PROCEEDINGS OF MOSES2023 CONFERENCE

4TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MODELLING AND OPTIMISATION OF SHIP ENERGY SYSTEMS

26-27 OCTOBER 2023, DELFT, NETHERLANDS

Modelling and Simulation of a Wet Scrubber System

B.T.W. Mestemakera,* , E. Elmazib , L. van Biertc , H.N. van den Heuvela , and K. Visserc
a
Royal IHC, Kinderdijk, The Netherlands
b
Heatmaster, Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht, The Netherlands
c
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
*
[email protected]

Abstract
Shipping is a relatively clean transport method with low emissions per ton-mile compared with road transport. However,
harmful emissions emitted in coastal areas are a concern, as these affect local air quality and health. To reduce sulphur
oxide (SOX ) emissions, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) implemented a global sulphur cap of 0.5 wt%
and the 0.1 wt% limit in emission control areas (ECAs). Ship owners can opt for either low sulphur fuels or wet scrubber
systems. Wet scrubber systems are a reliable method for reducing SOX emissions with capture rates of up to 98%.
These systems may use seawater alkalinity or caustic soda (e.g. closed-loop systems) to neutralise the SOX emissions.
However, the dynamic loading of engines can cause large fluctuations in the exhaust flow conditions, and it is unknown
how these affect the effectiveness of the scrubber. This study explores the impact of dynamic loads on the SOX removal
efficiency of closed-loop wet scrubbers. A dynamic model of a closed-loop wet scrubber utilising fresh water and caustic
soda is developed and verified using publicly available data. The model applies the two-film theory to model the gas-
liquid interface. Billet and Schultes liquid hold-up theory is used to model the liquid film thickness in the packed bed.
Maintaining scrubber efficiency with large load fluctuations or high-frequency fluctuations requires an increased liquid
flow. The scrubber control system used a set-point of 75% of the equivalent compliance limit to ensure compliance with
the 0.1% ECA limit during load fluctuations. The model and results can be used to develop a more advanced control
system for improved scrubber operation and integration with a selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system to demonstrate
compliance with the IMO NOX Tier III limit when using high-sulphur heavy fuel oil (HFO).

Keywords: Dynamics simulation; Modelling; Wet scrubber; System integration.

1 INTRODUCTION sulphur cap of 0.5 wt% implemented by the mar-

itime industry on January 1st 2020 has significantly
The environment has taken up a crucial role in all reduced the SOX emissions. Shipping contributed
decisions made during the 21st century. Many gov- about 5-8% of all global SOX emissions before the
ernments have implemented legislation to reduce implementation of the global sulphur cap in 2020
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as carbon [9], [10].
dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ) and nitrous oxide There are several options to comply with the
(N2 O) emissions [1]. Shipping is currently a rel- 0.5 wt% sulphur limit [11]. The solution may be
atively clean form of transport with low emissions found in the fuel choice such as a switch to very
per ton-mile [2]. To ensure that the relative contri- low sulphur fuel oil (VLSFO), distillate fuel, or liq-
bution of shipping does not increase in the future, uefied natural gas (LNG). However, an abatement
the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has technology may also be applied to achieve the spec-
launched its initial GHG reduction strategy [3]. Ad- ified limit. The wet scrubber is the most widely
ditionally, the IMO has implemented measures such applied SOX emission reduction technology in the
as the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI), En- maritime sector and approximately 5000 ships are
ergy Efficiency eXisting ship Index (EEXI), Ship currently using such a system [12]. The three main
Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) and wet scrubber types are as follows:
Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) [4]–[6]. • An open-loop system with seawater used as the
Harmful emissions such as nitrogen oxides wash-water. The alkalinity of seawater is used to
(NOX ), sulphur oxides (SOX ) and particulate mat- absorb and neutralise sulphur oxides.
ter (PM) have become increasingly important due • A closed-loop system in which fresh water and/or
to their impact on human health, ecosystem acid- seawater is recycled. Caustic soda is used to ab-
ification and eutrophication [7], [8]. The global sorb and neutralise the sulphur oxides.
@2023 Mestemaker, B. T. W. et al. published by TU Delft OPEN Publishing on behalf of the authors. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution
CC BY license.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.59490/moses.2023.664
 • A hybrid system that uses seawater for the open- the packed bed is assumed to be the only location in
loop and seawater and/or fresh water with caustic which the SOX absorption process occurs.
soda for the closed-loop.
An open-loop system is implemented in approxi-
mately 81% of the cases, a hybrid system is imple-
mented in about 17% and the remaining systems are
closed-loop systems [12]. The majority of vessels
equipped with scrubbers are cargo vessels crossing
the ocean, sailing from port to port. Work ves- Figure 1: Schematic of wet scrubber model with
sels, such as dredging vessels have not yet been resistance (upper row of blocks) and volume (lower
equipped with wet scrubber systems because of the row of blocks) elements
limited available space on these vessels. Addition-
ally, dredging vessels experience significant load A resistance element as shown in Fig. 2 calcu-
changes from the dredge equipment, which may also lates the mass flow between the two volume ele-
affect the effectiveness of the scrubber. ments as a function of the pressure drop. The ele-
The objective of this study is to investigate the ment is modelled as an orifice, because there is no
impact of dynamic loads on the effectiveness of mass accumulation in it [13]. Equation 1 shows the
operating a closed-loop wet scrubber system with mass flow calculation (ϕg ) in the resistance element
caustic soda. This is done to evaluate the poten- for an assumed incompressible flow [14] calculated
tial of implementing such a system on vessels with using the effective area (Aef f ) and resistance coef-
highly transient loads, such as dredging vessels. The ficient (ζ) of the orifice, pressure (pgin ) and tempera-
modelling methodology is discussed in Section 2. g
ture (Tin ) of the gas entering the resistance element,
In Section 3, the simulations results are discussed, gas constant (R) and pressure ratio over the resis-
followed by the conclusions in Section 4, and future tance element (π).
work in Section 5.

