Core Python

for Everyone
A systematic incremental approach to become software
engineer for any student or graduate & every enthusiast!

This book's all programs support latest version of Python.

Madhusudan Mothe
M. Tech., IIT Born bay
Foreword by Atul Soneja, Senior Vice President, Infosys.
Guide to Readers:
Q. I have never done programming as of
now. Can I read this book?

Yes, you can read this book from chapter 1.

If you are familiar with basics related to
computer, you can even directly start
studying from chapter 2.

Q. I have done programming in C/C++ / Java

etc. Is this book useful?

Anyone who already have exposure of little bit

programming can directly read 9th chapter.

Q. I am already Python programmer. Is this

book useful to me?

Anyone who is already Python programmer can

read “Class” chapter & see if there is any value
addition in his/her knowledge.
If you like book content, you may
click below Amazon link &
appreciate this book.

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Dedicated to my always Smiling & Cheerful nephew Aayush Kulbhushan Mothe
Core Python for Everyone
Copyright @2020, Madhusudan Mothe

ISBN: 9481660113996
First Edition: March 2020
Second Edition: January 2021
MRP: ₹ 499

Quality Knowledge Publisher.

[email protected]

Paperback copy of this book can be purchased from Amazon.

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This book is provided for information only and is not warranted to be error-free.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in
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storage and retrieval system, nor exported, without the written permission of the copyright owner .
Foreword
Knowledge about technology is no more a privilege but a necessity to survive in this digital
world. Technology has become an integral part of our lives and as businesses strive to
accelerate on the path to digital transformation, it continues to evolve to help businesses
explore new possibilities and take the digital leap. What is helping technology achieve this is
the premise it is built on - language. Just like any other language, the language of computers is
also the essence of evolution and the backbone of innovative solutions that helps business stay
ahead by adopting Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML) and Automation with
agility.

Python has been one of the most sought-after programming languages by data science
practitioners and continues to be for experts dealing in Artificial Intelligence, Machine
Learning and Data Analytics. This book by Mr. Madhusudan Mothe brings forth the relevance
of Python in today’s digital world and simplifies the understanding of Python Programming,
explaining the concepts through a mix of theoretical paragraphs and FAQs. Paragraphs cover
basic introduction to the topic and FAQs explain the crucial components in a very interactive
manner of questioning and answering. The Deep knowledge section has brought the deeper
insights on the particular topic in a pointwise and easy to catch manner to the readers of the
book.

My congratulations to Madhusudan for this great attempt. It’s a complete guide for both
professionals and aspirants alike. I would recommend this to all technology enthusiasts who
want to learn and develop expertise in Python.

Atul Soneja,
Senior Vice President,
Global Head of Edge and Infosys Nia,
EdgeVerve Systems Ltd. (An Infosys Company)
 Preface
When any beginner wants to study Python as his/her first programming language, many of us advice
them to study C / C++. This book provides smooth path to learn Python directly without studying
C/C++ or any other programming language.

Let’s imagine that you are sitting in this plane to start the journey of Python programming world ☺

I welcome all of you to a tour of Python programming world! We are in the position to take off.
Please, buckle up your seat belts and get ready for takeoff! You are quite known with a fact that the
speed of a plane gradually increases and attains higher speed of 1000km/hr or more. What will happen
if the plane takes a take off with high speed like 1000 km/hr? It will simply crash. Similarly, if the
complicated concepts are explained without building strong foundation of basic concepts, your
confidence may crash. Care has been taken to illustrate fundamental concepts of Python programming
in a systematic and lucid manner. Explanation of complicated concepts in easy words is the major
strength of this book.

Many people have done so much for me over the years and it is not possible to mention all these names
here due to space constraint. Hence, I am mentioning few of them ☺ I do understand that the list is
quite lengthy, but, I take this opportunity to acknowledge them.

I acknowledge Chandrakant Kunjir, Rajodhan Khalate, Balasaheb Deshmukh, Suyog Raut, Sandip
Chorage, Sudhir Ghorpade, Bhaskar Pandagale, Nana Nivangune, Shrikant Malegaonkar, Mahadeo
Kadam, Santosh Gaikwad, Soumyajit Sengupta , Pratik Gholkar, Satyendra Singh, Chandrakant Gurav,
Vikram Patil, Ramesh Pimple, Shyam Chavan, Vinod Pardeshi, Ashok Sahane, Vishnu Katkar, Pratik
Dattatray Patil, Vijay Bhagwan Kolekar, Mrutyunjay Rajendra Ranage, Krantisinh Dilip Khandekar,
Anjali Ranjeet Gavade, Murtee Shivraj Patil, Priyanka Salgar, Ranjana Harischandra Gholve, Suresh
Bhilawade, Navnath Lokare, Sumangala Pawar, Manjusha Phase, Sidgonda Karigar, Bhagyashi Patil,
Rekha Prabhakar Nhalade, Satish Kamble, Satish Karande, Shankar Sagare ,Ghanshyam Adsul, Nitin
Raval, Shivaji Gavade, Gajanan Pathurde, Rupesh Pawar, Neeraj Thorat, Pramod Shinde, Pandurang
Desai, Prakash Baburao Siddh Raosaheb Siddh, Vilas Khubannavar, Appasaheb Pujari, Dadaso
Nargatte, Balasaheb Kushappa, Anna Awate, Anant Desai, Bajirao Hupare, Laxman Pujari, Dhondiram
Mali, Sanjay Hukire, Jitendra Shirguppe, Namadeo Mane, Balasaheb Kamanna, Ajay Kumbhar, Yuvraj
Mhakave, Nikhil More, Ganesh Kumbhar, Siddhu Devaba, Rajaram Birnje, Mahesh Vasudev, Sachin
Sontakke, Sachin Kasbe, Hemant Sangaokar, Amit Kumbhojkar, Siddharth Patil, Ajay Jadhav, Shailesh
Narvekar, Vishal Mehta, Sagar Mahajan, Rahul Mahajan, Rajendra Jadhav, Shivagonda Awate, Amar
Chile, Vijay Pataskar, Vijay Naik, Amit Mahadar, Sejal Shah, Priyanka S, Delekar family. and many
more for their support. Medicos Dr. Sanjay Desai, Dr Suhas Kulkarni, Dr. Nilesh Puri, Dr. Sanjeev
Dasarao, Dr. Sunil Bandgar, Dr. Parameshwar Kharat, and Ganesh Patil have been always helpful.
 I am thankful to Infoscions Pravin Kulkarni (VP), Rajneesh Malviya (SVP) , C.Devarajan, Anand Sinha
(Ex-AVP), Lt. Col. Yogesh Joshi (Retd), Prasanna Mulmule, Dakshinamurty Y., Bhagwan Chaudhari,
Tushar Bhalerao, Vinod Sankaran Nair, Julie Karmakar, Neeraj Baderia, Suresh Sonawane, Shraddha
Dhamangaonkar, Anant Sabane, Anand Pardeshi, Girish Chhatwani, Kalpesh B.Solanki, Ambadas
Adam, Lalit Govil, Abhijit M. Naik , Sandeep Rahul, Kailas Tile, Sarabjeet Singh Vig etc. as well as
carpool companions Sameer Chaugule, Pushakar Barve, Dhwal Yeolekar, Sachin Shelar, Sachin
Gokhale, Kaustubh Paranjape, Saurabh Pandhare, Rajan Phatak, Aditya Dhole, Ajay Deokar, Amogh
Pandharipande, Nitin Doiphode, Akshay Marane, Rahul Paranjape, Sandeep Bhavsar, Ganesh More,
Gururaj Sagar, Rohit Bhave, Chaitanya Khadilkar, Niranjan Phansalkar, Makarand Shete etc. I also
want to acknowledge tea group members Madhav Dabke, Durgesh Ghotagalikar, Suhas Pachore,
Tushar Samanerkar, Hrishikesh Mhaiskar. I am also thankful to chairman Sachin Deshmukh, secretary
Suhas Hattarki and all the members of Runwal Society for their co-operation.
I take this opportunity to say thanks to academic professionals Dr.B.P. Bandgar (Ex.Vice Chancellor),
Dr. Ashok Pise, Dr. H.T. Jadhav, Dr. C. M. Sewatkar, Dr. Shashi. Ghumbare, Dr. Bhakti Raghavendra
Umarji, Dr. Dhananjay Talange, Dr. Balasaheb Patre, Dr. Aniket Khandekar, Dr. Ashok Gaikwad, Dr.
Sandip Narote, Dr.Yashwant Kolekar, Dr.Rohit Ramteke, Dr.Sudhir Agashe, Dr. Sanjaykumar Patil,
Dr. Uttam Chaskar, Dr. Sanjay Shendge, Dr. Sandeep Meshram, Dr.Sanjay Koli, Dr. Sanjay Patil, Shivaji
Rote, Nagnath Biradar and Bharati Narute for their encouragement.
I must express my gratitude to the tremendous co-operation given by Ashok Kumar Ratnagiri, Sujatha
Yakisari, Santhosh K.B, Ajay Lavhade, Deepali Tannu, Vivek Mhaswade, Kiran Paltankar and all
members of Edgeverve Security & Performance Engineering Team. All my colleagues have been very
understanding & supportive.
It gives me pleasure whenever I interact with my COEP friends Abhijit Deshpande, Jayant Mhetar,
Anil Kulkarni, Amit Lele, Shantanu Joshi, Paresh Deshpande, Shailesh Kamble, Suyog Bhokare , Vivek
Joshi and Ranjit Hogade mainly on social media. The same is true with all my Private High School &
V. S. Khandekar schoolmates.
I am also thankful to Navya Bhuwaneswaram, Tavishi Pandey, Gargi Vatturkar, Anurag Jain,
Aishwarya Ghatage, Deepa Kumari, Sayali Kadam, Mangesh Gurav, Prajakta Samant, Prajkta Chavan,
Mayur Raina, Vipul Raj, Sakshi Jain, Ayushi Yadav, Shubhada Jumde, Lohith Poojari, Milind Vaidya,
Siddhi Jadhav because of whom I could make this book better.
Thanks to my former colleagues Sachin Daftary, Kiran Laturkar, Atul Kahate, Manish Inamdar,
Prashant Khisti, Manoj Madhav Apte, Atul Edlabadkar, Nitin Sapre, Dattaprasad Vaidya, Abhijit
Mahale, Amarendra Gokhale, Pundlik Jumbad, Sanjay Phanshilkar, Balgonda Hulyalkar, Ganesh
Ramakrishnan, Milind Bhimarao Joshi, Shailendra Kumar, Abhijit Bhalerao, Tushar Surve, Mandar
Gore, Ashwinikumar Buche, Sameer Kajale & Bipin Kumar.
This book will remain incomplete if I do not acknowledge to my parents, wife, sister Sharvari , younger
brother Kulbhushan, all members of Mothe family, relatives & native of Pattankodoli who have been
standing behind me like a wall. I would like to mention my niece Skyla Wade and nephew Ayush
Mothe who always makes me happy whenever I play with them ☺
The explanation of complicated concepts is provided in a lucid language which becomes the major strength
of the book. I hope that readers will benefit from this book in maximum possible way. Readers can email me on
[email protected]. Madhusudan Mothe
http: //bit.ly/mothemadhusudan
Chapter 1 Welcome to Computer and Programming World! 1
1.1 Why Computers?..................................................................................1
1.1.1 What is a Computer? .............................................................. 1
1.1.2 Block Diagram of a Computer .............................................. 2
1.1.2.1. Input unit .................................................................. 3
1.1.2.2. Memory unit ............................................................. 3
1.1.2.3. Central Processing Unit (CPU) .............................. 4
1.1.2.4. Output unit ............................................................... 4
1.2 Machine Language .............................................................................. 5
1.3 Assembly Language ........................................................................... 6
1.4 Operating System ................................................................................ 7
1.5 Points to Remember: ........................................................................... 7
1.6 Deep Knowledge Section ................................................................... 8
Questions .................................................................................................... 9
Answers ..................................................................................................... 10
General Information ................................................................................. 10
A. A Brief History of Computer Technology ............................... 10
B. History of computers .................................................................. 10
Chapter 2 Welcome to Python Programming World! ................ 11
2.1 History .................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Embarking Python Programming: First Python Program ............ 12
2.3 Typical Python Language Environment .......................................... 14
2.3.1 Editor ........................................................................................ 15
2.3.2 Compiler ................................................................................... 15
2.3.3 Interpreter ................................................................................ 15
2.3.4 Python Error Types…………………………………………..16
2.4 Python Data Type ............................................................................... 16
2.4.1 Numeric .................................................................................... 17
2.4.2 String ......................................................................................... 18
2.4.3 bool ............................................................................................ 19
2.5 Python Program Development & Execution .................................. 21
2.6 Points to Remember ............................................................................ 23
Questions .................................................................................................... 24
Answers ..................................................................................................... 25
Appendix .................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3 Structured Programming: Sequential and
Selection Control Flow ................................................ 27
3.1 Sequential Control Flow .......................................................................... 27
3.2 Selection Control Flow............................................................................. 30
3.2.1 if-else statement ............................................................................... 30
3.2.2 if statement ....................................................................................... 32
3.2.3 Conditional Operator ..................................................................... 36
3.3 Operator Precedence ................................................................................ 37
3.4 Logical Operators ..................................................................................... 40
3.5 Points to Remember ................................................................................. 42
3.6 Deep Knowledge Section ........................................................................ 42
Questions ......................................................................................................... 43
Answers .......................................................................................................... 45
Operator Precedence Table ........................................................................... 46
Chapter 4 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow ... 47
4.1 while loop .................................................................................................. 47
4.2 for loop ....................................................................................................... 50
4.3 break ........................................................................................................... 57
4.4 continue ..................................................................................................... 58
4.5 Nested loops.............................................................................................. 59
4.6 Counter Controlled and Sentinel Controlled Loops ........................... 61
4.7 Points to Remember ................................................................................. 63
4.8 Deep Knowledge Section ........................................................................ 63
Questions ......................................................................................................... 68
Answers ........................................................................................................... 70
Chapter 5 Structured Programming: Function ........................... 71
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 71
5.2 Function ..................................................................................................... 71
5.5.1 Why Function?................................................................................. 71
5.5.2 What is a function? ......................................................................... 72
5.3 Scope and Type of a Variable ................................................................. 78
5.3.1 Nested Function .............................................................................. 79
5.3.2 Team Work is Spirit ........................................................................ 82
5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of using functions ............................ 83
5.5 Recursive Function ................................................................................... 86
5.5.1 Practice Program 1: ......................................................................... 88
5.5.2 Practice Program 2: ......................................................................... 89
5.5.3 Practice Program 3: ......................................................................... 89
5.5.4 Practice Program 4: ......................................................................... 90
5.6 Lambda (Anonymous) Function ............................................................ 90
5.6 Points to Remember ................................................................................. 91
 5.7 Deep Knowledge Section ........................................................................ 93
Questions ......................................................................................................... 94
Answers .......................................................................................................... 96
General Information ...................................................................................... 96
Chapter 6 List ..................................................................................... 97
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 97
6.2 Declaration and Definition of a List ................................................. 99
6.2.1 Points to Remember ................................................................... 101
6.2.2 Initialization of List .................................................................... 103
6.3 List and Method .................................................................................. 104
6.4 List and String ..................................................................................... 104
6.5 Searching List Element ....................................................................... 104
6.5.1 Linear Search .............................................................................. 104
6.5.2 Binary Search .............................................................................. 106
6.6 Nested Lists.......................................................................................... 108
6.6.1 List Methods ............................................................................... 112
6.7 Lists and for Loops ............................................................................. 113
6.8 Points to Remember ............................................................................ 116
Questions .................................................................................................... 116
Answers .... ................................................................................................. 118
Chapter 7 Leftover Collections ...................................................... 119
7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 119
7.2 Array ..................................................................................................... 120
7.3 Tuple ..................................................................................................... 122
7.4 Numpy .................................................................................................. 123
7.5 Set ……………………………………………………………………...125
7.6 Dictionary ............................................................................................. 126
Questions .................................................................................................... 128
Answers ... ................................................................................................. 129
Chapter 8 String .............................................................................133
8.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 133
8.2 String Definition .................................................................................. 134
8.3 String Literals....................................................................................... 134
8.4 Accessing characters in Python......................................................... 134
8.5 String Slicing ........................................................................................ 135
8.6 Updating a String ................................................................................ 135
8.7 String Functions and Methods .......................................................... 136
8.8 Deleting a String .................................................................................. 139
8.9 List of Strings ....................................................................................... 139
8.10 Deep Knowledge Section ................................................................. 140
 Questions .................................................................................................... 141
Answers ..................................................................................................... 142
Chapter 9 Class.............................................................................. 143
9.1 What, Why and When Class Data Type?............................................... 143
9.2 Class and Object .................................................................................. 150
9.2.1 Class ............................................................................................. 150
9.2.1.1 Declaration/Definition.................................................. 150
9.2.1.2 Object Declaration .......................................................... 150
9.3 Objects and Method ............................................................................ 156
9.4 Objects and List ................................................................................... 158
9.5 Nested Class- Class as A Data Member of Another Class .................... 160
9.6 Points to Remember ............................................................................ 163
Questions .................................................................................................... 163
Answers ..................................................................................................... 166

