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Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 1

ANTENNAS AND
RADIATING
SYSTEMS
Anand Kumar 2
Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Radiation Fields of Elemental Dipoles
i. The Elemental Electric and Magnetic Dipoles
3. Antenna Patterns and Antenna Parameters
4. Thin Linear Antennas
i. The Half-Wave Dipole
ii. Effective Antenna Length
5. Antenna Arrays
i. Two-Element Arrays
ii. General Uniform Linear Arrays
6. Receiving Antennas
i. Internal Impedance and Directional Pattern
ii. Effective Area
iii. Backscatter Cross Section
7. Transmit-Receive Systems
i. Friis Transmission Formula and Radar Equation
ii. Wave Propagation near Earth's Surface
8. Some Other Antenna Types
i. Traveling-Wave, Helical, Yagi-Uda, Broadband Antennas
9. Aperture Radiators

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 3

REFERENCES
Other books:
1. "Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design"
by Constantine A. Balanis
2. "Antennas for All Applications" by John
D. Kraus and Ronald J. Marhefka
3. "Antenna Theory and Design" by Warren
L. Stutzman and Gary A. Thiele
4. "Antenna Engineering Handbook" by
John Volakis
5. "Antenna Theory: Fundamentals" by
Robert S. Elliott
6. "Modern Antenna Handbook" by
Constantine A. Balanis and Theodore D.
D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, Pearson Tsiligkaridis
Education Asia Ltd, Second Edition, 2006.

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 4

 PREVIOUS 1. Antenna Arrays
i. Two-Element

CLASS
Arrays
ii. General Uniform
Linear Arrays

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 5

 1. Antenna Arrays

THIS CLASS
i. Two-Element
Arrays
ii. General Uniform
Linear Arrays

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 6

TWO-ELEMENT ARRAYS

FIGURE 11-9
A two-element array.

element factor array factor

For an array of two parallel z-directed half-wave dipoles

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 7

TWO-ELEMENT ARRAYS
EXAMPLE 11-7 Plot the if-plane radiation patterns of two
parallel dipoles for the following two cases: (a) d = 𝜆/2, 𝜉 = 0;
(b) d = 𝜆/4, 𝜉 = −𝜋/2.
Solution Let the dipoles be z-directed and placed along the x-
axis, as shown in Fig. 11-9. In the H-plane (𝜃 = 𝜋/2), each FIGURE 11-9
dipole is omnidirectional, and the normalized pattern function is A two-element array.
equal to the normalized array factor |𝐴(𝜙)|. Thus

The pattern has its maximum at 𝜙0 = + 𝜋/2—that is, in the

broadside direction. FIGURE 11-10 H-plane radiation patterns of
This is a type of broadside array. Figure 11-10(a) shows this two-element parallel dipole array.
broadside pattern.
Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 8
TWO-ELEMENT ARRAYS
EXAMPLE 11-7 Plot the if-plane radiation patterns of two
parallel dipoles for the following two cases: (a) d = 𝜆/2, 𝜉 = 0;
(b) d = 𝜆/4, 𝜉 = −𝜋/2.
Solution (contd.)
FIGURE 11-9
A two-element array.
b) d = 𝜆/4 (𝛽d = 𝜋/2), 𝜉 = −𝜋/2:

which has a maximum at 𝜙0 = 0 and vanishes at 𝜙 = 𝜋.

The pattern maximum is now in a direction along the line of the
array, and the two dipoles constitute an endfire array. Figure 11-
10(b) shows this endfire pattern.

FIGURE 11-10 H-plane radiation patterns of

two-element parallel dipole array.

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 9

GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS
Consider a uniform linear array of identical
antennas, equally spaced along a line, with
equal current magnitude and progressive phase
shift.
This array's pattern function is the product of
the element factor and array factor.
We will focus on how the array factor depends
on the parameters βd (=2πd/λ) and ξ, the
FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.
progressive phase shift between elements.

The normalized array factor in the xy-plane is The polynomial on the right side of Eq. (11-87) is a
geometric progression and can be summed up in a closed
form:
where
or

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GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

This is the general expression of the normalized array

factor for a uniform linear array.
Figure 11-14 is a sketch of the normalized array factor for
FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.
a five-element array.
The actual radiation pattern as a function of 𝜙 depends on
the values of 𝛽d and 𝜉.
As 𝜙 varies from 0 to 2𝜋, the value of 𝜓 changes from
FIGURE 11-14 Normalized
𝛽d+𝜉 to −𝛽d+𝜉 , covering a range of 2𝛽d or 4𝜋d/𝜆. This array factor of a five-element
defines the visible range of the radiation pattern. uniform linear array.
We may derive several significant properties from |𝐴(𝜓)|
as given in Eq. (11-89).

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 GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

1. Main-beam direction. The maximum value occurs when

𝜓 = 0 or when

which leads to
FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.

Two special cases are of particular importance.

a) Broadside array. For a broadside array, maximum radiation
occurs at a direction perpendicular to the line of the array—that
is, at 𝜙0 = ±𝜋/2. This requires 𝜉 = 0, which means that all the FIGURE 11-14 Normalized
array factor of a five-element
elements in a linear broadside array should be excited in phase, uniform linear array.
as was the case in Example 11-7(a).
b) Endfire array. For an endfire array, maximum radiation occurs
at 𝜙0 = 0. Equation (11-90) gives

We note that this condition is satisfied in Example 11-7(b).

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GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

2. Null locations. The array pattern has nulls when |𝐴(𝜓)| = 0

or when
FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.

It is obvious that the corresponding null locations in 𝜙 are

different for broadside and endfire arrays because of the
different values of 𝜉 implicit in 𝜓. FIGURE 11-14 Normalized
array factor of a five-element
uniform linear array.

