizing
experimental effort. The benefits of non-dimensionalization also extend to
theoretical work. Deducing a statement such as (2) at the outset can be
useful to guide subsequent detailed analysis. Theoretical results are also
usually more concise and clear when presented in dimensionless form.
Lecture 4: Eulerian and Lagrangian View
The classical fluid mechanics use the notion of fluid continuum to describe
fluids:
❑Every volume element is macroscopically small but microscopically large
that contains a lot of molecules.
❑In the idealization, we neglect the molecular structures and then a
‘particle’ is a point in real Space. (A ‘particle’ is really a fluid parcel that
contains a significant number of molecules)
Two ways to observe fluid flow:
There are two quite different ways to accomplish this, either by tracking
specific, identifiable fluid material volumes that are carried about with the
flow, the Lagrangian method, or by observing the fluid velocity at locations
that are fixed in space, the Eulerian method.

Lagrangian observation method

The most natural way to observe a fluid flow is to observe the trajectories of
discrete material volumes or parcels (Lagrangian observation method).
For the purpose of a continuum theory we will need a scheme that can
serve to tag and identify parcels throughout a domain and at arbitrarily fine
spatial resolution. One possibility is to use the position of the parcels at
some specified time, say the initial time, t = 0; denote the initial position by
A, with Cartesian components.
We somewhat assume that we can determine the position of parcels at all
later times, t , to form the parcel trajectory, also called the path line, The
trajectory of specific fluids parcels is a dependent variable in a Lagrangian
description (along with pressure and density) and the initial position A and
time, t , are the independent variables.

Lagrangian’ velocity
The velocity of a parcel, often termed the ‘Lagrangian’ velocity, VL, is just
the time rate change of the parcel position holding A fixed, where this time
derivative will be denoted by

When this derivative is applied to a Lagrangian variable that depends upon

A and t, say the parcel position, it is simply a partial derivative with respect
to time,
 where VL is the Lagrangian velocity. If instead of a fluid continuum we
were dealing with a finite collection of solid particles or floats, we could
represent the particle identity by a subscript appended to and the time
derivative would then be an ordinary time derivative since there would be
no independent variable A. Aside from this, the Lagrangian velocity of a
fluid parcel is exactly the same thing as the velocity of a (solid) particle
familiar from classical dynamics.

Eulerian velocity
If tracking fluid parcels is impractical, perhaps because the fluid is opaque,
then we might choose to observe the fluid velocity by means of current
meters that we could implant at fixed positions, x. The essential component
of every current meter is a transducer that converts fluid motion into a
readily measured signal - e.g., the rotary motion of a propeller or the
Doppler shift of a sound pulse. But regardless of the mechanical details,
the velocity sampled in this way, termed the ‘Eulerian’ velocity, VE, is
intended to be the velocity of the fluid parcel that is present,
instantaneously, within the fixed, control volume sampled by the
transducer. Thus the Eulerian velocity is defined by what is here dubbed
the Fundamental Principle of Kinematics.

where x is fixed and the A on the left and right sides are the same initial
position. In other words, the fluid velocity at a fixed position, the x on the
left side, is the velocity of the fluid parcel that happens to be at that position
at that instant in time. The velocity VE is a dependent variable in an
Eulerian description, along with pressure and density, and the position, x,
and time, t , are the independent variables; compare this with the
corresponding Lagrangian description noted just above.

In the Lagrangian representation we presume to know the starting position,

A, the independent variable, and treat the subsequent position as the
dependent variable— in the Eulerian representation we take the fixed
position, ξ as the independent variable (the usual spatial coordinate) and
ask what was the initial position of the parcel now present at this position,
i.e., A is treated as the dependent variable. In the study of fluid mechanics
it seldom makes sense to think of parcel initial position as an observable in
an Eulerian system (in the way that it does make sense in the study of
elasticity of solid continuum dynamics).

Transforming a Lagrangian velocity into an Eulerian velocity:

Given that parcel trajectories , we can write the left hand side as a
composite function, whose dependent variables are the arguments of the
inner function, i.e., x and t . If we want to write this as a function of the inner
arguments alone, then we should give this function a new name, VE for
Eulerian velocity is appropriate since this will be velocity as a function of
the spatial coordinate x, and t .
Lecture 5 : Laminar Flows and Viscosity
Laminar Flow: Every fluid elements followed a straight path that was
parallel to the boundaries of the tube. The significance seems to be the
sliding of laminations of infinitesimal thickness relative to adjacent layers,
and that the hypothetical particles in the layers move in predictable paths or
streamlines, as depicted in figure below;

Laminar Flow of Fluid Between Parallel Plates

Newton Law of Viscosity

At steady state, for plates of area A, and laminar flow, the force is
expressed by
F/A = η V/Y
where Y = distance between plates and η = constant of proportionality.
Viscosity is a property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion.
The force system as described is pure shear, and the force per unit area
(F/A) is the shear stress. At steady state, when the velocity profile is linear,
V/Y exactly equals the constant velocity gradient dvx/dy and the shear
stress Tyx between any two thin layers of fluid may be expressed as

Units of Viscosity
This empirical relationship is known as Newton's law of viscosity, and
defines the constant of proportionality, η, as the viscosity. The dimensions
of viscosity are found by referring to above Eq.

In keeping with the trend to using SI units, the units used in examples will
be Sl. However, since data are still available in cgs units and English units,
the ability to convert back and forth between systems remains important,
and some data will also be presented in units other than Sl. Accordingly,
the English system yields the following units for η :
In many problems involving viscosity, it is useful to have a value of a fluid's
viscosity divided by its density ρ. Hence we defines kinematic viscosity v at
this point as

The kinematic viscosity is a fundamental quantity, in that it is a measure of

momentum diffusivity, analogous to thermal and mass diffusivities.
In SI units, the kinematic viscosity is measured in m 2 s-1, while in the cgs
system the units are commonly cm2 s-1, sometimes called the stoke.