Chapter 10 More about Class ..................................................... 167

10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 167
10.2 How class helps to work team together? ....................................... 167
10.3 Access Specifier ................................................................................. 170
10.4 Understanding Object Oriented Programming ............................ 174
10.5 List of Objects .................................................................................... 168
10.6 Points to Remember .......................................................................... 178
10.7 Deep Knowledge Section ................................................................. 180
Questions .................................................................................................... 182
Answers ...................................................................................................... 184

Chapter 11 Class Features ........................................................... 185

11.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 185
11.2 Constructor ........................................................................................ 185
11.3 Getter / Setter Methods ................................................................... 188
11.4 Parametrized & Default Constructor ............................................. 189
11.5 “self” ................................................................................................... 192
11.6.1 Static Attributes and Static Methods ........................................... 193
116.2 Class Method ................................................................................... 197
11.7 Package ............................................................................................... 198
11.8 Points to Remember .......................................................................... 203
11.9 Deep Knowledge Section ................................................................ 204
Questions .................................................................................................... 206
Answers ...................................................................................................... 208
Chapter 12 Inheritance .................................................................209
12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 209
12.2 Inheritance: What, When and Why? .............................................. 209
12.3 Inheritance Implementation ............................................................ 211
12.4 Multiple Inheritance ......................................................................... 214
12.5 Composition....................................................................................... 218
12.6 Inheritance or Composition? ........................................................... 219
12.7 Composition and Aggregation ....................................................... 221
12.8 Advantages/ Disadvantages of Inheritance ................................. 222
12.9 Abstraction ......................................................................................... 225
12.10 Points to Remember ....................................................................... 227
12.11 Deep Knowledge Section .............................................................. 227
Questions .................................................................................................... 228
Answers ...................................................................................................... 230
Chapter 13 Dynamic Polymorphism............................................ 231
13.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 231
13.2 Dynamic Polymorphism: What, When and Why?...................... 231
13.3 Abstract Method............................................................................... 237
13.4 Static Binding and Dynamic Binding ........................................... 240
13.4.1 Static binding/ Early Binding/ Method overloading ..... 240
13.4.2 Dynamic binding/ Late Binding/ Method overriding ... 243
13.5 Dynamic Polymorphism without Inheritance .............................. 243
13.6 Points to Remember .......................................................................... 244
13.7 Deep Knowledge Section ................................................................. 246
Questions.... ................................................................................................ 246
Answers... ................................................................................................... 247
Chapter 14 Exception Handling: Show must go on! .................. 249
14.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 249
14.2 Exception: What, When and Why? ................................................. 249
14.3 Exception Handling: ......................................................................... 251
14.3.1 try catch block ......................................................................... 251
14.4 Finally Block ...................................................................................... 255
14.4.1 Difference between Error and Exception ........................... 259
14.5 Exception Handling: Constructor ................................................... 259
14.6 Exception Handling: Inheritance Class Hierarchy ....................... 261
14.7 Points to Remember ......................................................................... 271
14.8 Deep Knowledge Section ................................................................. 271
Questions .................................................................................................... 271
Answers ..................................................................................................... 273
Chapter 15 File Input / Output..................................................... 275
15.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 275
15.2 Opening a File.................................................................................... 276
15.2.1 close() method ........................................................................ 277
15.2.2 Reading the file ....................................................................... 277
15.2.3 Writing the file........................................................................ 277
15.3 File I/O ............................................................................................... 277
15.4 Writing into a file .............................................................................. 278
15.5 Reading from a File ........................................................................... 279
15.5.1 Reading single line from a file ............................................. 279
15.5.2 Reading the contents of a file into a list: ............................. 279
15.5.3 Reading the contents of a file into a string: ........................ 280
15.6 Modifying File ................................................................................... 282
15.7 File Operations in Binary Mode ...................................................... 283
15.8 Points to Remember .......................................................................... 285
Questions .................................................................................................... 286
Answers ..................................................................................................... 287
* Reader can skip this chapter if familiar with basics of computer & directly start studying chapter 2. *

Chapter
(a)

1
(b)

(c)

WELCOME TO COMPUTER AND

PROGRAMMING WORLD!
1.1 Why Computers?
Imagine that you are at Mumbai V.T. station at 2 o’clock in the midnight. Sleeper class tickets for Delhi
express are fully booked and only first-class tickets are available. You need Rs. 2,000 more to purchase
a first class ticket. Where can you get these 2000 rupees at midnight? Of course! ATM. Thanks to a
computer technology which has made human life easier and luxurious!

Computers have become an integral part of the human life now-a-days. Automated Railway
Reservation System is a well-known practical example of applications of a computer. You can book
railway ticket from internet at anytime from anywhere. Computers are used in hospitals to monitor
and track patients, doctors, other staffs etc. You can play various games on a computer. Application
software like Microsoft word can be used to create various types of documents. In a nut shell, computer
technology is a boon to human life and hence study of computers is important for everyone.

Let’s add two numbers, say, 5 and 12. Your brain can do this calculation very easily. Now, tell me what
is the addition of 13579 and 2468? It’s difficult for a normal brain to process it quickly. However,
computer can perform this addition in fraction of a second. Further, suppose you have to add at least
such 1000 numbers, this repetitive calculation job will be tedious and there can be mistakes. One can
definitely rely on a computer to do this job in fraction of seconds and that too without any mistakes.

The great scientist, Blaise Pascal’s father was working in a tax department. His father had to spend
nights in doing calculations. While helping, Blaise Pascal also faced similar tedious situation of
repetitively adding tax values and hence invented the calculator in 1643. It was used for calculation
purpose till 1799 in Europe. Then, Charles Babbage, famously known as a Father of a computer,
developed analytical Engine performing multiplication and division.

1.1.1 What is a Computer?

Computer = compute + er
2 Core Python for Everyone

Computer is a general purpose machine (electronic device) that does accurate (repetitive)
computations million or even billion times faster than normal human being. The calculation can be
of arithmetic or logical1 type.

Atanasoff-Berry invented First Electronic Digital Computing Device in 1937 that was capable of
solving up to 29 simultaneous linear equations.

We have just read that computer does computations. It can add any 2 numbers like 13579 and 2468 in
a fraction of a second. Being a beginner, let’s try to utilize a computer to add 2 simple numbers and
gradually gain the knowledge to become a best programmer. We need to give set of instructions in a
logical order to perform this task of addition.