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GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

3. Width of main beam. The angular width of the main beam

between the first nulls can be determined approximately for
large N. FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.
Let 𝜓01 denote the values of 𝜓 at the first nulls:

FIGURE 11-14 Normalized

In order to see how 𝜓01 converts to an angle between the first array factor of a five-element
uniform linear array.
nulls in 𝜙, we need to know the direction of the main beam.

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GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

3. Width of main beam.

a) Broadside array (𝜉 = 0, 𝜙0 = 𝜋/2). For a broadside array, 𝜓 FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.
= 𝛽d cos(𝜙). If the first null occurs at 𝜙01 , then the width of
the main beam between the first nulls is 2Δ𝜙 = 2(𝜙01 − 𝜙0 ).
At 𝜙01 we have

FIGURE 11-14 Normalized

or array factor of a five-element
uniform linear array.

The last approximation is obtained when Nd ≫ 𝜆 Equation (11-92)

leads to a useful rule of thumb that the width of the main beam (in
radians) of a long uniform broadside array is approximately twice
the reciprocal of the array length in wavelengths.
Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 15
GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

3. Width of main beam.

b) Endfire array (𝜉=−𝛽𝑑, 𝜙0 = 0). For an endfire array, 𝜓=𝛽d FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.
(cos 𝜙 − 1), and

But cos 𝜙01 = cos Δ𝜙 ≅ 1 - (Δ𝜙)2/2 for small Δ𝜙. Thus,

FIGURE 11-14 Normalized
or array factor of a five-element
uniform linear array.
Comparing Eq. (11-93) with Eq. (11-92), we may conclude that
the width of the main beam of a uniform endfire array is greater
than that of a uniform broadside array of the same length
(because Nd > 𝜆/2).

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GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

4. Sidelobe locations. Sidelobes are minor maxima that occur

approximately when the numerator on the right side of Eq. (11-
89) is a maximum—that is, when |sin (N𝜓/2)| = 1 or when
FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.

The first sidelobes occur when

FIGURE 11-14 Normalized

array factor of a five-element
Note that N𝜓/2 = ±𝜋/2 (m = 0) does not represent locations of uniform linear array.

sidelobes because they are still within the main-lobe region.

Nulls:

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GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

5. First sidelobe level. The first sidelobes' level compared to the

main beam is a key characteristic of an array's radiation pattern, as
they're typically the highest sidelobes. FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.

Minimize sidelobes to focus radiated power in the main beam

direction.
Substituting Eq. (11-95) in Eq. (11-89), we find the amplitude of FIGURE 11-14 Normalized
array factor of a five-element
the first sidelobes to be uniform linear array.

for large N.
First sidelobes of a uniform linear array are 20 log10 (1/0.212) or
13.5 (dB) down from the principal maximum. Almost independent
of N for large N.
Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 18
GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

5. First sidelobe level.

FIGURE 11-13 A general uniform linear array.

One way to reduce the sidelobe level in the radiation pattern of
a linear array is to taper the current distribution in the array
elements
FIGURE 11-14 Normalized
—that is, to make the excitation amplitudes in the elements array factor of a five-element
in the center portion of an array higher than those in the uniform linear array.
end elements.
This method is illustrated in EXAMPLE 11-9.
(ASSIGNMENT)

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ASSIGNMENT
EXAMPLE 11-9 Find the array factor and plot the normalized
radiation pattern of a broadside array of five isotropic elements spaced
𝜆/2 apart and having excitation amplitude ratios 1:2:3:2:1. Compare the
first sidelobe level with that of a five-element uniform array.
Solution (Refer to textbook)
Figure 11-15(b) shows the normalized radiation pattern of this five-
element broadside array with tapered excitation.
The first sidelobe level is found to be 0.11 or 20 log10 (1/0.11) = 19.2
(dB) down from the main-beam radiation.
This compares with 0.25 or 12 (dB) down for the five-element uniform
broadside array shown in Fig. 11-14.

FIGURE 11-15 (a) Graph for normalized array

factor as a function of 𝜓, and (b) normalized polar
radiation pattern of a five-element broadside array
with d = 𝜆/2 and tapered excitation amplitude ratios
1:2:3:2:1 (Example 11-9).
Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 20
GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

▪ Uniform linear array analysis assumes equal spacing, amplitude, and phase shifts for
mathematical simplicity.
▪ However, varying these parameters (e.g., tapering amplitude, unequal spacing, non-
constant phase shifts) can improve radiation characteristics, such as reducing sidelobes.
▪ Additional parameters in 2D arrays (e.g., non-rectangular lattices) offer more design
flexibility.
▪ While adjusting these parameters complicates analysis, synthesis techniques can help
achieve desired radiation patterns.
▪ Exploring various array designs presents interesting problems.

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GENERAL UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS
Varying 𝜉 allows electronic scanning of the main
beam, achievable with phase shifters.
This leads to phased arrays, which can scan in
Two-dimensional rectangular arrays can be both elevation (𝜃) and azimuth (𝜙) directions.
analyzed as arrays of linear arrays, using pattern
This is crucial in radar and radioastronomy, where
multiplication principles.
large arrays benefit from electronic steering,
eliminating the need for mechanical motion.

From Eq. (11-90) we note that the main beam

direction of a uniform linear array can be changed
by adjusting the progressive phase shift 𝜉, ranging
from broadside (𝜉 = 0) to endfire (𝜉 = −𝛽𝑑) or
anywhere in between

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 NEXT CLASS Receiving Antennas

Antennas & Radiating Systems | Anand Kumar 23