pgin √
r
g Aef f 1
2 METHODS ϕ =√ ·p g · 2· 1− (1)
1+ζ R · Tin π
The wet scrubber investigated in this study cleans
the exhaust gas of an internal combustion engine
(ICE) fuelled with high-sulphur heavy fuel oil
(HFO). The scrubber uses scrubbing water (water
mixed with caustic soda) for the absorption and con-
version of the SOX from the exhaust gas. The mod-
elling of the scrubber process has been split between
the gas phase, the liquid phase and the interface be-
tween both phases in which the SOX absorption,
water evaporation and heat transfer occur. This sec-
tion discusses the modelling of the gas phase, the
liquid phase and the interface between the gas and Figure 2: Resistance element (mass flow calcula-
liquid phases. tion)

A volume element as shown in Fig. 3 calculates

2.1 Gas phase
the pressure in the element based on the mass flows
The gas phase of the scrubber is modelled as a entering and leaving the element, the temperature of
combination of resistance and volume elements as the mass flow entering and the internal mass and en-
shown in Fig. 1. This method has been discussed in ergy balance [13]. The potential and kinetic energy
more detail by Schulten [13]. These elements are terms are neglected in the volume element because
used to build complex systems in which gas flows. these are small compared with the internal enthalpy
The venturi, packed bed, and demister are resis- [14].
tance elements, and the lower and upper volumes The mass balance of the volume element is
(volume below and above the packed bed) are vol- given by Eq.g
2, where the mass change in the el-
ume elements. The venturi and demister sections ement ( dmdt
cv
) is a function of the mass flow en-
are assumed to be simple resistance models, while tering (ϕcv,in ) and leaving (ϕgcv,out ) the element.
g
The temperature of the element is calculated using are often filled with packing materials to improve
the energy balance of the control volume as shown the water distribution and create a large gas-liquid
g g
in Eq. 3. The internal energy change ( d(mcvdt·ucv ) ) interface area [15].
in this equation is calculated using the mass flow Gas and liquid have contact in each section (for
(ϕgcv,in ) and enthalpy (hgcv,in ) of the flow entering the example, random section m in Fig. 5), and there is
element, mass flow (ϕgcv,out ) and enthalpy (hgcv,out ) simultaneous mass and heat transfer between both
g phases. Both phases have their own control volumes
of the flow leaving the element, heat loss (qcv ) and
g g for calculating their respective properties. There is
work (wcv ) in the element. The pressure (pcv ) in
the element was calculated using the ideal gas law, a bidirectional flow between the control volumes
as shown in Eq. 4 with the gas constant (R), mass for the mass flows of the absorbed sulphur dioxide
(mgcv ) and temperature (Tcv g
) of the content of the (ϕSO2 ) and the evaporated water (ϕevapH2 O ) and the
element and the volume (Vcvg ) as parameters. transfer of heat (q). Each gas control volume (m)
receives its gas input from the previous discretised
dmgcv
= ϕgcv,in − ϕgcv,out (2) element (m-1) and each liquid control volume (m)
dt receives its gas input from the previous discretised
element (m+1). The interface between the gas and
d(mgcv · ugcv ) liquid phase is discussed in more detail in Section
= ϕgcv,in · hgcv,in − 2.3.
dt
ϕgcv,out · hgcv,out + qcv
g g
+ wcv (3)