Program is a set of instructions arranged in a logical sequence to perform a certain task.

Before using a computer, let us quickly understand the manual process 2 of the same which everyone
knows.
Input Data3 : 2 Numbers
Output Data4 : Number which is the addition of these 2 numbers
If you want to ask the addition of 2 numbers to your friend, following steps are involved.
o You will tell 2 numbers to your friend which he/she will hear it by an ear.
o Friend’s brain will store and add these 2 numbers.
o He/she will communicate the addition of these 2 numbers by speaking to you.
Ear, mouth and brain acts as input, output and processing unit of a human being respectively. As we want
to get this execution done from a computer, let’s understand input, output and other units of a computer.

1.1.2 Block Diagram of a Computer

Fig. 1.1

1 Logical calculations will be discussed in the next chapter.

2 Manual process is the process executed by a human being.
3 Data received by a computer from user is referred as an input data.

4 Data communicated (displayed) by a computer on a monitor, printer etc. is referred as an output data.
 Welcome to Computer and Programming World! 3

Computer can be logically divided into following four parts.

1.1.2.1. Input Unit

We need to input two numbers to a computer to get the sum of these two numbers. What are the parts
of a computer that can receive this input data? Computer receives information through input devices
like
i. Keyboard ii. Mouse iii. Speaking to a computer iv. Joystick v. Track Ball vi. Scanner
vii. Network (One can access a file on the network located on the other computer.)
For the time being, beginner may consider keyboard, mouse as i/p devices.
1.1.2.2. Memory Unit

Memory is a unit of a computer where data is stored.

In case of the above addition of two numbers program 5, user enters two numbers as input, let us say
through keyboard. When this data is successfully received by a computer, it is saved in a memory.
Computer memories can be categorized as
I. Primary Memory
II. Secondary Memory
I) Primary Memory
Primary memory is directly accessed by a CPU. It is volatile in nature means data stored in it is lost if
the power is switched off (Exception: ROM). Primary memories can be further classified as
i. RAM (Random Access Memory)
It provides random access to data stored in it. Data stored on RAM can be changed.

The main feature of RAM is that the time required to retrieve data from any memory location is
constant irrespective of the memory location address. That’s why it is known as RAM.

ii. ROM (Read Only Memory)

It is a read only memory. Once information is stored on ROM, it cannot be easily modified or erased.
II) Secondary Memory
It is not directly accessed by a CPU. It is a permanent storage of the data that is nonvolatile in nature.
It is also cheaper and lesser in speed than primary memory.
Secondary memory devices are magnetic tape, diskette, hard disk, CD ROM etc.
When you ask mobile number to someone, can you note it or just store it in your brain forever? It is not
possible for a normal brain to store all the numbers. Hence, we note the data in a diary. Here, human
brain acts as a primary memory, while, diary plays a role of secondary memory. We can retrieve the
data from the brain very quickly as compared to the data written in the diary. Diary, notebook etc. acts
as secondary memory for the human being.

5Program is a set of instructions arranged in a logical sequence to perform certain task. e.g. We need
to write set of instructions in a logical sequence to add the numbers 13579 and 2468.
4 Core Python for Everyone

When someone calls you, you hear it by ear and your brain takes certain action based on the message
it receives. There must be certain programs existing in human memory by birth which contains
instructions to recognize voice, to produce certain voice by mouth etc. These programs are always alive
for normal human being and must be residing in read only memory of human being. Similarly, ROM
stores the data that cannot be erased. ROM contains the programs that are required for the functioning
of a computer. e.g. BIOS program starts a computer.

FAQ6
Q. It is true that we cannot forget the image of our best friend even if we try our best to forget it.
Can’t it be an example of read only memory of human being?
When we revise certain study material, we won’t forget it. However, if we do not revise it, we forget it
slowly. Similarly, you will slowly forget the image of your friend if you do not remember or memories
him/her. Practically, it is unavoidable to remember the close friend and his/her image gets revised in
our memory. Hence, we cannot forget it. Therefore, it is not an example of ROM of human being.

1.1.2.3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is the overall administrator (co-coordinator) of a computer.
CPU has two main parts.
I. Control Unit
II. ALU
I. Control Unit
The control unit (CU) reads instructions from memory, decodes 7 and executes.
When the instruction requires to store data into a memory, it receives the data from input device like a
keyboard and stores it into a memory. When the instruction requires calculation, it passes the required
information to the ALU.
It is also referred as a brain within brain because based on the result of the execution of the instruction
by control unit, operations of other parts of a computer takes place.

CPU speed is a feature that tells how quick CPU can execute an instruction.

The speed of the CPU is 2.0 GHz. It means the CPU can execute 2 109 instructions per second.
Many today’s computers have multiple CPU’s.
II. Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
It can perform arithmetic and logical calculations on data. e.g. It can add two binary numbers.

1.1.2.4. Output unit

Once this calculation is done by a computer, the calculated sum (output) can be sent to the following
output devices.
i. Monitor/VDU ii. Printer iii. Soundcard iv. Robot arm
v. Video vi. Network like internet vii. Film etc.

6 FAQ stands for general/frequently asked question/questions. This questions generally pops up in
reader’s mind while reading or understanding a program. This approach is used to effectively deliver
the knowledge.
7 Convert the instruction into binary language.
 Welcome to Computer and Programming World! 5

For the time being, beginner may consider monitor, printer as output devices.
Let’s compare Primary and secondary memory.

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

CPU can access it directly. CPU cannot access it directly.
It is volatile (Exception: ROM). It is permanent.
The speed is high. The speed of accessing the data stored in
secondary memory is slow.
The cost is more. The cost is less.
RAM, ROM is an examples of primary Secondary memory devices are diskette,
memory. hard disk, CD ROM etc.
Let’s compare RAM & ROM.

RAM ROM
The data stored on RAM can be modified. The data stored on ROM cannot be
modified easily.
It stores data temporarily. When the machine is It stores data permanently.
switched off, the data stored on RAM vanishes.

1.2 Machine Language

Hope you have understood the basic concepts explained in previous sections.
Let’s go one step ahead and try to use computer practically to add two numbers. It is necessary to give
right instructions to a computer to add two numbers. Oh, but, can a computer directly understand the
instruction “Add two numbers and show the result?” No. We must have to give this instruction in the
language which computer can understand. Then, what is the language of a computer?

Computer can only understand binary language known as a machine language. Binary language
has only 2 digits i.e. 0 and 1.
Hence, the following instructions need to be written in a machine language to add two numbers.
Do not try to understand the following instructions; just see that how complicated and messy
instructions (code) are written in a machine language to add two numbers.

Binary Instruction Meaning

010 0 001101 Store the value of the Accumulator in memory location 13.
001 1 000101 Load the value 5 into the Accumulator.
010 0 001110 Store the value of the Accumulator in memory location 14.
001 0 001101 Load the value of memory location 13 into the Accumulator.
011 0 001110 Add the value of memory location 14 to the Accumulator.
010 0 001111 Store the value of the Accumulator in memory location 15.
111 0 000000 Stop execution.

Machine language is the basic language of a computer which is directly understood by it. It consists of
binary numbers that tells computer to execute basic operations like printing, adding 2 numbers etc.
6 Core Python for Everyone

Advantages of Machine Language:

1. Though it is tough to write programs in machine language, the execution is fast.
2. It is directly understood by a computer. Other languages are not directly understood by a
computer.

Disadvantages of Machine Language:

1. As one has to write the instructions in the number format, chances are always there of doing
mistakes in the program.
2. Machine languages are specific to machine. It means the program executed on one machine
cannot be executed on the other machine because the binary representation for various
instructions are different for different machines.

1.3 Assembly Language

Human being is inventive and innovative by nature. Machine language instructions are in the form of
the numbers (that too only 0 and 1) and difficult to read. People started to use English like abbreviations
(Mnemonics) to give instructions to a computer to perform a particular task.

Binary instruction or set of instructions are mapped to English abbreviations known as mnemonics.

You can just have a glance on below equivalent assembly language instructions for the above
machine language instructions.
mov a1,0Ah
mov b1,14h
mov eax, a1
add eax, b1
mov c1, eax

Assembly language is a machine-orientated language in which mnemonics (symbolic names) are used
to represent each machine-language instruction. It is a programming language that is one step above
machine language. Each CPU has its own specific assembly language. Hence, assembly language
program executed on one machine cannot get executed on the other machine of different processor
(CPU).

Advantages:
1. Assembly language is easy to write and also chances of making mistakes in writing instructions
are less as compared to machine language programs.
Disadvantages:
1. Assembly language instructions (code) is not directly understood by a computer. It needs to be
converted into machine language instructions by another program called as an assembler.
2. Though easier than machine language, writing programs in assembly language is complicated &
messy.
Machine and assembly languages are low level languages.

Assembler is a program that converts assembly language instructions into machine language
instructions.
 Welcome to Computer and Programming World! 7

As seen above, one has to write so many instructions even to write a simple program. Further, middle
and high level languages are developed to speed up the programming.

1.4 Operating System

An operating system (OS) is a set of computer programs that manages the hardware and software
resources of a computer. It is heart of the computer.
Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending an
output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, controlling peripheral
devices such as disk drives and printers etc.
Windows, Unix, Linux, Macintosh etc. are the operating systems.
Unix is a multiuser system. Many users can work on the same machine by connecting through
terminals. It means all the users share the CPU and memory of one machine at the same time.

Fig. 1.2
1.5 Points to Remember
1. Computer has mainly four parts. 1. Input Device 2. CPU 3. Memory 4.Output device
2. Primary memory is directly accessed by CPU. It is volatile (Exception:ROM) in nature.
3. Computer performs arithmetic and logical calculations.
4. An operating system (OS) is a set of computer programs that manages the hardware and
software resources of a computer.
5. Computer directly only understands machine language.

FAQ:
Q. Does computer directly understand assembly language instructions?
No. Computer can only understand binary language. Hence, the assembly language instruction needs
to be converted into a machine language instruction.

Q. Can computer directly understand any Python program?

Basic language of a computer is a binary language and it can directly understand binary instructions.
Computer cannot directly understand Python language instruction(s). Hence, we need to convert these
instructions in binary language.
8 Core Python for Everyone

Q. Why computer can directly understand 0 and 1 and not any other numbers or alphabets?
Computer is made up of transistors which are used in on-off mode. When transistor is on, it is
treated as 1 and when transistor is off, it is treated as 0. That’s why computer can only understand
0 and 1.

Q. Who finally executes binary instructions inside executable file?

CPU reads every instruction from the instruction register and executes it one by one.

Q. Computer understand only 0 and 1. Then, how Number1 is stored in a decimal format as shown
in below figure?
Number1

13579
0x0042103c
The above representation is only for understanding purpose at a beginner level.
Computer understand only 0 and 1. Data is stored in a memory. Memory is divided into units
referred as memory locations. Each memory location can store maximum 8 bits. Every memory
location is identified by a unique address. e.g. 0x0042103c is an address. Address is a unique
integer number.
When any data is stored in a computer, memory should be allocated. In case of an integer, 4
consecutive memory locations are allocated. i.e. the size of an integer data type is 4. The integer
value 13579 is converted into binary form. i.e.00110101 00001011. Hence, it is actually stored as

00000000 00000000 00110101 00001011

0x0042103f 0x0042103e 0x0042103d 0x0042103c
Little Endian Address Representation of 13579
Integer value can be positive or negative. Hence, the last bit i.e. 32 th bit indicates the sign of the
integer value stored. If 32th bit is 0, the integer value is positive, else it is negative.

1.6 Deep Knowledge Section8

Q 1. Why RAM is faster than hard disk memory?
RAM is IC based data storage. Hence, it allows to access the stored data in any order- means randomly
and without any physical movement of the storage medium / reading head. In case of secondary
memory like hard disk, data is accessed sequentially. Hence, it takes time to move the read/write head
from one location to other memory location from where data needs to be read. Physical movement of
head and physical location of data causes more access time for secondary memory data access.