VISCOSITY OF GASES
For the purpose of explaining momentum transport in gases, we resort to
the simplest treatment of the kinetic theory of gases. We utilize the concept
of the mean free path, in which the molecules are idealized as billiard balls,
and postulate a hypothetical "ideal" gas possessing the following features:
1. The molecules are hard spheres resembling billiard balls, having
diameter d and mass m.
2. The molecules exert no force on one another except when they collide.
3. The collisions are perfectly elastic and obey the classical laws of
conservation of momentum and energy.
4. The molecules are uniformly distributed in a concentration of n per unit
volume throughout the gas. They are in a state of continuous motion and
are separated by distances which are large compared to their diameter.
5. All directions of molecular velocities are equally probable. The speed
(magnitude of velocity) of a molecule can have any value between zero and
infinity.
Lennard-Jones Potential Function Describing the Interaction of Two
Nonpolar Molecules:

The viscosities of liquid metals and their dependence on temperature

Viscosity of Molten Slags
In general, slags consist of cations and anions resulting from ionization of
basic and acidic constituents in molten oxide solution. We may consider an
acidic component to be an oxide which, when dissolved in the slag,
acquires additional oxygen ions to form a complex anion, while a basic
oxide contributes an oxygen ion to the melt; the cation then remains
dissociated from any other ions, and moves about freely. The most
common acidic component is SiO2, and Al2O3 behaves in a similar manner.
Starting with pure Si~, in which the bonding is both strong and highly
directional, and in which viscous flow occurs only by breaking bonds, let us
examine what happens if we add a basic oxide, such as CaO, to it.
Silicate tetrahedron and the structure of silica
The solution of a divalent metal oxide in molten silica

Structural relationships in basic oxide-silicate melts

Lecture 6: Control Volume, Momentum Balance, and
Equation of Continuity
Control Volumes
In developing the equations of fluid dynamics following firmly established
and time-tested physical laws are important :
❑ Conservation of Mass

❑ Conservation of Momentum

❑ Conservation of Energy
Because we are not dealing with isolated point masses, but rather a
continuous deformable medium, we will require new conceptual and
mathematical techniques to apply these laws correctly. One concept is the
control volume, which can be either finite or infinitesimal.
Two types of control volumes can be employed:
1) Volume is fixed in space (Eulerian type). Fluid can freely pass through
the volume’s boundary.
2) Volume is attached to the fluid (Lagrangian type). Volume is freely
carried along with the fluid, and no fluid passes through its boundary. This
is essentially the same as the free-body concept employed in solid
mechanics.
Momentum Balance
A momentum balance is applied to a small control volume of fluid to
develop a differential equation. The differential equations, when their
solutions comply with the physical restrictions (boundary conditions), yield
the algebraic relationships which can be used to determine the engineering
characteristics of the system. The solutions give the velocity distributions
from which other characteristics, including the shear stress at the fluid-solid
interface, are developed.

The momentum balance is actually a force balance because we are

concerned with the rate of momentum that enters and leaves the unit
volume. Units of momentum are MLT-1 (M = mass, L = length, T = time),
whereas a rate of momentum is MLT-2. Classical physics states clearly that
forces (F = ma) are involved when we consider momentum rates.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

Consider the flow of fluid between parallel plates in the Fig. The velocity at
the entrance is uniform and, as the flow progresses, velocity gradients must
form because the fluid clings to the wall. At some distance downstream
from the entrance, the velocity profile becomes independent of the distance
from the entrance, and the flow is then fully developed. Let this region of
fully developed flow start at x = 0 and consider the unit volume in Fig. with
a thickness oily, width W, and length L.
Incompressibility
There is one big difference between liquids and gases. The density of a
gas is easy to change. However, fluids are usually incompressible.
Incompressibility means that the density of a fluid is independent of the
pressure. This is not perfectly true: fluids do contract and expand a little,
but not much at all: this expansion and contraction can easily be neglected.
We’ve already used fluid incompressibility. For example, the formula for
how the pressure depends on the depth of the fluid assumed that the
density remained constant, even though the pressure increases. Pascal’s
Principle also depends on it. Pascal’s principle says that if you push at one
end of the fluid, the pressure increases everywhere. If the fluid were
compressible, what would just happen is that part of the fluid would
become more dense. This is what happens to a solid. A gas, on the other
hand, will compress uniformly.

Equation of Continuity
In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation states that the rate at which mass
enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system plus
the accumulation of mass within the system.
Lecture 7: Stress – Strain-rate Curves of Time Independent
Fluid
Non-Newtonian Fluids
According to Newton's Jaw of viscosity the shear stress plotted versus the
velocity gradient, should yield a straight line running through the origin.
Experimentally, this has been proved true for all gases and for all single-
phase nonpolymeric liquids. Fluids that behave in this manner-and most
fluids do--are termed Newtonian fluids.
However, that law does not describe the behavior of a large number of
fluids which are called non-Newtonian fluids and include substances such
as molten plastics, slurries, and certain slags.
Examples of substances exhibiting non-Newtonian Fluid Behaviour
Stress-strain Rate Curves for Time-independent Fluids

Bingham Plastics
The fluids classified as Bingham plastics require a finite shear stress (yield
stress) to initiate flow. In other words, the fluid remains rigid when the shear
stress is less than yield stress, but flows when the shear stress exceeds
that. An example of a fluid exhibiting Bingham plastic behavior is an
aqueous slurry of fine, powdered coal.
Viscoelastic Fluids
Viscoelastic fluids are fluids which exhibit elastic recovery from
deformation, that is, they recoil. Viscoelastic fluids are a type of non-
Newtonian fluid formed by a viscous component and an elastic one. For
short, viscoelastic fluids are the blend of a solvent and some polymer.
Examples of these are paints, DNA suspensions, some biological fluids and
others from the chemical industry.

Recoil effect in a viscoelastic fluid. Fluid on the left is a GNP; that on the
right is a viscoelastic fluid.
Different conditions create different types of time-dependent fluid
behaviour. For example,
Thixotropic Fluids have a structure that breaks down with time under
shear. At a constant shear-strain rate, the viscosity decreases with time
and approaches an asymptotic value. Under steady-state flow conditions,
when the asymptotic value is maintained, thixotropic.
Rheopectic Fluids, in which viscosity increases with time, behave again
quite differently from thixotropic fluids.