mgcv · R · Tcv
g
pgcv = (4)
Vcvg
Figure 4: Packed bed gas phase discretisation to re-
sistance and volume element

Figure 3: Volume element (pressure & temperature

calculation)

The SOX absorption, water evaporation and heat

transfer between the gas and liquid phases occur in
the packed bed section of the scrubber. The packed
bed itself is modelled as a resistance element for the
surrounding components. To improve the accuracy
of the results, the packed bed was discretised using
the same resistance and volume element approach,
as shown in Fig. 4.
The removal of the SOX , evaporation of wa-
ter, and heat transfer occur in the internal volume Figure 5: Packed bed presentation in n-sections with
elements of the packed bed. In these discretised a detailed presentation of random section m
elements, an interface between the gas and liquid
phases is present, as shown in Fig. 5. The liquid
2.2 Liquid phase
(shown in blue) is fed to the top of the column
and flows down owing to gravity, and the gas (rep- The liquid water phase is modelled in the packed
resented in grey) is fed to the bottom and moves bed section of the scrubber to capture the adsorption
upward owing to pressure. Liquid and gas coex- process. Such an elaborate approach is omitted in
ist in each discretised element. Absorption towers the other sections because the majority of the SOX
absorption takes place in the packed bed. The liq- The liquid film thickness (δ l ) in the packed bed
uid phase of the other scrubber sections, as shown in is calculated using the ingoing (ϕlpb,in ) and outgo-
Fig. 1, namely the venturi, lower and upper volumes, ing liquid flows (ϕlpb,out ), water evaporating (ϕevap
H2 O ),
and demister, have not been modelled. liquid density (ρl ), the specific surface area (α) and
The liquid mass balance in the packed bed is total volume of the packed bed (Vpb,tot ) (Eq. 7).
governed by gravity alone. The slight pressure dif-
ferences in the scrubber vessel that affect the gas dδ l ϕlin − ϕlout − ϕevap
H2 O
phase are too small to affect water flow. Therefore, = (7)
dt ρl · α · Vpb,tot
another approach must be applied to model the rate
The liquid velocity in the packed bed (vcv l ) is cal-
at which water flows through the packed bed. The
dml culated using the empirical formula from Billet and
mass balance of the liquid-phase ( dtpb ) is mod-
Schultes for the liquid hold-up in packing materials
elled according to Eq. 5 with the ingoing (ϕlpb,in )
[16]. Equation 8 calculates the velocity with the liq-
and outgoing flows (ϕlpb,out ) and the water evapo-
uid hold-up (hl ), liquid density (ρl ), cross-sectional
rating (ϕevap
H2 O ) as its parameters. area of the empty scrubber (Asc ), dynamic viscosity
of the liquid (µl ), specific surface area (α), hydraulic
dmlpb
= ϕlpb,in − ϕlpb,out − ϕevap
H2 O (5) diameter (dh ) of the vertical flow channels, and liq-
dt uid film thickness (δ l ).

l (hl )3 · g · ρl · Asc
vcv = (8)
12 · µl · α2 · dh · δ l
The changes in the liquid flow over the packed
bed height are captured by discretisation of the
packed bed model. The control volumes are as-
sumed as ideally mixed elements. The mass flow
leaving the control volume (ϕlcv ) is calculated us-
ing the liquid density (ρl ), hydraulic diameter (dh ),
liquid film thickness (δ l ) and liquid velocity in the
packed bed (vcvl ) (Eq. 9).