Q 2. How computer starts?

i. When you turn on your computer, the microprocessor passes control to the BIOS program which
is always located at the same place on (Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory) EPROM.
ii. BIOS does power-on self-test (POST) to make sure all computer's components are operational.

8 Deep knowledge Section should be read after developing average level in Python.
Beginner may skip this section in the first reading.
 Welcome to Computer and Programming World! 9

iii. BIOS looks for the system files at a specific place on your hard drive and copies information from
it into specific locations in RAM. This information is known as the Boot Record or Master Boot
Record.
iv. The boot sector on a disk is always the first sector on the first track on the first head.
v. It then loads the boot record into a specific place (hexadecimal address 7C00) in RAM.
vi. The boot record contains a program that BIOS now branches to, giving the boot record control of a
computer.
vii. The boot record loads the initial system file (for example, for DOS systems, IO.SYS) into RAM
from the diskette or hard disk.
viii. The initial file (for example, IO.SYS, which includes a program called SYSINIT) then loads the rest
of the operating system into RAM.
ix. The initial file (for example, SYSINIT) loads a system file (for example, MSDOS.SYS) that knows
how to work with the BIOS.
x. One of the first operating system files that is loaded is a system configuration file (for DOS, it's
called CONFIG.SYS).
xi. Another special file that is loaded is one that tells which specific applications or commands the
user wants to have included or performed as part of the boot process. In DOS, this file is named
AUTOEXEC.BAT. In Windows, it's called WIN.INI.
xii. After all, operating system files have been loaded, the operating system is given control of a
computer and performs requested initial commands and then waits for the first interactive user
input.

Questions
Q.1 State True or False.
i. Computer cannot think.
ii. Computer can make a mistake.
iii. Data stored on a RAM can be changed.
iv. Information stored on ROM cannot be erased.
v. Data on secondary memory is volatile in nature.
vi. ALU performs arithmetic and logical calculations on data.
vii. Program is a set of logical instructions used to perform a certain task.
viii. Computer can only understand binary language known as a machine language.
ix. Machine and assembly languages are low level languages.
x. Computer can directly understand the assembly language code.
xi. Assembler is a program that converts assembly language code into
machine language instructions.
xii. An operating system (OS) is a set of computer programs that manage the
hardware and software resources of a computer.
Q.2 What is primary memory? What is RAM and ROM ?
Q.3 What is secondary memory?
Q.4 What is ALU?
Q.5 What is program? What language computer can understand directly?
Q.6 What is an assembler? What it does?
Q.7 What is an operating system?
10 Core Python for Everyone

Answers:
Q1. i. True ii. False iii. True iv. True v. False vi. True
vii. True viii. True ix. True x. False xi. True xii. True

A. Brief History of Computer Technology

A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices such as the ancient
Chinese abacus. Abacus was the first device known to carry out the calculations. It works by sliding
beads back and forth on a frame with the beads on the top of the frame representing fives and on the
bottom ones. Charles Babbage's analytical engine (1834). This machine can perform all the four
operations that are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
In 1960s, analog computers were routinely used to solve systems of finite difference equations arising
in oil reservoir modeling. In the end, digital computing devices proved to have the power, economics
and scalability necessary to deal with large scale computations. Digital computers now dominate the
computing world in all areas ranging from the hand calculator to the supercomputer and are pervasive
throughout society.
The advent of the first electromechanical computers was an exciting time, because these scamps could
actually provide significant amounts of computational power. Development of electromechanical
computers continued into the 1960's. The Minivac 601 was a model introduced in 1961 with its name
derived from the Sperry Rand Univac computer.

The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each generation is characterized
by dramatic improvements over the previous generation in the technology used to build computers,
the internal organization of computer systems, and programming languages. Although not usually
associated with computer generations, there has been a steady improvement in algorithms, including
algorithms used in computational science.

B. History of computers
ABACUS (2400 B.C.E.) Anonymous It is the earliest known tool for use in
Chinese computation.
Calculating Clock (1623) Wilhelm Schickard First Automatic Calculator. Performing
Addition and Subtraction.

Pascal's Calculator (1643) Blaise Pascal Used for Taxes in France Until 1799. Performing
Addition, Subtraction.
Analytical Engine Charles Babbage First to conceptualize and design a fully
Difference Engine. programmable computer early at 1820.
Hollrith and tabulating Harman Hollerith Device could automatically read census
Machine (1890) information which had been punched onto card.

First Electronic Digital Atanasoff-Berry The machine, conceived in 1937, was capable of
Device (1937) solving up to 29 simultaneous linear equations
and was successfully tested.
 Chapter

2
WELCOME TO PYTHON
PROGRAMMING WORLD!
2.1 History
Python is a widely used general-purpose high-level programming language.
Reading and writing instructions using Python language is much like reading and writing regular
English statements. Hence, it is high-level programming language. It was initially conceived by Guido
van Rossum1 in 1980. Python’s implementation began in 1989, while, first version was released in 1989.
Python was mainly developed for emphasis on code readability and provides easier way of writing
instructions to develop programs.
Python language is nowhere related to Python snake Guido Van Rossum named it Python as he
wanted to keep the name short, sweet & slightly mysterious. Also, at the time of implementation of
Python, he was reading a comedy series “Monty Python's Flying Circus”. Hence, he named it Python.
Python is a powerful language that you can use to create games, develop graphical user interfaces,
(GUI)/ web applications etc. Popular companies Google, Amazon, Facebook, Uber etc. use Python.
Python is currently managed by Python Software Foundation. Most recent major version is 3.9.

Why Python?
✓ Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc.)
✓ Python has a simple syntax similar to English language.
✓ Python allows developers to write programs in fewer lines as compared to other languages.
✓ Python runs on an interpreter system meaning that code can be executed as soon as it is written.
✓ Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-orientated way or a functional way.
✓ It is possible to write Python programs in an Integrated Development Environment, such as
Thonny, Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse especially managing large number of Python files.
✓ Python programming language has a global community with millions of software developers
who interact online and offline in thousands of virtual and physical locations

1 Guido van Rossum (31st Jan, 1956) is a Dutch programmer and currently living at Belmont, California.
12 Core Python for Everyone

2.2 Embarking Python Programming: First Python Program

I know you are eager to write first Python program, aren’t you? Welcome to the world of Python
programming!
Let’s write a Python program that performs addition of 2 numbers (i.e. 13579 and 2468) and display it.
Though it is a simple program, it will give you an exposure to the various aspects of Python
programming.
Before writing any program, it’s better to understand how the same task can be done manually.
You will manually do this calculation as below.
1. You will remember value 13579 as number1 in your memory.
2. You will remember value 2468 as number2 in your memory.
3. You will add number1 and number2.
4. You will say “The sum is = 16047”.
In a programmer’s language, the above mentioned steps can be written as below.

➢ Store a value 13579 in the computer’s memory.

➢ Store a value 2468 in the computer’s memory.
➢ Add these 2 numbers and store the value in the computer’s memory.
➢ Display the addition of these 2 numbers (sum).
Don’t get scared with the word “Algorithm”. The above 4 steps are collectively known as an
“Algorithm” for a program that adds 13579, 2468 and displays the result.

Algorithm is a set of steps arranged in a logical sequence to perform a certain task.

Step 1: Store a value 13579 in the computer’s memory.

Following instruction (command) stores numeric value like 13579 in computer’s memory.
Number1=13579 Number1
13579
For easier understanding, you can see below representation.
0x0042103c
Here, the value 13579 is stored in a memory location 0x0042103c2.
Number1 is referred as a variable name.
Step 2: Store a value 2468 in the computer’s memory.

Similar like step 1, following instruction (command) stores numeric value like 2468 in computer’s
memory.
Number2=2468 Number2
2468
For easier understanding, you can see below representation.
0x00422031
Here, the value 2468 is stored in a memory location 0x004220313. Number2 is referred as a variable
name.

2
This number is presented in the hexadecimal system format.
3
This number is presented in the hexadecimal system format.
 Welcome to Python Programming World! 13

Step 3: Add these 2 numbers and store the sum under a new variable name.
Following instruction adds Number1 & Number2 and stores in a variable sum
sum = Number1 + Number2
For easier understanding, you can see below representation.
Number1
13579

0x0042103c sum
sum = Number1+ Number2 16047

Number2 0x0054C23B
2468

0x00422031
Step 4: Display addition of these 2 numbers (sum).

print(variablename) is a standard command /instruction (function) that displays the value stored at the
memory location variablename on the output device like a monitor. As we want to display the contents
of a variable sum, the instruction is
print (sum)
The complete program of addition of 13579, 2468 and displaying the result can be written as below.
Program 2.1:
Number1=13579 # step 1
Number2=2468 # step 2
sum = Number1 + Number2 # step 3
print(sum) # step 4
Output:
16047
FAQ:
Q. Every memory address is uniquely identified by a number like 0x0042103c. Then, why
are we referring allocated memory by a name?
As it’s difficult to refer memory locations by a number, variable names are used to refer memory
locations where data is stored. As the program size increases, it becomes difficult to refer memory
locations by an address. Hence, names are used. It makes easier to read and write a program.
Q. What are literals?
A constant value in Python is created by using a literal representation of it. e.g. 100, 98.2, ‘x’.
Literals in Python are a sequence of characters (digits, letters, and other characters) that represent
constant values to be stored in variables. 13579 and 2468 are literals used in program 2.1.
Q. Can I use variable names a, b instead of Number1, Number2?
Yes, you can use it. However, as the program size increases, it becomes difficult to understand the
meaning of the data the variable is containing. It’s better programming practice to use relevant variable
names to improve the readability of a program.
14 Core Python for Everyone

Q. What is a function?
Function4 is a set of instructions arranged in a sequence to perform certain task.
Function is component of a program that provides particular functionality. e.g. print function is used
to display the value of the variable sum on the screen in above program. Every function has input and
gives output accordingly.
Q. What is the meaning of the “# step 1”?
It is a comment. Text written after # is ignored by the compiler. Helpful when anyone reads a program.
Q. What is a comment? What are the different types of comments?
It is information written in a source code that is ignored by a compiler when the source file is compiled.
Advantages of using comments:
• Comments improve the readability of the program.
• It is easy to read and understand a program with comments.
• Useful when a new programmer has to work on the source code.
• Comments help at the time of maintenance5/enhancement of the application.
Python only supports a single line comment. A Single line comment is any text written after “#”.
However, one can comment multiple lines by writing that multiline text between ‘‘‘ ’’’ triple inverted
commas. This is actually known as documentation strings (docstrings).

We will use these comments in the later part of this chapter/book.

2.3 Typical Python Language Environment

Following are the steps involved in the development of an executable file from writing a Python
language program in an editor.

Algorithm

Editor is a program (tool) where one can

write instruction/ instructions. Editor

Compiler checks the grammar of every

instruction produces corresponding byte code Source code (.py file)
and generate corresponding class file.
e.g. Compiler compiles Test.py into Test.pyc
Compiler

Interpreter interprets every line in a class file Bytecode (.pyc file)

(e.g. Test.pyc in this case), converts it into
executable code (machine code) and executes it. Interpreter

Machine Language (Machine code)

4
Function will be discussed in chapter 5.
5
Maintenance is a process in which defects in the program are found and fixed. Concept of
maintenance of a vehicle is similar to a maintenance of a program.
 Welcome to Python Programming World! 15

2.3.1 Editor
Editor is a standard program that allows you to edit your source program code. Program is written in
a file in an editor. There are many editors available, however, we will use notepad as it is good for beginners.