Viscosity of A Polymer
The viscosity of a particular polymer as a function of degree of
polymerization (N), temperature (D) and strain rate.
Shear-Thickening or Dilatant Behaviour
This class of fluids is similar to pseudoplastic systems in that they show no
yield stress, but their apparent viscosity increases with the increasing shear
rate and hence the name shear-thickening. Originally this type of behavior
was observed in concentrated suspensions, and one can qualitatively
explain it as follows: At rest, the voidage of the suspension is minimum and
the liquid present in the sample is sufficient to fill the voids completely. At
low shearing levels, the liquid lubricates the motion of each particle past
another thereby minimizing solid-solid friction.
Consequently, the resulting stresses are small. At high shear rates,
however, the mixture expands (dilates) slightly (similar to that seen in sand
dunes) so that the available liquid is no longer sufficient to fill the increased
void space and to prevent direct solid-solid contacts (and friction). This
leads to the development of much larger shear stresses than that seen in a
pre-dilated sample at low shear rates. This mechanism causes the
apparent viscosity to rise rapidly with the increasing rate of shear.

Elongational Flow
This model flow is also known as extensional or stretching flow. In this type
of flow, a fluid element is stretched in one or more directions, similar to that
encountered in fiber spinning and film blowing. Other examples where this
type of flow occurs include coalescence of bubbles, enhanced oil recovery
using polymer flooding. There are three forms of elongational flows:
uniaxial, biaxial and planar, as shown schematically in below Figure,
Schematic representation of uncoiling of a macromolecule under the
influence of shear

Lecture 8: Momentum Flow and Momentum Equation for

Laminar Flow
The Momentum Equation
To include unsteady-state systems, the momentum balance takes the form:

For simplicity, we begin by considering only the x-component of each term

in the above Eq. The y- and z-components may be handled in the same
manner. Figure (a) shows the x-components of T as if they were made up
of viscous momentum fluxes rather than shear stresses. On the other hand
Fig.(b) shows the x-component of T as stresses. Note the appearance of
Txx which by the scheme of subscripts represents the transport of x-
momentum in the x-direction. Alternatively, we view Txx as the x-directed
normal stress on the x-face, in contrast to Tyx which we view as the x-
directed shear stress on the y-face.

Let us now develop the terms that enter into the above Eq. First, the net
rate at which the x-component of the convective momentum enters the unit
volume, is

Similarly, the net rate of viscous momentum flow into the unit volume
across the six faces is
The rate at which x-momentum enters through they-face is simply the
product of mass-flow rate and velocity:

In most, the forces acting on the system are those arising from the
pressure P and the gravitational force per unit mass g. In the x-direction,
these forces are

respectively. Here gx is the x-component of g. Finally, the rate of

accumulation of x-momentum within the element is

Entering all the eqs. into the momentum balance, dividing through by △x
△y △z and taking the limit as all three approach zero, we obtain the x-
component of the momentum equation:
The y- and z-components, which we obtain in a similar manner, are

and

Pressure is a scalar quantity, but the gradient of pressure is a vector

denoted, in general, by ▽P (sometimes written grad P). Therefore,

and ▽ can be thought to be an operator, such that

For Newtonian fluids, the nine component equation are written as follows.

When the fluid flows between two parallel plates in the x-direction so that vx
is a function of y alone, where they-direction is perpendicular to the plates'
surfaces

which is the same as the simple relationship previously used to describe

Newton's law of viscosity.
Navier-Stokes' equation
The continuity equation for constant density is given by or in vector
notation,
Lecture 9: Fluid Element Trajectories
Fluid Element Trajectories
Three types of fluid element trajectories are defined: Streamlines,
Pathlines, and Streaklines. They are all equivalent for steady flows, but
differ conceptually for unsteady flows.

Streamlines
A streamline is the line drawn so that the velocity vector is always
tangential to it (i.e. no flow across a streamline). Some important
characteristics of streamlines are :
(1)There can be no flow across a streamline.
(2)Streamlines converging in the direction of the flow indicate a fluid
acceleration.
(3)Streamlines do not cross.
(4)In steady flow the pattern of streamlines does not change with time.
(5)Solid stationary boundaries are streamlines provided that separation of
the flow from the boundary does not occur.

Streamtubes

Pathlines
They are the trajectories that individual fluid particles follow. These can
be thought of as "recording" the path of a fluid element in the flow over a
certain period. The direction the path takes will be determined by the
streamlines of the fluid at each moment in time.
Streaklines
Streaklines are the loci of points of all the fluid particles that have passed
continuously through a particular spatial point in the past. Dye steadily
injected into the fluid at a fixed point extends along a streakline.

Timelines
Timelines are the lines formed by a set of fluid particles that were marked
at a previous instant in time, creating a line or a curve that is displaced in
time as the particles move.
Lecture 10: Ordinary Differential Equations and Cross
Integration
First Order Ordinary Differential Equations
❑Separable equations
❑Linear equations

Second Order Equations

•Equations with Constant Coefficients
•Cauchy Equations

System of Coupled Equations

Cross Integration for a Function of Two Variables
Lecture 11: Stream Function and Velocity Potential
Stream Function

How does stream function behave alone a streamline?

Streamline Interpretation

What is the physical meaning of Stream Function?

Mass Flow Interpretation

Continuity Identity
Concept of A Scalar Point Function
Velocity Potential
Lecture 12: Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of Bernoulli Equation → 1-D case
The 1-D momentum equation, which is Newton’s Second Law applied to
fluid flow, is written as follows.

The final result is the one-dimensional Bernoulli Equation, which uniquely

relates velocity and pressure if the simplifying assumptions listed above are
valid. The constant of integration po is called the stagnation pressure, or
equivalently the total pressure, and is typically set by known upstream
conditions.

Derivation of Bernoulli Equation → 2-D case

The 2-D momentum equations are:
Making the same assumptions as before, these simplify to the following.

Before these can be integrated, we must first restrict ourselves only to

flowfield variations along a streamline. Consider an incremental distance ds
along the streamline, with projections dx and dy in the two axis directions.
The speed V likewise has projections u and v.

