CHAPTERII: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

3-D GEOMETRY AND ITS TERMINOLOGIES

2.1 DIRECTION COSINES
Suppose a line OA makes a certain angles α, β, γ with all the three axes i.e. X-axis,
Y-axis, Z-axis then cosα, cosβ,cosγ are called as direction cosines(dc's) of the line.
They are represented by l, m and n. where;
l=cosα
m=cosβ
n=cosγ
Relation between direction cosines of the line OA is given by:
l2+ m2+ n2 = 1
Also,
cos 2α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1

PROOF:
Let OA= r.
OL x
Then cosα = OA = r

This gives x = l r (cosα=l )

Similarly, y = mr and z = nr
Thus,
2 2
O A =r
2 2 2 2
¿ , x + y + z =r
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
¿ , l r +m r + n r =r
∴ l 2+ m2 +n2 =1

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In X-axis: Direction angle made by x-axis with itself it 00 , with y-axis is 90 0and ,
with z-axis is 90 0 ( 00 , 900 ,900 ) so,
Direction cosine (1,0,0)
In Y-axis: Direction angle made by y-axis with x-axis is 900 , with itself is 00 , with
z-axis is 900 . (900 , 00 , 900 ) so,
Direction cosine (0,1,0)
In Z-axis: Direction angle made by z-axis with x-axis is 900 with y-axis is 900 ,
with itself is 00 .( 900 , 900 , 00 )
Direction cosine (0,0,1)

2.2 DIRECTION RATIOS

If any three numbers a,b,c (non-zero numbers) is proportional to the direction
cosines (l,m,n) of a line then the three numbers a,b,c are the direction ratios(dr's) of
the given line.
Relation between direction cosines and direction ratios of the line.
l m n √ l 2 +m2 +n2
= = =± 2 2 2
a b c √ a +b + c
1
= ± ( l 2 +m2+ n2=1 )
√a + b2 +c 2
2

a a
l= =±
√ a +b + c
2 2 2
√ Σ a2
b b
m= =±
√ a +b + c
2 2 2
√ Σ a2
c c
n= =±
√a + b +c
2 2 2
√ Σ a2

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2.3 SOME BASIC FORMULAE
2.3.1DISTANCE FORMULA
Suppose A and B be two lines in the rectangular axes OX, OY, OZ whose
coordinates are ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2). Let us draw planes from point A and B
in such a way that the planes will form a rectangular parallelepiped such that AB
will be diagonal.

In the given figure:

AH=( x 2−x 1 )
Similarly,
AD=( y 2− y 1) ,AF=( z 2−z 1 )

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We know AHC is a right-angled triangle so by using Pythagoras theorem,
2 2 2
A C =A H + H C

= A H 2 + A D2 (∵ HC=AD)
2 2
=( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y 1 )

In right angled triangle ACB.

2 2 2
A B = A C +C B
= A C 2+ A F 2
∴ AB=√( x2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y 1) + ( z2 −z1 )
2 2 2

∴ r=√ ( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y 1 ) + ( z 2−z 1 ) (distance between two points of line is given by r)

2 2 2

Thus, it gives the distance between the two points of a line in reference to the three
axis.
Furthermore, to find the distance between the origin and the either of the point we
use;
OA= √ ( x−0 ) + ( y−0 ) + ( z−0 )
2 2 2

Note: Coordinates of the origin are expressed as(0,0,0)

2.3.2 SECTION FORMULAE

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Let us consider two points A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2). Consider a point P (x, y,
z) dividing AB in the ratio m:n as shown in the figure given below.

Let us draw AL, CN, and BM perpendicular to XY plane such that AL || CN || BM

as shown above. The points L, M and N lie on the straight line formed due to the
intersection of a plane containing AL, CN and BM and XY- plane. From point P, a
line segment PR is drawn such that it is parallel to LM.PR intersects AL externally
at P, and it intersects BM at R internally.
Where LNCP and NMRC are parallelograms since their sides are equal to each
other. So, triangle APC and triangle BRC are similar triangle means that the ratio
of their sides is equal.
AC PA
¿, =
CB RB
m PA
¿, =
n RB
m PL− AL
¿, =
n BM−RM
m CN −AL
¿, =
n RM −CN

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 m z−z 1
¿, =
n z 2−z
¿ , m ( z 2−z ) =n ( z−z 1 )

¿ , m z 2−mz=nz−n z 1

¿ , m z 2 +n z 1=mz+ nz

¿ , m z 2 +n z 1=z ( m+n )
m z 2 +n z 1
¿ , z=
m+n
Similarly, in yz and zx plane:
m x 2 +n x 1 m y 2+ n y 1
x= , y=
m+n m+ n

Thus, the coordinate of R when it divides the line internally

R= ( m xm+n+n x , m ym++ nn y , m zm+n+n z )

2 1 2 1 2 1

Externally

R= ( m x 2−n x 1 m y 2−n y 1 m z 2−n z 1

m−n
,
m−n
,
m−n )

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2.3.3 CENTROID OF A TRIANGLE
It is the point where the medians of the triangle intersect in the ratio of 2:1.