Every Python source program file name ends with .py extension. e.g. Test.py

2.3.2 Compiler
Every language has a grammar. Once the program is written, we need to check whether it follows
grammar rules. In case of English, if someone says to you
“program to required is a compiler compile”.
You won’t understand it. This is actually “Compiler is required to compile a program.” in a correct
English format as per the grammar rules. Hence, we must give instructions to a computer which follow
language grammar rules. e.g. print statement (command) should have brackets.
If you forget to write = in the above program, compiler produces syntax error. Let’s remove =, compile
the program, you will get syntax error. If program doesn’t obey any grammar rule, it gives syntax error.

Compiler is a standard program that checks whether every instruction in the program is
written as per the Python language standard grammar rules or not, translates into bytecode.

In a nutshell, compiler is a program that takes translation unit (file) as input and produces .pyc file as
output.

2.3.3 Interpreter
As you know, computer only understands machine language. After compilation, Python program gets
converted into .pyc file. e.g. Test.py is compiled into Test.pyc. Hence, it is necessary to convert these
bytecodes into machine code. Conversion of bytecodes into machine code is done by interpreter.

Component Input Output Functionality

Instructions in Python language are written in a file
Editor Algorithm Source
using an editor. A file where a program is written is
Program
known as a source program. e.g. Test.py

Compiler checks whether every instruction in a

Compiler Source Bytecode
program is written as per the Python language
Program
standard grammar. It generates compile time
error/warnings in case of any discrepancy.
Python compiler produces an intermediate code
known as bytecode. e.g. Python compiler compiles
Test.py into Test.pyc

Python interpreter converts the bytecodes generated

Interpreter Bytecode Executable
by Python compiler (.pyc file e.g. Test.pyc) into
File
machine code.
Table No:2.1
 16 Core Python for Everyone

2.3.4 Python Error Types

There are 3 types of error that may occur during writing a Python program.

I. Syntax Error/Compile time error

When any instruction in the program is not as per the Python language grammar rule, compile time
error occurs. e.g.
• Misspelled variable and function() names e.g. prin (“hi”)
• Incorrect Indentation
• Improperly matches parentheses, square brackets, and curly braces
• Incorrect format in selection and loop statements
There are many ways by which this type of error can occur.
II. Runtime Error
Runtime error occurs while executing any instruction in the executable file. e.g.
• Dividing a number by zero. i.e. a=0, k=90/a;
• Trying to open a file that doesn't exist. You will study this in File chapter.
Execution of this instruction will give you runtime error.
III. Logical Error
The aim of the above program 2.1 is to display the sum of the 2 numbers. i.e. 13579 and 2468. If we
write the instruction print(Number1) instead of print(sum); we will get incorrect result. If you use –
(minus) symbol instead of +(plus) symbol by mistake, it will give you wrong results which is also a
logical error.
Common examples where logical error may occur are:
i. Multiplying when you should be dividing
ii. Adding when you should be subtracting
iii. Opening and using data from the wrong file
iv. Displaying the wrong message
Do not get discouraged while compiling and executing your first program. You will learn more if you
come across many errors initially.
You must be familiar with the name Thomas Edison who invented the bulb. He failed 10,000 times to
produce an electric bulb and then successfully invented first electric bulb. When someone asked him
about his failure, he said” Now, I know 10,000 different ways by which bulb cannot be produced.”
Take motivation from him and do not get nervous even if you initially fail many times to compile
& execute a Python program. You will understand different types of errors that become hurdle to
compile & execute a Python program. This experience will help you to develop big sized programs
with ease.

2.4 Python Data Type

We have already used integer data type in the programs 2.1. In this program, we have created Number1
variable of integer data type to store value 13579. Similarly, we have created integer variable Number2
to store value 2468. Further, we have created integer variable sum to store addition of these two
numbers. In a nutshell, we are familiar with integer data type.
 Welcome to Python Programming World! 17

Now, can we store decimal values like “11.31” or characters like ‘x’ by creating an integer variable? No,
Reason is simple. In practical life, we store books in the shelf. Do we store liquid in the shelf? No, it’s
not possible. We require container to store liquid. Similarly, Python supports various data types so that
programmer can store various type of values depending upon the need by creating variables of those
data types.
Following section shows various data types that Python supports. It specifies range which indicates
the maximum and minimum value that variables of that data type can store.

2.4.1 Numeric
This data type includes integers (e.g. 11,121 etc.), float (e.g. 23.222,343.2234 etc.) & complex (e.g. 2+2i,
5+2323j etc.). You may learn integer and float data type and skip learning complex number data type
if you are not familiar with complex numbers.

(i) integer
What if someone wants to store integer values like 11,45675641, -1234, etc.? Is there any data type in
Python whose variables can store numerical values? Yes, Python supports integer data types whose
variables are used to store numerical values. These are referred as int. They are positive or negative
whole numbers with no decimal point. Integers in Python 3 are of unlimited size.
Program 2.2

var1=526 #var1 is the variable, whereas, 526 is the value stored.

var2 = 1231564 #var2 is the variable, whereas, 1231564 is the value stored
sum=var1+var2
print(“The sum is: ”,sum)
Output:
The sum is: 1232090

(ii) float
What if someone wants to store decimal values like 11.23? Is there any data type in Python whose
variables can store decimal values? Yes, Python supports float data types whose variables are used to
store decimal values.
Let us understand below program 2.3 which stores decimal value 11.23 in float variable var2.
Program 2.3
Program 2.3:
var1=22.36 #var1 is the variable, whereas, 22.36 is the value stored.
var2=11.23 #var2 is the variable, whereas, 11.23 is the value stored.
sum=var1+var2
print(“The sum is: ”,sum)
Output:
The sum is: 33.59
Floats may also be in scientific notation, with E or e indicating the power of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5 x 10 2 = 250).
Size of the float data type is 4 bytes.
18 Core Python for Everyone

(iii) complex
If you are familiar with complex number, you can read this, otherwise, you can skip this subsection.
What if someone wants to store the complex numbers like 1+2j,etc in Python? Is there any data type
in Python whose variables can store complex values? Yes, Python supports complex data types
whose variables are used to store complex values and its associated functions using the file “cmath”.
Complex numbers have their uses in many applications related to mathematics and Python provides
useful tools to handle and manipulate them.
A complex number is represented by “ x + yi “. Python converts the real numbers x and y into complex
using the function complex(x,y). The real part can be accessed using the function real() and imaginary
part can be represented by imag().

var1 = 1 + 2j #var1 is the variable, whereas, 1+2j is the value stored.

var2 = 2 + 4j #var2 is the variable, whereas, 2+4j is the value stored.
print(“Addition =”, var1 + var2)
Output:
Addition = (3+6j)

2.4.2 String
What if the user wants to store the string literals (e.g. “Hello” “etc” or ‘Hi’, ‘Helllo’ etc.)? Python
provides String data type for that. String literals in Python are surrounded by either single quotation
marks, or double quotation marks. e.g. 'hello' is the same as "hello".
Program 2.3
var3=”Hello” #var3 is the variable, whereas, Hello is the value stored.
print(var3)
Output:
Hello

The above program 2.3 can be written in the following form.

var3=’Hello’ #var3 is the variable, whereas, Hello is the value stored.
print(var3)
Output:
Hello

It is seen from above programs 2.1,2.2 and 2.3 that we have directly saved the values into the variable
names. e.g. We saved integer 1231564 into variable var2, float 11.23 into variable var1 and String
“hello” into variable var3.

Then, how compiler can understand the data type of the values stored inside variable? Yes, Python
provides in-built command (function) that displays type of the data that specified variable holds.
Program 2.4
var1=1231564
var2=11.23
var3=”Hello”
 Welcome to Python Programming World! 19

print(type(var1))
print(type(var2))
print(type(var3))
Output:
<class ‘int’>
<class 'float'>
<class 'str'>

2.4.3 bool (Boolean)

Apart from arithmetic evaluations like addition, subtraction, what if the user wants to evaluate logical
operations & store the result in a variable for further using it in the program execution? Python
provides a data type known as “bool”. It gives the output as either True or False.

e.g. If number a is greater than b or not i.e. a>b, it evaluates it to either True or False.

Program 2.12:
var4=1544>98232
print (“Result is “, var4)
print(type(var4))
Output:
Result is False
<class 'bool'>

You can execute above program by manually changing values of var4 and see the result. You will get
output as either True or False.
Q. What is True or False?
True and False are keywords in Python.
Q. What is a keyword? Enlist the keywords in Python.
Keywords are identifiers (names) reserved by the language for special use. Every keyword has a
special meaning. Below is the list of keywords in Python.

False class finally Is return

None continue for lambda try
True def from nonlocal while
and del global Not with
as elif if Or yield
assert else import pass return
break except in raise try

Q. Guess the output of the following programs.

I.
x
print(x)
Output:
Compilation Error
Variable x is not initialized; Hence, it is compilation error. It is necessary to initialize variables
in Python before you use it.
20 Core Python for Everyone

II. Number1=13579
Number2=2468
Number1=4517
sum= Number1+ Number2
print(sum)
Output:
6985
The output is a 6985 because the variable Number1 is declared twice and hence, the latest
initialized value is overwritten. i.e. 13579 is overwritten by 4517. Hence, Number1 is 4517
which is added to 2468 & the sum is 6985.
III.
Number1=13579
Number2=2468
sum= Number1+ Number2
sum=156
print(sum)
Output:
156
The addition of 13579 and 2468 is first stored in a variable sum.
However, the next instruction sum=156 changes the contents of the variable sum to 156. Hence,
the value stored in the variable sum i.e. 156 is displayed as output.

Number1=1.4E-45 #step 1 Variable Declaration

IV. print(type(Number1))
Output:
<class 'float'>

Python supports two categories of data types.

• Primitive data types.
• Non-primitive data types.

The primitive or the basic data structures are the building blocks for data manipulation. They contain
pure and simple values of a data. In Python there are four types of primitive variable:
Integer, float, String and Boolean. Non-primitive stores not just a value, but rather a collection of values
in various formats. The non-primitive data structures are further divided as Arrays, Lists, Files.
 Welcome to Python Programming World! 21

Fig.: 2.1

2.5 Python Program Development & Execution

Reader should install Python latest version by following steps mentioned in the Appendix of this
chapter before executing below steps.
1. Write the simple addition of 13579 and 2468 numbers program using notepad.

Save this program as .py file. Example Test.py.

2. Open the command prompt. Change the directory on the command prompt where Test.py is
saved. This can be done by writing the command “cd \d” and then your path name where the
Python module exists e.g. >cd /d D:\Project\MyPython

3. Execute the program by running the command “py Test.py” on the command prompt as shown.

4. You will get the output of the executed program as below.

22 Core Python for Everyone

FAQ:
Q. Why should we use Python language for writing this program, let us say, addition of 2
numbers as compared to machine and assembly language?

If you use machine language to write this program, you have to write instructions in machine language
which is difficult and error prone.

If you use assembly language to write this code, you would have to write instructions in assembly
language using mnemonics. Number of the instructions in assembly language are less than machine
language. However, still, it is tedious job.

If you see Python language program, it is hardly few lines of code as compared to programs written in
machine and assembly language instructions. This reduces the chances of doing mistakes while writing
a program because the size of the program is small. The biggest advantage of Python language is
platform independent. It means it can be compiled on different processors and executed. Machine
and assembly languages are specific to the machine.

Q. What are the features of the Python?

Structural & Object Oriented: Python supports sequential, selection & iterative control flow. It is
possible to create objects in Python. Hence, it is object oriented as well.
Platform independent: Unlike many other programming languages including C and C++ when Python
code is compiled, it is not compiled into platform specific machine code, but it is converted into
platform independent byte code. This byte code is interpreted by the Python Virtual Machine (PVM)
on whichever platform it is being run.