Along the streamline, we have

We multiply the x-momentum equation by dx, and use the above relation to
replace v dx by u dy, and combine the u-derivative terms into a du
differential.
We multiply the y-momentum equation by dy, and performing a similar
manipulation, we get

Finally, we add both the equations and get as follows:

which integrates into the general Bernoulli equation

where V2 = u2 + v2 is the square of the speed. For the 3-D case the final
result is exactly the same as the above equation , but now the w velocity
component is nonzero, and hence V2 = u2 + v2 + w2.

Irrotational Flow
Because of the assumptions used in the derivations above, in particular the
streamline relation, the Bernoulli Equation relates p and V only along any
given streamline. Different streamlines will in general have different po
constants, so p and V cannot be directly related between streamlines. For
example, the simple shear flow on the left of the figure has parallel flow
with a linear u(y), and a uniform pressure p. Its po distribution is therefore
parabolic as shown. Hence, there is no unique correspondence between
velocity and pressure in such a flow.
Venturi flow
Another common application of the Bernoulli Equation is in a venturi, which
is a flow tube with a minimum cross-sectional area somewhere in the
middle.
Uniform Flow

Zero Divergence
Lecture 13: Turbulent Flow
It is practically impossible for laminar flow to persist in a pipe at values of
Re greater than about 2100. This value of Re is subject to variations in that
laminar flow has been maintained up to values of Re as high as 50 000.
However, in such cases, the flow is extremely unstable, and the least
disturbance transforms it instantly into turbulent flow. Also, the transition Re
is higher in a converging pipe and lower in a diverging pipe than in a
straight pipe, and even depends to some degree on the inside-surface
roughness of the pipe. If we accept 2100 as the normal transition value of
Re for turbulent flow in pipes with normal roughness, we can easily show
that turbulent flow is the usual case.

What is turbulence?
• Unsteady, aperiodic motion in which all three velocity components
fluctuate, mixing matter, momentum, and energy.
• Decompose velocity into mean and fluctuating parts:
Ui(t) = Ui + ui(t).

• Similar fluctuations for pressure, temperature, and species concentration

values.
FRICTION FACTORS FOR FLOW IN TUBES
As an example of a flow system, consider a length of horizontal pipe
between z = 0 and z = L. We presume that in this length of pipe the fluid is
flowing with an average velocity independent of time, and that the flow is
fully developed. For flow in such a system, we may write the kinetic force of
the fluid on the inner wall as
Equation (3.3) focuses our attention on what should be considered if we
ask the following question: What pressure drop is necessary to deliver a
given volume of fluid through a tube?
Thus we learn from Eq. (3.3) that FK must be determined; for laminar flow,
this can be calculated because the velocity distribution is amenable to
analysis, and pressure drops can be determined a priori. For turbulent flow,
the uncertainties involved in parallel analysis have led engineers to take an
experimental approach to the problem.
In turbulent flow we may think that the flow pattern starts with a laminar
boundary layer, in which the flow can be described by Newton's law of
viscosity, followed by a transition region in which the degree of turbulence
steadily increases and laminar effects diminish, until finally the region of
fully developed turbulence is reached. These regions are illustrated in Fig.
3.1. In turbulent flow, therefore, the fluid still clings to the solid wall. Thus
Eq. (3.1) is applicable, but, in general, the value of To is not determined by
analytical means. More often we employ an empirical technique and
express the force FK as the product of a characteristic area A, a
characteristic kinetic energy K (per unit volume), and a dimensionless
quantity f, known as the friction factor:
Dimensional analysis for friction factor
Now we resort to dimensional analysis which is a method of deducing
logical groupings of the variables involved in a process. One of these
methods, called the similarity technique, is applied to systems which are
geometrically similar. For example, in two circular tubes, all comparable
lengths have identical ratios. Thus we write
Turbulent and Complex Flows
In a thin annulus in which the spacing z is very much less than the width,
laminar flow has a parabolic distribution perpendicular to the walls. This
situation closely approximates flow between parallel flat plates, and we can
show the friction factor to be
We again see that the friction factor is a function only of a Reynolds
number. These results hold so long as the boundary layer itself remains
laminar. However, at a value of Re infinity between 300 000 and 500 000
the layer becomes turbulent, increasing significantly in thickness, and
displaying a marked change in velocity distribution. We depict this transition
in Fig. 3.4 which shows a much steeper gradient near the wall and flatter
gradient throughout the remainder of the boundary layer for the turbulent
zone. As a result, the shear stress at the wall is greater in the turbulent
layer than in the laminar layer.

With a plate oriented perpendicularly to flow, the separation always occurs

at the same point, and the wake extends across the full projected width of
the body, as shown in Fig. 3.6; this results in almost all form drag
comprising the drag force. If the body has curved sides, the location of the
separation point is determined according to whether the leading boundary
layer is laminar or turbulent, as depicted in Fig. 3.7. In turn, this location
determines the size of the wake and the amount of the form drag.
Kolmogorov’s hypothesis of local isotropy
• For homogenous turbulence, the turbulent kinetic energy k is the same
everywhere. For isotropic turbulence the eddies also behave the same in
all directions:

• Kolmogorov argued that the directional biases of the large scales are lost
in the chaotic scale-reduction process as energy is transferred to
successively smaller eddies.
• Hence Kolmogorov’s hypothesis of local isotropy states that at sufficiently
high Reynolds numbers, the small-scale turbulent motions (l << l0) are
statistically isotropic.
• Here, the term local isotropy means isotropy at small scales. Large scale
turbulence may still be anisotropic.
• lEI is the length scale that forms the demarcation between the large scale
anisotropic eddies (l>lEI) and the small scale isotropic eddies (l<lEI). For
many high Reynolds number flows lEI can be estimated as lEI ~ l0/6.