ϕlcv = ρl · dh · δ l · vcv
l
(9)

2.3 Liquid-gas interface

The liquid-gas interface is where the heat and
mass transfer between gas and liquid phases occurs.
Sulphur oxides in the gas phase are absorbed by the
liquid phase, where they react chemically with caus-
tic soda (NaOH). Water evaporates from the liquid
phase to the gas phase, while heat is transferred from
Figure 6: Schematic representation of the liquid gas
the hot exhaust gases in the gas phase to the liquid
interface in the model
phase.
The two-film theory introduced by Lewis and
The packed bed is irregular in shape and orienta- Whitman in 1924 is used to model the interface lay-
tion, making it difficult to model. It is assumed that ers between the gas and liquid phases [17], [18].
the packed bed may be modelled as a counterflow The transport between both phases by molecular
of liquid (downward) and gas (upward) in vertical diffusion is limited by the mass-transfer resistance
flow channels (Fig. 6). The deviation between the of the interface layers. The concentrations of the
real and modelled flows is the specific surface area substances modelled are in equilibrium at the in-
(α) as shown in Eq. 6 to calculate the hydraulic di- terface of both layers, but are not necessarily equal
ameter (dh ) of the vertical flow channels together (Fig. 7). Figure 7 also shows a reaction plane for the
with the void fraction (ϵ) [16]. chemical reaction between sulphur oxide and caus-
ϵ tic soda. The chemical absorption of sulphur diox-
dh = 4 · (6) ide (SO2 ) in the presence of hydroxide (OH− ) may
α
be considered instantaneous and irreversible [19]–
[21]. Therefore, the model introduced by Danckw- l
HSO Dl ·y l
g OH − OH − ,b
erts [22] for instantaneous and irreversible reactions ySO2 ,b
+ pg
2
· l
2·DSO
2
will be adopted. The concentration of sulphur diox- NSO2 = l · Ai · Vtot
1 1 HSO
ide decreases from the bulk gas value (cgSO2 ,b ) in kyg
+ kyl
· pg
2

the gas film towards the interface value of (cgSO2 ,i ). (10)

On the liquid side of the interface, the concentra-
tion is (clSO2 ,i ) and it is constantly reduced. The
g g l plsat
reaction plane at distance (δ r ) in the liquid film is NH2 O = ky,H2O
· (yH 2 O,b
− yH 2 O,b
· ) · Ai · Vtot
pg
the location where it encounters the hydroxide con- (11)
centration (clOH − ) which has diffused through the The heat transfer process from the (hot) gas to
liquid film at distance (δ l − δ r ) from the bulk con- the (cold) liquid phase is illustrated in Fig. 8. The
centration (clOH − ,b ). Fick’s law is used to model heat transfer follows from Eq. 12 with the following
diffusion in the liquid film [23]. parameters [26]: the heat transfer coefficients for
It is assumed that the reaction between the (SO2 ) the gas (hgc ) and the liquid (hlc ) phases, the temper-
and the (OH− ) is completely performed in the re- atures of the gas bulk (Tbg ), the interface area (Ti )
action plane and that the (SO2 ) does not reach the and the bulk liquid (Tbl ), the specific surface area
bulk of the liquid (clSO2 ,b = 0). (α) and the total volume of the packed bed (Vpb,tot ).