Simple: Python is a simple and easy to learn language because of its clear syntax and readability.
That's why it reduces the cost of program maintenance. It is good for starting out because of
its simple syntax. Python's syntax are shorter than most other programming languages (Java, C, C++
etc.) If you understand the basic concept of Object oriented programming (OOP), Python would be
easy to master.
Secure: Python is secure because the reverse engineering of the .pyc files (byte code) is a lot harder.
Architectural- neutral: Python compiler generates an architecture-neutral byte code file which makes
the compiled code to be executable on many processors with the present Python runtime system.
Robust: Programmer has to write few lines of code as compared to other languages like C, C++ for the
same program. So, it is easy to maintain and is prone to fewer issues. Python also has the capability to
scale easily to solve complex problems. Also, the memory management techniques are in built in
Python.
Multi-threaded: With Python's multi-threaded feature it is possible to write programs that can do
many tasks simultaneously. This design feature allows developers to construct smoothly running
interactive applications.
Interpreted: Python is an Interpreted Language because Python code is executed line by line at a time.
Like other language C, C++, java etc there is no need to compile Python code, this makes it easier to
debug our code. The source code of Python is converted into bytecode.
High Performance: With the use of Just-In-Time compilers Python enables high performance.
 Welcome to Python Programming World! 23

Dynamic: Python is considered to be more dynamic than C or C++ since it is designed to adapt to an
evolving environment. Python programs can carry extensive amount of run-time information that can
be used to verify and resolve accesses to objects on run-time.
Q. What is meaning of print function (command)?

The print function prints the specified message to the screen, or other standard output device. The
message can be a string, or any other object, the object gets converted into a string before displaying
on the screen. You will learn more about print function in the later part of this book.

2.6 Points to Remember

1. Multiline comment can be given by using ‘‘‘<text>’’’ triple inverted commas.
2. To make the program add.py more user friendly, you can change the print instruction as
below.
print (“The sum is”, sum)
Whatever characters we write inside the quotes of the first parameter of the print function
gets printed as output. e.g: print (“Enthusiasm is a key to success.”) displays
Enthusiasm is a key to success
3. There is no separate data type for short and long numbers in Python. Short & long also belong to
integer data type itself.
4. Variable names correspond to locations in the computer's memory. In memory, every variable has
assigned a particular address. Every variable has a name, a type, a size and a value. We can declare a
variable in Python as shown below.
<variable_name> = <value>
Whenever a new value is placed into a variable, it replaces (and destroys) the previous value.
a=10
a=20 #Variable a contains 20 and not 10.
5. A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module or other object. An
identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore (_) followed by zero or more letters,
underscores and digits (0 to 9).
6. Python does not allow special characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers. Python is a case
sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different identifiers in
Python.
7. bool(-1) is True in Python.
8. The source code program (e.g. add.py) is stored in a secondary memory. i.e. inside C:\ or any
other drive. Hard disk is an example of secondary memory.
9. When compiled file like add.pyc is executed (just click on it), it gets copied into the RAM.
10. The program that copies the executable file from secondary memory to a primary memory (RAM)
is called as a loader.
24 Core Python for Everyone

Questions
Q.1 State true or false.
i. Python was developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in 1991.
ii. Algorithm is a set of logical steps to perform a certain task.
iii. It is possible to write a Python program without a main function.
iv. print is a standard command that displays the value stored at that memory
location.
v. Function is a group of set of instructions arranged in a sequence to perform certain
tasks.
vi. Comment is information written inside the source code that is ignored by a
preprocessor when the source file is preprocessed.
vii. Directory is the location on a computer where files and other directories can be
stored.
viii. Python language is not a case sensitive language.
ix. Every Python program source file ends with an extension .Python
x. In Python language, it is mandatory to declare variables at the beginning of a block,
otherwise, compile time error is generated.

Q.2 Guess the output of the following programs.

I. one=1947
two=191
subtraction = one- two
print(subtraction)
II. one=1980
two=191
subtraction = one- two
print(subtraction)
III. one=1947
two=191.01
subtraction = one- two
print(subtraction)
IV. Number1
print(Number1)
V. Number1
Number2
Number1=13579
Number2=2468
sum= Number1+ Number2
print(sum)
VI. Number1=1.4E-46
print(Number1)
Q.3 What is a data type? Give example.
Q.4 Create 3 integer variables that stores 10, 20 and 30 respectively.
Q.5 Explain Python language environment in detail.
 Welcome to Python Programming World! 25

Q.6 Write a program that does multiplication of 128 and 3876?

Q.7 What is the basic language of a computer? Why?
Q.8 Who invented Python? Discuss the history of Python.
Q.9 Who is a father of a computer?

Answers:
Q.1 i. False ii. True iii. True iv. True v. True vi. True
vii. True viii. False ix. False x. False

Q2. I. 1756 II. 1789 III. 1755.99

IV. Compilation Error V. Compilation Error VI. 1.4e-46

Appendix
Python is freely available & respective version can be downloaded based on your operating system.

Windows: https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.9.0/python-3.9.0-amd64.exe
Linux: https://www.python.org/downloads/source/
Mac OSX: https://www.python.org/downloads/mac-osx/

A. Installing Python 3.9 (latest version) on Windows 10

1. Download https://www.python.org/downloads/ latest version as per your

2. You can click on “Run” as shown in the below snapshot.

26 Core Python for Everyone

3. Click on “Add Python 3.9 to PATH” & click on “Install Now”

4. “Setup Progress” window would be displayed as shown in the below snapshot.

5. Click on “Close” once you see below window.

You can write Python programs using Notepad, Textpad or sophisticated Integrated Development
environments like Eclipse can be used. However, beginner should use notepad.
 Chapter
(a)

3
(b)

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING:
SEQUENTIAL AND SELECTION
CONTROL FLOW
Many of you might be wondering why there is a structured programming chapter in this book because
we have heard that Python is an object-oriented language1. Yes, Python is an object-oriented
programming language, but Python also has structured programming features. Without these
structured programming features, it is highly difficult to write any Python program. Let us study
structured programming features like sequential control flow, selection control flow, iteration control
flow etc.

3.1 Sequential Control Flow

Imagine a hypothetical situation! Your lecturer friend approaches you one fine evening. He can use a
computer but cannot do programming. He wants to find average of Physics, Chemistry and
Mathematics marks of around 48 students. Further, he must do this task many times and hence requests
you to write a Python program. The algorithm and flow chart for this program is given as below.
Let’s convert every step in the above algorithm into equivalent Python language instruction to write a
complete Python program.

1
Object oriented programming will be discussed in the later part of this book.
28 Core Python for Everyone

Algorithm:
1. Computer should display the message.
“Enter Physics Marks?” on the output device.
2. Once the user enters the Physics marks through
keyboard, computer should store it in a memory
3. Computer should display the message.
“Enter Chemistry Marks?” on the output device.
4. Once the user enters the Chemistry marks through
keyboard, computer should store it in a memory.
5. Computer should display the message.
“Enter Mathematics Marks?” on the output device.
6. Once the user enters the Mathematics marks
through keyboard, computer should store it in a
memory.
7. Averages of stored marks can be calculated as
PCM Average= (Physics Marks+ Chemistry Marks
+ Mathematics Marks) /3
8. After calculating average marks, computer should
display a message.
“Average of your marks in Physics,
Chemistry and Mathematics is …...”

Step 1: Computer should display the message “Enter Physics Marks?” on the output device.
We have studied in the second chapter that print is a standard command (function) that displays the
data on the output device like monitor. The instruction to display “Enter Physics Marks?” is as below.
print(“Enter Physics Marks?”)

Step 2: Once user enters Physics marks through keyboard, computer should store it in a memory.
Computer receives input data through input devices like a keyboard. Therefore, you must enter the
Physics Marks (input data) through a keyboard. But what is the command/instruction (function) that
can read data entered through keyboard and stores it in a computer memory? input() command
(function) which is in-built in Python is used
PhysicsMarks =input()

Step 3-4: Similarly, we can write following instructions for receiving Chemistry marks
ChemistryMarks = input()

Step 5-6: Similarly, we can write following instructions for receiving Mathematics marks.
MathsMarks =input()

PhysicsMarks = input()
ChemistryMarks = input()
MathsMarks = input()
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 29

Step 7: Averages of stored marks can be calculated as

PCM Average = (Physics Marks + Chemistry Marks + Mathematics Marks) /3

7th statement in the algorithm can be

PCM_Average = (PhysicsMarks + ChemistryMarks + MathematicsMarks) / 3

When we use computer, multiplication () & division () is denoted by * and / symbol respectively.

Step 8: After calculating average marks, computer should display a message “Average of your marks
in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics is …”
print(“Average of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics marks is= “, PCM_Average)
The program can be written as shown below.

print("Please enter your Physics marks:")

PhysicsMarks = input()
print("Please enter your Chemistry marks:")
ChemistryMarks = input()
print("Please enter yourMathematics marks:")
MathsMarks = input()
PCM_Average = (PhysicsMarks+ChemistryMarks+MathsMarks)/3
print ("Average of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics marks is: ", PCM_Average)

Oh! The above program gives an error. What can be the reason? The input function (command) accepts
input data from user and saves it as a String. In the above program, data entered by user as input is
stored as a string. At line 7, attempt has been done to add these strings and divide it by 3. Dividing
a string is not valid operation in Python. To resolve this, we must restrict that the data entered by the
user is valid. As marks of a subject can only be an integer, it is necessary to restrict user input values
to be only integer in case of this program.
int(input()) instruction receives only integer values. If user enters any value other than integer (e.g.
decimal), it does not accept it and gives error.
This program 3.1 resolves the above issues.
Program 3.1
print("Please enter your Physics marks:")
PhysicsMarks = int(input())
print("Please enter your Chemistry marks:")
ChemistryMarks = int(input())
print("Please enter yourMathematics marks:")
MathsMarks = int(input())
PCM_Average = (PhysicsMarks+ChemistryMarks+MathsMarks)/3
print ("Average of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics marks is: ", PCM_Average)

When instructions in a program are executed one after another i.e. in a sequential manner,
it is known as a sequential control flow.
30 Core Python for Everyone

It is one of the features of a structured programming. The program 3.1 is an example of a sequential
control flow as all the instructions in this program are executed sequentially.

Q. What is a control flow? What are the different control flows used in a program?
Control flow is a flow of the execution of the instructions in a program.
OR
It is the order in which the instructions in a program are executed.

In this chapter, you will understand, the instructions are not always executed in the order they are
written in a program. By default, the flow of instructions is sequential. A control statement disrupts
the sequential flow. It means certain instruction or instructions are skipped during the execution of a
program.

Based on the order of execution of instructions, Python programs are mainly written in 4 different
structure formats.

1) Sequential: Statements in a program are executed one after another i.e. in a sequential manner.
2) Selection: Statements in a program are executed based on certain condition(s) defined
in a program. e.g. if; if-else.
3) Iteration: Statements in a program are executed repeatedly. e.g. while, for
4) Jump: Different set of instructions in the program are executed as per the jump defined
in a program. e.g. break, return, continue.

Do not get confused after reading these 4 different types of control flows. We are going to study it in
this chapter in a simplified and understandable language.

3.2 Selection Control Flow

3.2.1 if-else statement
Assume that one of your friends says that he has got 91 marks in Physics and 99 marks in Mathematics.
Instantly, if you think in which subject your friend has got highest marks? Your brain will compare 91
marks to 99 marks and conclude that Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks. Will it again
compare 99 marks to 91? No. It will do only 1 comparison instead of 2 comparisons because based on
the result of only one comparison, result can be concluded in this case.

When one statement out of given 2 statements is executed based on the result of a condition,
if-else statement is used. If the condition is true, statement associated with if-part is evaluated,
otherwise, statement associated with else part is evaluated.

The general form of if-else statement

if (expression):
Statement1 #Statement associated with if part
else:
Statement2 #Statement associated with else part
If expression is true, statement1 is executed. Otherwise, statement2 is executed.
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 31

Q. What is an expression?
Expression is a combination of an operator and operand that evaluates to a constant value.
OR
Expression can be any combination of variable, operator and / or constant that results into a constant
value1 after its evaluation.