Kolmogorov’s first similarity hypothesis

• Kolmogorov also argued that not only does the directional information get
lost as the energy passes down the cascade, but that all information about
the geometry of the eddies gets lost also.
• As a result, the statistics of the small-scale motions are universal: they are
similar in every high Reynolds number turbulent flow, independent of the
mean flow field and the boundary conditions.
• These small scale eddies depend on the rate TEI at which they receive
energy from the larger scales (which is approximately equal to the
dissipation rate ε) and the viscous dissipation, which is related to the
kinematic viscosity v.
• Kolmogorov’s first similarity hypothesis states that in every turbulent flow
at sufficiently high Reynolds number, the statistics of the small scale
motions (l<lEI) have a universal form that is uniquely determined by ε and v.
Lecture 14 : Heat Transfer Mode → Conduction
Heat Transfer Modes
Heat transfer processes are classified into three types.
The first is conduction, which is defined as transfer of heat occurring
through intervening matter without bulk motion of the matter. Figure 1.1
shows the process pictorially. A solid (a block of metal, say) has one
surface at a high temperature and one at a lower temperature. This type of
heat conduction can occur, for example, through a turbine blade in a jet
engine. The outside surface, which is exposed to gases from the
combustor, is at a higher temperature than the inside surface, which has
cooling air next to it. The level of the wall temperature is critical for a turbine
blade.

The second heat transfer process is convection, or heat transfer due to a

flowing fluid. The fluid can be a gas or a liquid; both have applications in
aerospace technology. In convection heat transfer, the heat is moved
through bulk transfer of a non-uniform temperature fluid.
The third process is radiation or transmission of energy through space
without the necessary presence of matter. Radiation is the only method for
heat transfer in space. Radiation can be important even in situations in
which there is an intervening medium; a familiar example is the heat
transfer from a glowing piece of metal or from a fire.
Conduction Heat Transfer
Considering heat flow along a "bar" between two heat reservoirs at TA, TB
as shown in Figure 2.1. It is plausible that the heat transfer rate Q(.) & , is a
function of the temperature of the two reservoirs, the bar geometry and the
bar properties. This can be expressed as

It also seems reasonable to postulate that Q& should depend on the

temperature difference TA - TB. If TA – TB is zero, then the heat transfer
should also be zero. The temperature dependence can therefore be
expressed as

An argument for the general form of f2 can be made from physical

considerations. One requirement, as said, is f2 = 0 if TA = TB. Using a
MacLaurin series expansion, as follows:
We know that f2(0) = 0 . The derivative evaluated at TA = TB (thermal
equilibrium) is a measurable property of the bar. In addition, we know that

It also seems reasonable that if we had two bars of the same area, we
would have twice the heat transfer, so that we can postulate that Q(.) & is
proportional to the area. For the bar, the derivative in equation (2.4) has the
form
Example 2.1: Heat transfer through a plane slab
Thermal Resistance Circuits
There is an electrical analogy with conduction heat transfer that can be
exploited in problem solving. The analog of Q& is current, and the analog of
the temperature difference, T1 - T2, is voltage difference. From this
perspective the slab is a pure resistance to heat transfer and we can define

where R = L/kA, the thermal resistance. The thermal resistance R

increases as L increases, as A decreases, and as k decreases.
The concept of a thermal resistance circuit allows ready analysis of
problems such as a composite slab (composite planar heat transfer
surface). In the composite slab shown in Figure 2.5, the heat flux is
constant with x. The resistances are in series and sum to R = R1 + R2. If TL
is the temperature at the left, and TR is the temperature at the right, the
heat transfer rate is given by
Steady Quasi-One-Dimensional Heat Flow in Non-Planar Geometry
The quasi one-dimensional equation that has been developed can also be
applied to non-planar geometries. An important case is a cylindrical shell, a
geometry often encountered in situations where fluids are pumped and
heat is transferred. The configuration is shown in Figure 2.9.

For a steady axisymmetric configuration, the temperature depends only on

a single coordinate (r) and Equation (2.12b) can be written as
Lecture 15: Convective Heat Transfer
The second type of heat transfer to be examined is convection, where a
key problem is determining the boundary conditions at a surface exposed
to a flowing fluid.
To find the turbine wall temperature, we need to analyze convective heat
transfer, which means we need to examine some features of the fluid
motion near a surface. The conditions near a surface are illustrated
schematically in Figure 3.2.
In a region of thickness δ′, there is a thin "film" of slowly moving fluid
through which most of the temperature difference occurs. Outside this
layer, T is roughly uniform (this defines δ′). The heat flux can thus be
expressed as

The difficulty is that the thickness of the layer is not a fluid property. It
depends on velocity (Reynolds number), structure of the wall surface,
pressure gradient and Mach number. Generally δ′ is not known and needs
to be found and it is customary to calculate the heat transfer using [kfluid /
δ′]. This quantity has the symbol h and is known as the convective heat
transfer coefficient. The units of h are W/m2K. The convective heat transfer
coefficient is defined by
The Reynolds Analogy
We describe the physical mechanism for the heat transfer coefficient in a
turbulent boundary layer because most aerospace vehicle applications
have turbulent boundary layers. Very near the wall, the fluid motion is
smooth and laminar, and molecular conduction and shear are important.
The shear stress, τ, at a plane is given by

In a turbulent boundary layer, the dominant mechanisms of shear stress

and heat transfer change in nature as one moves away from the wall.
As one moves away from the wall (but still in the boundary layer), the flow
is turbulent. The fluid particles move in random directions and the transfer
of momentum and energy is mainly through interchange of fluid particles,
shown schematically in Figure 3.4.

With reference to Figure 3.4, because of the turbulent velocity field, a fluid
mass m′ penetrates the plane aa per unit time and unit area. In steady flow,
the same amount crosses aa from the other side. Fluid moving up
transports heat m′ cp T. Fluid moving down transports m′ cp T′ downwards.
If T > T′, there is a turbulent downwards heat flow, q˙t , given by q˙t = m′ cp
T that results.
Fluid moving up also has momentum m′ c and fluid moving down has
momentum m′ c′. The net flux of momentum down per unit area and time is
therefore m′ (c′ - c). This net flux of momentum per unit area and time is a
force per unit area or stress, given by tt = m' (c'-c)
Based on these considerations, the relation between heat flux and shear
stress at plane aa is
Combined Conduction and Convection
We can now analyze problems in which both conduction and convection
occur, starting with a wall cooled by flowing fluid on each side. As
discussed, a description of the convective heat transfer can be given
explicitly as
Lecture 16: Dimensionless Numbers
For the cylinder the heat transfer is as follows:

Temperature Distributions in the Presence of Heat Sources

There are a number of situations in which there are sources of heat in the
domain of interest. Examples are:
1) Electrical heaters where electrical energy is converted resistively into
heat
2) Nuclear power supplies
3) Propellants where chemical energy is the source
These situations can be analyzed by looking at a model problem of a slab
with heat sources α (W/m3) distributed throughout. We take the outside
walls to be at temperature Tw. and we will determine the maximum internal
temperature.
Transient Heat Transfer (Convective Cooling or Heating)
Consider the temperature difference T1 - Tw between two locations in the
object, as shown in Figure 6.1.
If the heat transfer within the body and from the body to the fluid are of the
same magnitude,

where L is a relevant length scale, say half the thickness of the object. The
ratio of the temperature difference is T

The approximation made is to view the object as having a spatially uniform

temperature that is a function of time only. Explicitly, T = T(t). The first law
applied to the object is (using the fact that for solids cp = cv = c)
The time constant,τ, is in accord with our "intuition"; high density, large
volume, or high specific heat all tend to increase the time constant, while
high heat transfer coefficient and large area will tend to decrease the time
constant.

Nusselt Number
The Nusselt number is a dimensionless number, named after a German
engineer Wilhelm Nusselt. The Nusselt number is closely related to Péclet
number and both numbers are used to describe the ratio of the thermal
energy convected to the fluid to the thermal energy conducted within the
fluid. Nusselt number is equal to the dimensionless temperature gradient at
the surface, and it heides a measure of the convection heat transfer
occurring at the surface. The conductive component is measured under the
same conditions as the heat convection but with a stagnant fluid. The
Nusselt number is to the thermal boundary layer what the friction coefficient
is to the velocity boundary layer.
Prandtl Number (Pr):-

Small values of the Prandtl number, Pr << 1, means the thermal diffusivity
dominates. Whereas with large values, Pr>>1, the momentum diffusivity
dominates the behavior. For example, the typical value for liquid mercury,
which is about 0.025, indicates that the heat conduction is more significant
compared to convection, so thermal diffusivity is dominant. When Pr is
small, it means that the heat diffuses quickly compared to the velocity. In
comparison to Reynolds number, the Prandtl number is not dependent on
geometry of an object involved in the problem, but is dependent solely on
the fluid and the fluid state. As such, the Prandtl number is often found in
property tables alongside other properties such as viscosity and thermal
conductivity.

Prandtl Number signifies two things:-

→ The relative thickness of the velocity and thermal boundary layer.
→ How fast the thermal diffusion takes place in comparison to momentum
diffusion.

Problem statement-1
A fluid is heated by passing it through a circular tube (k = 15W/mK) of
diameter Di = 50 mm and Do = 60 mm and length L = 10 m. Outer surface
Do is maintained at 150 degrees. If the Reynolds No. and inlet temperature
are 100000 and 30°, find outlet temperature Tmo and total heat transfer
rate to the tube. Assume μ = 2.5x10 Pa-s, density = 1 kg/m3 ,
Cp = 1000J/kg-K, k = 0.02W/mk, Pr = 0.7. Assume flow to be fully
developed in the pipe.

Lecture 17: Radiation Heat Transfer (Heat transfer by

thermal radiation)
All bodies radiate energy in the form of photons moving in a random
direction, with random phase and frequency. When radiated photons reach
another surface, they may either be absorbed, reflected or transmitted. The
behavior of a surface with radiation incident upon it can be described by the
following quantities:
α = absorptance - fraction of incident radiation absorbed
ρ = reflectance - fraction of incident radiation reflected
τ = transmittance – fraction of incident radiation transmitted

Figure 9.1 shows these processes graphically.

From energy considerations the three coefficients must sum to unity
α+ρ+τ=1 → (9.1)
Reflective energy may be either diffuse or specular (mirror-like). Diffuse
reflections are independent of the incident radiation angle. For specular
reflections, the reflection angle equals the angle of incidence.

Suppose we put a small black body inside the cavity as seen in Figure 9.4.
The cavity and the black body are both at the same temperature.
The radiant energy absorbed by the black body per second and per m 2 is
αΒH, where H is the irradiance, the radiant energy falling on any surface
inside the cavity. The radiant energy emitted by the black body is EB. Since
αB = 1 for a black body, H = EB. The irradiance within a cavity whose walls
are at temperature T is therefore equal to the radiant emittance of a black
body at the same temperature and irradiance is a function of temperature
only.

Kirchhoff's Law and "Real Bodies"

Real bodies radiate less effectively than black bodies. The measurement of
this is the emittance, ε , defined by
Emittance: ε = E/Eb
Where, E = radiation from real body at T
Eb = radiation from black body at T
Values of emittance vary greatly for different materials. They are near unity
for rough surfaces such as ceramics or oxidized metals, and roughly 0.02
for polished metals or silvered reflectors.
Suppose we have a small non-black body in the cavity. The power
absorbed per unit area is equal to αH.
The power emitted is equal to E. An energy balance gives E = Eb ε = α H
=α Eb.. Thus, E/Eb = α = ε →(9.3)

Radiation Heat Transfer Between Planar Surfaces

Consider the two infinite gray surfaces shown in Figure 9.5. We suppose
that the surfaces are thick enough so that, α + ρ = 1 (no radiation
transmitted so transmittance = 0). Consider a photon emitted from Surface
1 (remembering that the reflectance ρ = 1 - α):
Surface 1 emits E1
Surface 2 absorbs E1 α2
Surface 2 reflects E1 (1−α2)
Surface 1 absorbs E1 (1−α2) α1
Surface 1 reflects E1 (1−α2)(1−α1)
Surface 2 absorbs E1 (1−α2)(1−α1)α2
Surface 2 reflects E1 (1−α2)(1−α1)(1−α2)
Surface 1 absorbs E1 (1−α2)(1−α1)(1−α2)α1
We can add up all the energy E1 absorbed in 1 and all the energy E2
absorbed in 2. In doing the bookkeeping, it is helpful to define β = (1−α1)
(1−α2) . The energy E1 absorbed in 1 is
E1 (1−α2)α1 + E1 (1−α2)α1 (1−α2)(1−α1) +.......
This is equal to
E1 (1−α2) α1(1+ β + β2 + .....)
Lecture 18

Introduction to Diffusion : Materials Engineering Perspective

History of Diffusion Concept
❑Joseph Fourier in 1822 modelled how a quantity such as heat diffuses
through a given region.
❑ Adolf Fick in 1855 introduced Fick's laws of diffusion, which govern the
diffusion of a gas across a fluid membrane.
❑Albert Einstein in 1905 related the diffusion constant to physically
measurable quantities, such as the mean squared displacement of a
particle in a given time interval. Einstein analyzed a dynamic equilibrium
being established between opposing forces.