Figure 8: Temperature profile of the gas and liquid

film and bulk

Figure 7: SO2 and OH− concentrations in the gas

and liquid film and bulk
q = hgc ·α·Vpb,tot ·(Tbg −Ti ) = hlc ·α·Vpb,tot ·(Ti −Tbl )
(12)
The mass transfer of sulphur dioxide (NSO2 ) is
calculated using Eq. 10 and with the following pa- 3 RESULTS
rameters [24]–[26]: the mole fractions of sulphur
g l
dioxide (ySO 2 ,b
) in the gas and hydroxide (yOH − ,b ) The simulations have been performed for a
in the liquid, the diffusion rate of sulphur diox- closed-loop wet scrubber suitable for a 6 cylinder
ide (DSO l ) and hydroxide (DOH l
2 − ) in the liquid, 7.5 MW engine with the engine data provided in
Henry’s constant for sulphur dioxide in the liquid Table 1. The engine is assumed to operate at a con-
(HSOl ), the mass transfer coefficient for the gas
2
stant excess air ratio of 2 and with an HFO with a
g m
(ky ) and the liquid (kyl ), the gas pressure (pg ), the fuel sulphur content of 3.5% [ m ].
interface surface area (Ai ) and the scrubber volume The scrubber vessel has a diameter of 2.8 m and
(Vtot ). a height of 7.5 m of which it is assumed that the
Equation 11 is used to calculate the mass transfer packed bed uses a height of 2.0 m. The packed
of the water (NH2 O ) with the mass transfer coeffi- bed in this study consists of a dumped packing of
g
cient for water (ky,H 2O
) in gas, the mole fractions ceramic Hiflow rings with a diameter of 50 mm, re-
g
of water in the gas (yH2 O,b ) and in liquid (yH l ), sulting in 5120 rings per m3 with a specific surface
2 O,b 2
l
the saturated gas pressure (psat ) and the gas pressure area (α) of 89.7 mm3
and a void fraction (ϵ) of 0.809
m3
(pg ), the interface surface area (Ai ) and the scrubber m3
. The liquid flow has a hydroxide mass fraction
volume (Vtot ) [26], [27]. (xOH − ) of 0.000145 kgkg .
 Table 1: Engine data used for the simulations. and a flow of 81.6 kg
s and exits at the bottom (0m)
with a temperature increases of around 11-16K.
Load[%] ϕgas [ kg
s ] T emperature[K]
25 5.08 573
50 8.91 538
75 10.9 565
100 13.0 611

The packed bed has been discretised to improve

the accuracy of the model. A higher discretisation
produces more accurate results, but also has longer
simulation times. Figure 9 shows the effect of the
discretisation on the liquid flow required to achieve
the SO2 removal efficiency. The scrubber must en-
sure compliance to the upper limit of 0.1% m m limit
when operating in a Sulphur oxide Emission Con- Figure 10: Longitudinal gas temperature for each
trol Area (SECA). The 0.1% m m limit is equivalent
engine load point
ppmv
to 4.3 yCOSO2 [28].
2

Figure 11: Longitudinal liquid temperature for each

Figure 9: Liquid flow required to achieve the 4.3
ppmvSO2 engine load point
yCO2 limit for different packed bed discretisa-
tion sizes
The impact of transient engine loading on the
scrubber performance is tested using the data given
The simulations in the remainder of this study in Table 1 by cycling through these load points.
will be performed with a discretisation of 10 steps The scrubber model is dynamic, but on the engine
as the results for 1,2 and 5 deviate significantly from side a quasi-static approach is used which neglects
those of 10, 20 and 50 steps. The liquid flow re- the impact of among others the turbocharger be-
quired to achieve the limit with 10 discretisation haviour on the exhaust gas mass flow, temperature
steps is 81.6 kgs , this is less than 5% higher than the and composition. The pump-pipe dynamics have
kg
77.9 s for 20 discretisation steps and 8% higher been simplified with a rate limiter to include the
than the 75.5 kg s for 50 discretisation steps while effect of accelerating and decelerating the scrubber
having a more acceptable calculation time. liquid flow. The liquid flow of the scrubber is con-
Figures 10 and 11 show the longitudinal gas and trolled with a Proportional Integral (PI)-controller
ppmv
liquid temperatures in the packed bed of the scrub- with a set-point of 3.225 (= 4.3 · 75%) yCOSO2
2
ber for each engine load point and the liquid flow to ensure compliance to the 0.1 wt% SECA limit
ppmv
required to achieve the 4.3 yCOSO2 limit. The ex- during the load fluctuations. This set-point requires
2
haust gas enters at a packed bed height of 0 m and a liquid flow of 82.5 kg
s at 100% maximum contin-
exits at 2 m with a temperature of about 300 K. This uous rating (MCR).
is about 5 K above the liquid temperature of 295 K Several vessel types, such as dredging vessels,
for all gas mass flows. The liquid flow enters the experience load fluctuations owing to the nature of
packed bed at 2 meters with a temperature of 295 K their operation [29]. This may impact the effective
SOX removal of the scrubber, and therefore, the im-
pact of two fluctuation sizes will be tested, namely
25%-100% maximum continuous rating (MCR) and
75%-100% MCR.