Operand can be a constant value like 6, 17 etc. or a variable x, i etc. The evaluation of an expression
results into a constant value.
Few examples of expressions are a + b; x*y+3; 8; c etc. where x, y, a, b, c are variables.
Let’s understand concept of if-else statement by writing a small program that accepts Physics and
Mathematics marks as input from a keyboard and checks in which subject the student has obtained
more marks as compared to the other subjects. It is assumed that student has not obtained same marks
in Physics and Mathematics.

Following are the steps involved (algorithm) to do this task.

1. Computer should display the message “Enter Physics Marks?” on the output device.
2. Once user enters the Physics marks through keyboard, computer should store it in a memory.
3. Computer should display the message “Enter Mathematics Marks?” on the output device.
4. Once user enters the Mathematics marks through keyboard, computer should store it in a memory.
5. if Physics marks are greater than Mathematics mark
Display “Physics marks are greater than Mathematics marks.”
else
Display “Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks.”

You can easily write instructions for step 1 to step 4. If you require to understand step 1- step 4, you
can refer program 3.1. The main logic to write this program is to write step 5. In step 5, only one
condition needs to be evaluated out of 2 conditions, hence, we can use if-else statement.
if-else statement for step 5 can be written as below.
if ( PhysicsMarks > MathematicsMarks ):
print (“Physics marks are greater than Mathematics marks.”)
else:
print (“Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks.”)
32 Core Python for Everyone
Program 3.2:
PhysicsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Physics marks: "))
MathematicsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Mathematics marks: "))
if PhysicsMarks>MathematicsMarks :
print ("Physics marks are greater than Mathematics marks")
else:
print ("Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks")

3.2.2 if statement
What if someone tells you equal marks in both these subjects? Here, we need to check only one
condition i.e. whether the marks received in both the subjects are equal.
When given statement is executed based on the result of a condition, if statement is used.
If the condition is true, statement associated with if statement gets executed. If the condition is false,
statement associated with if is not executed.
The general form of if statement is as below.
if (expression):
statement

Let’s write a program that accepts Physics and Mathematics marks as input, checks whether the Physics
marks are equal to Mathematics marks and display the below message if this condition is true.
“Physics marks are exactly equal to Mathematics marks.”

If this condition is false, it should not display anything.

Program 3.3:
PhysicsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Physics marks: "))
MathsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Mathematics marks: "))
if PhysicsMarks==MathsMarks:
print ("Physics marks are exactly equal to Mathematics marks")

Remember = is an assignment operator, while, == is an equality operator.

Equality operator compares values of its operands. It returns true if the values are equal, otherwise
false. If you forget to write one = symbol in equality operator, it becomes assignment operator.\
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 33

Let’s write a program that compares Physics and Mathematics marks and displays following message

If Physics marks are exactly equal to Mathematics marks, display the message
“Physics marks are exactly equal to Mathematics marks.”
If Physics marks are greater than Mathematics marks, display the message
“Physics marks are greater than Mathematics marks.”
If Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks, display the message
“Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks.”
Program 3.4:
PhysicsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Physics marks: "))
MathsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Mathematics marks: "))
if PhysicsMarks==MathsMarks:
print ("Physics marks are exactly equal to Mathematics marks")
if PhysicsMarks>MathsMarks:
print ("Physics marks are greater than Mathematics marks")
else:
print ("Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks")

Can you guess the output of the program 3.4 if the marks of Physics and Mathematics are 98? The
output will be

Physics marks are exactly equal to Mathematics marks.

Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks.

It means there is a logical error in the above program. What is the Python language construct used
when there are multiple conditions need to be evaluated and the result is only 1?

Python language provides if - elif - else construct when one condition is true from given set of
conditions. The general form of if-elif ladder is as below.
if(expression1):
Statement1
elif(expression2):
Statement2
…
else:
Statements
The above program can be written like as shown in Program 3.5.
Program 3.5:
PhysicsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Physics marks: "))
MathsMarks = int(input("Please enter your Mathematics marks: "))
if PhysicsMarks==MathsMarks:
print ("Physics marks are exactly equal to Mathematics marks")
elif PhysicsMarks>MathsMarks:
print ("Physics marks are greater than Mathematics marks")
else:
print ("Mathematics marks are greater than Physics marks")
34 Core Python for Everyone
if can be used only at the beginning and else only at the end. if is mandatory, while, else is optional.
Q. Guess the output of the following program.

I k=50
if(k>=0):
print (“Kolhapur")
else:
print("Pune")
Output:
Kolhapur

II k=5
if(k=5):
print(“A”)
else:
print(“B”)
Output:
Syntax error
Condition must evaluate to Boolean value i.e. True or False. Hence, syntax error.

III k=5
if(k ==5):
print (“A”)
else:
print(“B”)
Output:
A
As, k is equal to 5, condition k==5 results into true. Hence, the output.

IV p=10; c=10; m=10 # Multiple variables can be defined separated by semicolon.

if ((p == c) == False)):
print("M")
else:
print("N")
Output:
N
(p==c) results into True which is compared to False. Hence, the condition results into False.

Pseudo code and Flowchart:

Pseudo code is an artificial, informal, and English like language that helps us to develop a program. It
is structured English for describing algorithms. It breaks the bigger tasks into smaller tasks. It is not
executed on the computers. Pseudo code helps to write actual program.

Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. It has single entry and single exit.
It is drawn using certain special-purpose symbols connected by arrows called flow lines.
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 35

Following table describes the various symbols used in creating a flowchart.

Symbol Description
Rectangular symbol Processing block like initialization, assignment and expression
evaluation
Arrow symbol Connects one symbol to others or describe the flow.
Oval symbol Indicates the beginning or end of a program or a section of code.
Diamond symbol Used to take decisions (condition evaluation)
Parallelogram symbol Used to display input, output.

Let’s develop a flow chart for a program that accepts Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics marks as
input and displays the maximum marks obtained as output. Assume that marks received as input are
different in each subject.

Fig.3.4 Flowchart that finds highest marks among Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics
36 Core Python for Everyone

3.2.3 Conditional Operator

Let’s discuss operators before we discuss conditional operator (.
Operator operates on the data. Unary, binary, ternary operators have 1,2 and 3 operands respectively.
e.g. & is a unary operator, = is a binary operator. The complete list of operators is given in the appendix.

Note that + is a unary as well as binary operator. k=+10 Here, + acts as a unary operator as it indicates
the sign of 10 is positive. int k=10+20 Here, + adds 2 operands 10,20 & acts binary operator.

The general form of ternary (conditional) operator is as below.

[on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]

It is the abbreviated form (shorthand) to write if-else conditional statement. If expression is true (non-
zero value), then on_true will be executed else on_false will be executed.

Example 1:
Let’s write a program 3.2 using conditional operator as below.
Following program accepts Physics and Mathematics marks as input from a keyboard and displays
subject name in which the student has obtained more marks as compared to the other subject. It is
assumed that student has not obtained same marks in Physics and Mathematics.
Program 3.12:
PhysicsMarks=int(input( "Enter Physics marks "))
MathematicsMarks =int(input("Enter Mathematics marks "))
print("Physics") if (PhysicsMarks > MathematicsMarks) else print("Mathematics")

Example 2:
Following program accepts integer input and prints whether the given number is even or odd.
Program 3.13:
num = int(input("Please enter any integer "))
print("even") if (num%2)==0 else print("odd")
Output:
XYZ

The beauty of conditional operator is that we can write the convertible if-else statements in a single line
instead of 4 lines as shown in the above examples. However, generally conditional operator (ternary
operator) is not used because it’s difficult to understand and maintain the code.

Q. Guess the output of the following program.

 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 37

i=5
j=0
k=6

i=i+1
j=i+k
k=k-1

k=j
j=j-1
print("i=" +str(i)+ " j=" +str(j)+ " k=" +str(k))
Output:
i=6 j=11 k=12

II.
i=True
i=i-1
if ( i ):
print ("A")
else:
print("B")
Output:
B
Boolean variable True is treated as 1 in Python. Hence, i-1=1-1=0. Hence, the output is
B.

3.3 Operator Precedence

Can you guess the output of the following program?

i=7
j=3
k=8
m = i*j+k
print(m)

You may feel the output is (7*3 + 8) = 29 or 7 * (3 + 8 ) = 77. Oh, then, what is the correct output? In the
first evaluation 7 and 3 are identified as operands of *, while, in the second evaluation, 7 and (3+8) are
identified as operands of operator *. Hence, there should be certain rules to evaluate such expressions
to avoid calculation ambiguity.

Certain rules are used while computing such ambiguous expressions in Python. Multiplication
operator has higher priority than +. i.e. Operands of * operator are determined before determining
operands of +. Hence, we can rewrite the above expression as
m=7*3+ 8
38 Core Python for Everyone
In this case, * operator has higher priority than +. Hence, 7*3 is calculated first. i.e. 21 is added to 8 i.e.
29.You need to refer the Operator precedence table given in the appendix to evaluate such expressions.
Now, let’s evaluate following expression.
m=7*3+ 8 / 2
It is seen that * and division / operator are used in above expression. Further, it is seen from the table
that some operators like * and / have same priority. Then, what should be the order of evaluation?
When the operators of same precedence are present in an expression, evaluation order is decided by
the associativity. Associativity decides the order of the evaluation. i.e. always from left to right in
Python.

Let’s evaluate this expression. m=7*3+ 8 /2

Associativity comes in picture when same precedence operators are present in an expression. As per
associativity rules, the same precedence operators are always evaluated from left to right. Hence,
m=(7*3)+ 8 /2
m=21+ 8 /2
m=21+ ( 8 /2)
m=21+ 4
m=25

Associativity of operator decides which operator in the expression should be given higher
priority when two or more operators of same priority are present in an expression.

Operators * and / have same precedence and their associativity is from left to right. It means the
operands of the operator which is present at the left of the expression are determined first and so on.

Q. Guess the output of the following Program.

PhysicsMarks = 95
ChemistryMarks =99
MathsMarks = 99
PCM_Average = PhysicsMarks+ChemistryMarks+MathsMarks/3
print ("Average of Physics,Chemistry and Mathematics marks are: ", PCM_Average)
Output:
227.00

As division operation has higher priority than addition, operands close to division operator are bound
tightly in the parentheses as shown below. It means the operands of the operator division / are
determined first. Hence, the correct output is
PCM_Average=Mathematics+ Chemistry+MathematicsMarks/3
=95+99+(99/3.0)
=95+99+33.00
=227.00

If you use parentheses as shown below, you will get the output 97.666%.
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 39

PCM_Average= (Mathematics+ Chemistry+ Mathematics Marks) / 3.0

= (95+99+99)/3.0
=293/3.0
=97.666%
Let’s try to guess the output of the following program.
x=3.0/6*8
print("x=" , x)
Hence, the above expression is evaluated as x= (3.0/6)*8 which results into 4.

Q. Guess the output of the following program.

I. x =2*3+4/5-6*7
print ("x=" +str(x))
Output:
x= -35.2
Hope, you understand the following evaluation very easily.
X = 2*3 + (4/5)-6*7
= (2*3) + 0.8 - (6*7)
= (6+0.8)- 42
= -35.2

II. a=1
b=2
c=3
d=4
a=b=d=10-c
print ("a=", a)
Output:
a=7
a=b=d=(10-c)
a=b=(d=(10-c))
a=(b=(d=(10-c)))

III. a=1
b=2
c=3
d=4
a -= b*c
d=10
print ("a=" +str(a))
Output:
a= -5
40 Core Python for Everyone

3.4 Logical Operators

Logical expression is that which contains logical operator(s). Logical expression results into a true or
false value. Any non-zero value is treated as true, while other values are treated as false. AND, OR,
NOT are logical operators.

Let’s understand these operators one by one.

k= (1<9) and (51>12) # k is true.