One of the most fundamental processes that governs the rate at which
many transformations of materials and material technological processes
occur is the diffusion.
Diffusion describes the spread of particles (which can also be atoms,
molecules) through random motion usually (but not always) from regions of
higher concentration to regions of lower concentration.
Note :
▪ The time dependence of the statistical distribution in space is given by the
diffusion equation.
▪ The concept of diffusion is tied to that of mass transfer driven by a
concentration gradient, but diffusion can still occur when there is no
concentration gradient (but there will be no net mass flux).
Lecture 19 : Fick Laws of Diffusion
Diffusion in Solids
❑ Mass flow process by which species change their position relative to
their neighbours.
❑ Diffusion is driven by thermal energy and a ‘gradient’ (usually in
chemical potential). Gradients in other physical quantities can also lead to
diffusion (as in the figure below). In this chapter we will essentially restrict
ourselves to concentration gradients.
❑ Usually, concentration gradients imply chemical potential gradients; but
there are exceptions to this rule. Hence, sometimes diffusion occurs ‘uphill’
in concentration gradients, but downhill in chemical potential gradients.
❑ Thermal energy leads to thermal vibrations of atoms, leading to atomic
jumps.
❑ In the absence of a gradient, atoms will still randomly ‘jump about’,
without any net flow of matter.
Important terms
❑ Concentration gradient. Concentration can be designated in many ways
(e.g. moles per unit volume). Concentration gradient is the difference in
concentration between two points (usually close by).
❑ We can use a restricted definition of flux (J) as flow per unit area per unit
time: → mass flow / area / time → [Atoms / m2/ s].
❑ Steady state. The properties at a single point in the system does not
change with time. These properties in the case of fluid flow are pressure,
temperature, velocity and mass flow rate.
▪ In the context of diffusion, steady state usually implies that, c
❑ In diffusion problems, we would typically like to address one of the
following problems. (i) What is the composition profile after a contain time
(i.e. determine c(x,t))?
Fick’s 1st law
❑ Assume that only species ‘S’ is moving across an area ‘A’.
Concentration gradient for species ‘S’ exists across the plane.
❑ The concentration gradient (dc/dx) drives the flux (J) of atoms.

❑ Flux (J) is assumed to be proportional to concentration gradient.

❑ The constant of proportionality is the Diffusivity or Diffusion Coefficient

(D).
▪ ‘D’ is assumed to be independent of the concentration gradient.
▪ Diffusivity is a material property. It is a function of the composition of the
material and the temperature.
▪ In crystals with cubic symmetry the diffusivity is isotropic (i.e. does not
depend on direction).
❑ Even if steady state conditions do not exist (concentration at a point is
changing with time, there is accumulation/depletion of matter), Fick’s I-
equation is still valid (but not easy to use).
Fick’s 2nd law
❑ The equation as below is often referred to as the Fick’s II law (though
clearly this is an equation and not a law).
❑ This equation is derived using Fick’s I-equation and mass balance.

❑ The equation is a second order PDE requiring one initial condition and
two boundary conditions to solve.
Kirkendall effect
▪ Let us consider two materials A and B welded together with Inert marker
and given a diffusion anneal (i.e. heated for diffusion to take place).
▪ Usually the lower melting component diffuses faster (say B). This will lead
to the shift in the marker position to the right.
▪ This is called the Kirkendall effect.
Steady and non-steady state diffusion
❑ Diffusion can occur under steady state or non-steady state (transient)
conditions.
❑ Under steady state conditions, the flux is not a function of the position
within the material or time. Under non-steady state conditions this is not
true.
❑ This implies that under steady state the concentration profile does not
change with time.
❑ In each of these circumstances, diffusivity (D) may or may not be a
function of concentration (c). The term concentration can also be replaced
with composition.

▪ The equation is a second order differential equation involving time and

one spatial dimension.
▪ This equation can be simplified for various circumstances and solved, as
we will consider one by one. These include: (i) steady state conditions and
(ii) non-steady state conditions.
Under non-steady state conditions

❑ The first simplification we make for the non-steady state conditions is

that ‘D’ is not a function of the position.
❑ If the diffusion distance is short relative to dimensions of the initial
inhomogeneity, we can use the error function (erf) solution with 2 arbitrary
constants.
❑ The constants can be solved for from Boundary Condition(s) and Initial
Condition(s). (we will take up examples to clarify this).
❑ Under other conditions other solutions can be applied. For example, if a
fixed amount of material is deposited on the surface of an infinite body and
diffusion is allowed to take place, the concentration profile can be
determined from the function below.

An example where the error function (erf) solution can be used

❑ Let two materials M1 & M2 be joined together and kept at a temperature
(T0), where diffusion is appreciable. Let C1 be the concentration of a
species in M1 and C2 in M2.
❑ This is a 1D diffusion problem (i.e. the species diffuses along x-direction
only).
❑ The initial concentration profile (at t = 0, c(x,0)) of a species is like a step
function (blue line). If M1 and M2 are pure materials, then C1 would be
zero.
❑ We can define an average composition of the species as: (C1 + C2)/2.