The coordinate of the centroid is given by

(
G ( x , y , z )=
x 1 + x 2+ x 3 y 1+ y 2+ y 3 z 1+ z 2+ z 3
3
,
3
,
3 )

2.4 PROJECTION
The transformation of a point and a line from one plane to another plane by the
connection of corresponding points are called projection. There are certain types of
projection in 3-D space.
They are as follows:

1. PROJECTION OF A POINT ON A PLANE

The projection of a point on a plane is given by drawing a perpendicular
from that point to the line in a plane. It is also called orthogonal projection.

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 2. PROJECTION OF A LINE ON ANOTHER LINE
Projection of a segment of a line on another line is given by drawing the
connecting corresponding points of both lines.
To calculate the projection of line on another line let us consider a line AB
whose projection is to be seen in line PQ. Also, we consider two planes in each
side of the points and we also draw a line AM.

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The projection line on another line is given by (A’B’=AB cosα )

3. PROJECTION OF BROKEN LINE ON ANOTHER LINE

It is the given by the transformation of broken line or non-straight line on
another line.
Let us consider the broken points as A, B, C, …..., J. Their projection will
be the points A’, B’, C’,…......J’ on the line PQ such that A’B’+B’C’+…..............

+I’J’ = A’J’.
4. PROJECTION OF A LINE ON A PLANE
If a line is perpendicular to the plane than its projection will be the point
of intersection on the plane and its direction vector S coincide with the normal
vector N.
If the line is parallel to the plane than its projection will also be parallel to the
plane.
And if the line is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the plane than it will pass
though intersection C and also through the projection B’ which is the projection of
point B onto the plane.

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 5. PROJECTION OF A LINE JOINING TWO POINTS
Let us consider two points A and B having coordinates ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) and
( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ).

Given,
OT= x 2
OS= x 1
ST= RQ = x 2−x 1
RP = r = √ ( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y 1 ) + ( z 2−z 1 )
2 2 2
(Distance formula)
Let the angle between RQ and MN is θ.

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 RQ x 2−x 1
We know, l= cosα = =
RP r
Similarly,
y 2− y 1 z2 −z1
m= n=
r r
Condition for perpendicularity between two lines is
cosθ=l 1 l 2+ m1 m2+ n1 n 2

x2− x1 y 2− y 1 z2 −z1
¿ l+ m+ n
r r r
The projection of RP on MN is
ST=RP COSθ

¿ RP ( x −xr l+ y −r y m+ z −zr n)
2 1 2 1 2 1

¿r( n)
x −x 2 y −y
1 z −z
2 1 2 1
l+ m+
r r r
x 2−x 1 y 2− y 1 z 2−z 1
¿r l+r m+r n
r r r
¿ ( x 2−x 1 ) l+ ( y 2− y 1 ) m+ ( z2− z1 ) n

∴ The projection of RP on MN is ( x 2−x 1 ) l+ ( y 2− y 1 ) m+ ( z2 −z1 ) n

2.5 DIRECTION RATIOS AND DIRECTION COSINES OF LINE JOINING

TWO POINTS
Let us consider a point A ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) and another point B ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ). Also let us draw
BD and AE perpendicular to OX. The ΔBCA is a right angled triangle.

OD= x2 OE= x 1
, ED = AC = x 2−x 1

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AB=r=√ ( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y 1 ) + ( z 2−z 1 ) ……( I )
2 2 2

AC x 2−x 1
l=cosα= =
AB r
Similarly,
y 2− y 1 z 2−z 1
m= n=
r r
We get,
l m n 1
= = = (r =√( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y 1) + ( z2 −z1 ) from I )
2 2 2
x2 −x1 y 2− y 1 z 2−z 1 r

So ( x 2−x 1 ) , ( y 2− y 1 ) , ( z 2−z 1 ) are the direction ratios

And
x2 −x1 y 2− y 1 z2 −z1
, , , are the direction cosines of line
r r r
AB.
Note: The direction ratio of the line OA is ( x−0 , y−0 , z−0 )
or (x, y, z)
x y z
And its direction cosine is AB , AB , AB i.e.
x y z
, , .
√x 2 2
+ y +z 2
√ x + y +z √x
2 2 2 2
+ y2 + z2

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