Figure 14: Scrubber liquid flow including and ex-

cluding the evaporation influence (100% − 25% −
100%)

Figure 12: Exhaust gas mass entering the scrubber

(100% − 25% − 100%)

ppmv
Figure 15: Fraction of yCOSO2 leaving the scrubber
2
including and excluding the evaporation influence
(100% − 25% − 100%)

Figure 13: Exhaust gas temperature entering the

scrubber (100% − 25% − 100%) The 75%-100% MCR simulations have been per-
formed with a period of 50 and of 10 s to observe
the impact of a faster load change. The simulations
Figures 12 and 13 show the exhaust gas mass include the effect of water evaporation. Figure 16
flow and temperature entering the scrubber for fluc- shows that the liquid flow exceeds the nominal value
tuations between 25% and 100% MCR with a period for the 50 s period by about 0.1% (82.6 kg s ) and by
of 50 s. The liquid flow during the dynamics ex- about 3.6% (85.5 kg s ) for the 10 s period.
ceeds the flow required to achieve the set-point of ppmv
ppmv Figure 17 shows that the ratio of yCOSO2 is more
3.225 yCOSO2 (82.5 kgs ) at nominal load with about
2
2 stable for the 50 second period than for the 10 second
7.0% (88.3 kgs ) for the simulation with evaporation period. This means that for applications in which
and with about 2.7% (84.7 kg s ) if evaporation is not fast load changes occur a larger margin to the SECA
included as shown in Fig. 14. The scrubber remains limit is required to ensure compliance, whereas for
within the compliance limit, as shown in Fig. 15. applications with slower changes, a smaller margin
The inclusion of evaporation in the simulation will suffice. The application of a more advanced
ppmv
model appears to result in an instability of the liquid control system may result in a more stable yCOSO2
ppmv 2
flow and the yCOSO2 ratio during this simulation. ratio, but it will not compensate for the slow re-
2
However, the validity of this instability is uncertain sponse of the pump-pipe system, which must be
because the model has not been validated. overcome for the load changes.
 5 FUTURE WORKS

The model and its results should be validated to

examine the accuracy of the SOX removal efficiency
and the impact of evaporation on the scrubber per-
formance. The impact of evaporation may have to
be ignored in future research if the behaviour shown
in the 25%-100% MCR simulations is an effect of
the simulation and modelling approach and does not
occur in actual systems.
A more advanced control system may be consid-
ered based on a feed-forward signal from the engine
Figure 16: Scrubber liquid flow (100% − 75% − (e.g. engine load and fuel rack position), in com-
100%) bination with the feedback signal from the exhaust
gas composition. This solution may result in a bet-
ter controlled liquid flow without overshooting the
nominal value. Additionally, this could result in
the system operating with less margin in the liquid
flow, which reduces the power consumption of the
scrubber.
The scrubber model may also be integrated with
an engine model and/or run measurement data to
determine the impact of actual load fluctuations on
the operation and sulphur oxide removal efficiency
of the scrubber. This shows the impact of a com-
bined change in the exhaust gas mass flow and mass
fractions of sulphur oxide in the exhaust gas. In
addition, integration with a selective catalytic re-
ppmv duction (SCR) system may to demonstrate compli-
Figure 17: Fraction of yCOSO2 leaving the scrub-
2 ance with the IMO NOX Tier III limit when using
ber (100% − 75% − 100%)
high-sulphur heavy fuel oil (HFO).
The packed bed modelling method may be
changed from a resistance-volume element system
4 CONCLUSIONS to a plug flow model. This allows for more discreti-
sation of the packed bed and a higher accuracy of
Wet scrubbers are capable of effectively remov- the simulation results without a significant impact
ing sulphur oxide emissions from the exhaust gas of on the calculation time.
vessels with dynamically loaded engines. A feed-
back control system with a sufficient margin in the
set-point is sufficient to maintain the SOX emissions ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
well within the dictated limit.
The inclusion of evaporation in the model results This research is based on the work performed
ppmv
in instability of the yCOSO2 ratio in the model ow- within the MSc thesis work of Enri Elmazi named:
2
ing to the evaporation of liquid in the packed bed “Closed Loop Wet Scrubber System for Maritime
and condensation in the demister. This may result Application: Dynamic Modelling and System Inte-
in a scrubber that momentarily exceeds the dictated gration” at Delft University of Technology.
limit.
discretisation of the packed bed model improves
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