❑ With increasing time the species ‘S’ diffuses into M1 leading to a

depletion of S in the region close to the interface on the M2-side and
enrichment on the M1-side.
❑ This implies that we are dealing with non-steady state (transient)
diffusion.
❑ From the initial conditions the arbitrary constants A & B can be
determined and the concentration profile as a function of time (t) and
position (x) can be determined.
❑ Such a profile for two specific times (t1 and t2) are shown below.
Temperature dependence of diffusivity
❑ Diffusion is an activated process and hence the Diffusivity depends
exponentially on temperature (as in the Arrhenius type equation below).
❑ ‘Q’ is the activation energy for diffusion. ‘Q’ depends on the kind of
atomic processes (i.e. mechanism) involved in diffusion (e.g. substitutional
diffusion, interstitial diffusion, grain boundary diffusion, etc.).
❑ This dependence has important consequences with regard to material
behaviour at elevated temperatures. Processes like precipitate coarsening,
oxidation, creep etc. occur at very high rates at elevated temperatures.
Lecture 20 : Atomic Theory of Diffusion
Schematic Illustration of Vacancy

Interstitials
Point Defects in a Crystal

RANDOM MOVEMENT AND THE DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT

Consider a crystalline bar that has a concentration gradient along its y axis
(see Fig. 2-1). We consider only jumps to the left and right, that is, those
giving a change in position along the y axis. Consider now two adjacent
lattice planes, designated 1 and 2, a distance ß apart.
Let there be n1 diffusing atoms per unit area in plane 1 and n2 in plane 2. If
each atom jumps an average of T times per second, the number of atoms
in plane 1 that jump in the short period dt is n1Tdt. Assuming that the jump
frequency is the same in all orthogonal directions, one sixth of the atoms
will go to the right to plane 2, the number of atoms jumping from plane 1 to
plane 2 in dt is (1/6)n1Tdt. The net flux from planes 1 to 2 is thus

MECHANISMS OF DIFFUSION
It is weIl known from the theory of specific heats that atoms in a crystal
oscillate around their equilibrium positions. Various types are as follows;-
❑ Interstitial Mechanism
An atom is said to diffuse by an interstitial mechanism when it passes from
one interstitial site to one of its nearest-neighbor interstitial sites without
permanently displacing any of the matrix atoms. Figure 2-2 shows the
interstitial sites of an fcc lattice. An atom would diffuse by an interstitial
mechanism in this lattice by jumping from one site to another on this
sublattice of interstitial points.

Consider the atomic movements which must occur before a jump can
occur. Figure 2-3 shows an interstitial atom in the (100) plane of a group of
spheres packed into an fcc lattice. Before the atom labeled 1 can jump to
the nearest-neighbor site 2 the matrix atoms labeled 3 and 4 must move
apart enough to let it through. Actually if 1 rises out of the plane of the
paper slightly as it starts toward 2, there is a partially formed channel
available. Nevertheless an appreciable local dilatation of the lattice must
occur before the jump can occur. It is this dilatation or distortion which
constitutes the barrier to an interstitial atom changing sites.

❑ Vacancy Mechanism
In all crystals some of the lattice sites are unoccupied. These unoccupied
sites are called vacancies. If one of the atoms on an adjacent site jumps
into the vacancy, the atom is said to have diffused by a vacancy
mechanism. Figure 2-4 shows the nature of the constriction which inhibits
motion of an adjacent atom into a vacancy in an fee lattice. If the
undistorted lattice is taken to consist of close-packed spheres of diameter
d, the equilibrium distance between the restraining atoms (atoms labeled 1
and 2 in Fig. 2-4a) is 0.73 d. The displacement required to move an atom is
thus small. In fact, the distortional energy put into the lattice in moving an
iron atom into an adjacent vacancy is roughly equal to the energy required
to move a carbon atom from one interstitial site to another in the same fcc
phase. The reason that iron diffuses so much more slowly than carbon is
that while each carbon atom always has many vacant nearest-neighbor
interstitial sites, the fraction of vacant iron sites is very small, and each iron
atom must wait an appreciable period before a vacancy becomes available.
In a bcc lattice the barrier for the jump of an atom into a vacant nearest
neighbor site is more complex. Fig. 2-5 represents the extended barrier of
two sets of triangular barriers. The vacancy mechanism is thought to be the
mechanism of self diffusion for all pure metals and for essentially all
substitutional solutes in alloys. It also is found in ionic compounds and
oxides.
❑ Interstitialcy and Crowdion Mechanisms
Solute atoms which go into solution in metals as interstitials are appreciably
smaller than the matrix atoms and, as discussed above, diffuse by the
interstitial mechanism.
If a relatively large atom such as a solvent atom gets into an interstitial
position, how will it move? It will produce a very large distortion if it jumps
from one interstitial site to a neighboring interstitial site. Jumps which
produce very large distortions occur infrequently, so another diffusion
mechanism which produces less distortion could predominate.
One jump process which gives less distortion is the interstitialcy
mechanism. Consider the interstitial atom shown in Fig. 2-6. It is said to
diffuse by an interstitialcy mechanism if it pushes one of its nearest
neighbor atoms into an interstitial position and occupies the lattice site
previously occupied by the displaced atom. The distortion involved in this
displacement is quite smalI, so it can occur with relative ease. The
mechanism has proved to be the dominant one for the diffusion of silver in
AgBr (Chap. 5). In this ease the silver ion is smaller than the Br, and an
interstitial silver ion does not distort the lattice unduly.
In the case of pure fcc metals the atoms are all the same size, and the
distortion associated with the configuration shown in Fig. 2-6 is quite large.
It has been shown that for Cu, and probably for all fcc metals, the
accommodation of the extra (interstitial) atom in the manner shown in Fig.
2-7. Still another interstitial configuration is called the Crowdion. It has the
extra atom placed in a close-packed direction, thus displacing several
atoms from their equilibrium position (see Fig. 2-8). This configuration
resembles an edge dislocation in that its distortion is spread out along a
line, it can glide in only one direction, and the energy to move it is quite
small.
Lecture 21 : Inter-diffusion
Interdiffusion is a process of diffusional exchange of atoms across two
materials that are in contact. This is driven by the chemical potential
gradient across the boundaries.

A schematic illustration of an intermixing Cu–Ni diffusion couple: (a) before

diffusion; (b) after diffusion

Schematic illustration of a concentration profile: (a) before diffusion; (b) the

intermixing of the components after diffusion