In case of and operator, both the operands must be true to get the evaluation of expression true.
Input 1 Input 2 Output
True True True
True False False
False True False
False False False
Operand 1 is evaluated first. If it is true, then only operand 2 is evaluated.
k= (7==7) and (108>98) # true. Both the operands are evaluated
k=false and (6>2) # false Operand 2 is not evaluated i.e. (6>2)
k=(6>2) and (0 ==1) # false Both the operands are evaluated
k= (7>7) and (7!=7) # false Operand 2 is not evaluated i.e. (7!=7)

Let’s write a program that accepts 3 integers (say num1, num2 and num3) from user and displays the
highest number. The logic of this program is as below.
1. Accept 3 integer numbers from user.
2. if (num1 is greater than num2 and num1 is greater than num3)
Display num1 as highest number
else if (num2 is greater than num1 and num2 is greater than num3)
Display num2 as highest number
else
Display num3 as highest number.

Program 3.16:
num1= int(input(“enter num1: “))
num2= int(input(“enter num2: “))
num3= int(input(“enter num3: “))
if (num1 >num2) and (num1>num3): #suite 1
print ("Highest number= " + num1) #suite 2
elif (num2 >num1) and (num2>num3): #suite 1
print ("Highest number= " + num2) #suite 3
else : #suite 1
print ("Highest number= " + num3) #suite 4
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 41

In case of logical or operator, either one of the operands must be true to get the evaluation of expression
true.
Input 1 Input 2 Output
True True True
True False True
False True True
False False False

In order to evaluate conditional expression in the if statement, we need to use logical or operator. The
evaluation of logical expression is true if either of the operand of logical or operator is true.

k= ( 1 = = 1) or ( 6 > 3 ) # true. Operand 2 is not evaluated i.e. (6>3)

k= (1 ! = 1 ) or ( 6 > 3 ) # true Operand 2 is evaluated i.e. (6>3)
k= ( 6 > 3) or (1 ! = 1 ) # true Operand 2 is not evaluated i.e. (1!=1)
k= ( 1 ! = 1 ) or ( 1 ! = 1 ) # false Operand 2 is evaluated i.e. (6>2)

Let’s write a program that accepts input number from user and prints the message.
“Number entered is either divisible by 3 or 5.”
The algorithm is simple
1. Accept input number from user.
2. if ((number is divisible by 3) or (number is divisible by 5))
Display “Number entered is either divisible by 3 or 5.”
3. “Number entered is either divisible by 3 or 5.” can be written as below

Program3.17:
num= int(input(“Enter the number: “))
if (num%3==0) or (num%5==0):
print ("Number entered is either divisible by 3 or 5.")

Let’s modify program 3.17 so that it should print following message.

“Number entered is either not divisible by 3 or 5.”

It means we need to check the number entered is either not divisible by 3 or 5. (num%3==0) expression
is true when number is divisible by 3. When number is not divisible by 3, we need to invert the result.

not operator operates on a single value. If the value is true, it inverts it to false and vice versa.

Input Output
True False
False True
k=not 5; # k is false
k=not 0; # k is true
k=not -1; # k is false
42 Core Python for Everyone
Following program accepts integer from user and prints the following message.
“Number entered is either not divisible by 3 or 5.”

Program 3.18:
num= int(input("Enter the number: "))
if not ( (num%3==0) or (num%5==0)):
print ("Number entered is either not divisible by 3 or 5.") #indented 3rd statement

We have started using indentation from Program 3.2. Let me explain the concept of indentation with
the example of program 3.18. There are blank spaces at the beginning of “ #indented 3rd statement:”
Python uses indentation instead of curly braces to indicate group of instructions or instructions block.
The statements with the same indentation belong to the same group called a suite. In the program 3.16,
suites are shown for your understanding.

3.5 Point to Remember

1. if, else, elif, and, or, not are keywords in Python.
2. In Selection control flow Statements in a program are executed based on certain condition(s)
defined in a program. e.g if, if-else
3. When one statement out of given 2 statements is executed based on the result of a condition
then if-else statement is used.
4. Expression is a combination of an operator and operand that evaluates to a constant value.
5. Conditional operator can be nested.
6. Operators having same precedence are evaluated according to their associativity
7. Logical expression is that which contains logical operator(s). and, or, not are logical
operators.
8. Logical expression results into a true or false value.
9. Any non-zero value is treated as true, while other values are treated as false.

3.6 Deep Knowledge Section

Q.1 Guess the output of the following program
I. num1=11
num2=98
num3=78
if (num1>num2):
print ("One")
if (num2>num3):
print ("Two")
else:
print ("Three")
Output:
Two
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 43

The ambiguity to evaluate statements in the above program is resolved as follows.

Associate else with the closest previous if.
else is attached with the closest else-less if. Hence,
if(num2>num3):
print ("Two")
else:
print("Three")
is treated as separately.

II. num1=11
num2=98
num3=78
if (num1<num2):
#start of block statement
print ("One")
if (num2>num3):
print ("Two")
else:
print ("Three")
# End of block statement
Output:
One
Two
Block statement is a statement that contain none or many statements. The above used
block statement contains print method call as first statement and if-else statement as a
second statement.1.

Questions
Q.1 State true or false.
i. In sequential control flow, instructions are executed one after another.
ii. When numerator and denominator are integer values the result is always integer.
iii. In selection control flow Based on certain condition defined in the program,
statements in a program are executed.
iv. Expression can be any combination of variable, operator and/or constant
v. Any non-zero value in Python is treated as true, while, 0 is treated as false.
vi. Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm
vii. No expression is optional in conditional operator.
viii. Operator precedence decides the operands of an operator and not the evaluation
order.
ix. Negative value in Python is treated as false.
44 Core Python for Everyone
Q.2 Guess the output of the following program.
i. k=0
if(k>=0):
print(“Mr. Sangram Kendre is very active and smart.”)
else:
print(“Mr. Govind and Atul are ever smiling.”)
ii. k=2
if(k-2==k-2):
print(“Balasaheb Kushappa”)
else:
print(“Nashik”)

iii. k=2
if(k=k-2):
print(“Calcutta”)
else:
print(“Madras”)

iv. k=2
if(k==k-2):
print(“Shrihari”)
else:
print(“Akshay”)

v. k=2
if(k-k):
print(“Govinda.”)
else:
print(“Vittal.”)
vi. k=0
if(k++):
print(“Ajay Kumbhar.”)
else:
print(“Nikhil Delekar”)

vii. k=0
if(++k):
print(“Gayatri Bahirat.”)
else:
print(“Shravani Bahirat.”)
 Structured Programming: Sequential and Selection Control Flow 45

viii. m=0
i=7
j=3
k=8
n=5
m=i*j + k + n
print(“m=” ,m)

Q.3 What is a control flow? Discuss various types of control flows with examples?
Q.4 Which control flows are features of structured programming?
Q.5 Which control flow is not a feature of structured programming?
Q.6 What is a side effect in case of expression evaluation?
Q.7 Compare the followings.
i. structured and unstructured programming
ii. if-elif
Q.8 Which expression is mandatory in case of while and do-while loop?
Q.9 Write a program that finds the average of 4 decimal values supplied by a user?
Q.10 Write a program that determines number supplied by a user is even or odd?
Q.11 Write a program using if-elif construct that checks the number supplied by a user is
completely divisible by 2 , 4 and 16?
Q.12 A student will not be allowed to sit in exam if his/her attendence is less than 75%.Take
following input from user:
Number of classes held, Number of classes attended and print percentage of class
attended.Then check whether student is allowed to sit in exam or not.?
Q.13 Modify the above question to allow student to sit if he/she has medical cause. Ask user if
he/she has medical cause or not ( 'Y' or 'N' ) and print accordingly.

Answers:
Q1.
i. True ii. True iii. True
iv. True v. True vi. True
vii. True viii. True ix. False

Q2.
i. Mr. Sangram Kendre is ii. Balasaheb Kushappa iii. Compilation error
very active and smart.
iv. Akshay v. Vittal vi. Compilation Error
vii. Shravani Bahirat. viii. m=34
46 Core Python for Everyone

Operator Precedence Table

Precedence Operator Meaning Associativity
()
12 Parentheses Left to Right

11 ** Exponent Left to Right

Multiplication, Division, Floor division,

10 *, /, //, % Left to Right
Modulus

9 +, - Addition, Subtraction Left to right

8 <<, >> Bitwise shift operators Left to right

7 & Bitwise AND Left to right

6 ^ Bitwise XOR Left to right

5 | Bitwise OR Left to right

==, !=, >, >=, <,

4 <=, is, is not, Comparisons, Identity, Membership operators Left to right
in, not in
3 not Logical NOT Left to right
2 and Logical AND Left to right
1 or Logical OR Left to right
 Chapter
(a)

4
(b)

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING:
ITERATION CONTROL FLOW
If someone asks you the summation of numbers starting from 0 to 1000, how much time will you
require to calculate it? Will you able to calculate it quickly & that too without mistake? Computer can
do this task of summation in fraction of a second & that too without any calculation mistake.
Human beings have certain limitations where computer’s use is highly beneficial. One of the main
benefits of a computer is to perform repetitive task without doing any mistakes. This chapter discusses
how one can write Python language loops (instructions) to perform repetitive tasks.

4.1 while loop

Let’s write a program that displays five consecutive numbers (series of numbers) starting from 12 and
the difference between two consecutive numbers should be 5. It should not include the starting number
12. i.e. Program should print output as 17,22,27,32,37.
The steps involved to do this task manually are as below.
1. Note the starting number as 12 and the difference between two consecutive numbers is 5.
num = 12 diff = 5
2. Add the difference number “diff” to “num”, store it into “num” and display the new number.
3. Add the difference number “diff” to “num”, store it into “num” and display the new number.
4. Add the difference number “diff” to “num”, store it into “num” and display the new number.
5. Add the difference number “diff” to “num”, store it into “num” and display the new number.
6. Add the difference number “diff” to “num”, store it into “num” and display the new number.
The complete program can be written as shown below.
Program 4.1:
num = 12
diff = 5
num = num+diff # Repetitive instruction
print ("Number = “, num) # Repetitive instruction
num = num+diff
print ("Number = “, num)
num = num+diff
48 Core Python for Everyone

print ("Number = “, num)

num = num+diff
print ("Number = “, num)
num = num+diff
print ("Number = “, num)
Output:
17
22
27
32
37

Q. What is the meaning of the instruction num= num + diff?

In Mathematics, num = num + diff is not correct. In case of programming, right hand expression of
equal to (=) operator is evaluated first and evaluated result is stored at the left-hand side variable.
In case of instruction 1, right hand side of expression i.e. num i.e. 12 is added to diff i.e. 5 in this case
& stored in left hand side variable num i.e. 17. Previous value present in num is overwritten.
Left hand side of assignment operator (=) must have variable name & not any constant. Instructions
sum+3=sum*4 or 4=sum etc. are not allowed as left side of = must have only unique variable name.
Python being a concise language, it allows to express num = num +diff like num +=diff.
+= is known as “addition assignment” operator.
The program 4.1 displays five consecutive numbers starting from 12 (excluding 12) and the difference
between two consecutive numbers is 5. Suppose your friend asks you to display 1000 consecutive numbers
in this series, how can you enhance the above program?
You can observe that there are repetitive instructions as shown by marked lines. You have to repeat
this repetitive instruction(s) to calculate next number in the series of these numbers. As you want to
display 1000 consecutive numbers in this series, you have to copy and paste the below instruction 995
times in the above program as 5 times repetitive instructions are already in this 4.1 program.
num=num+diff
print(“Number=” +num)
But, is it a practical solution? There can be a mistake in writing such lengthy programs. Instead of
copying these repetitive instructions 995 times, you may copy it less or more than 995 times by mistake.
Is there any way in Python by which one can write repetitive instruction(s) once and execute it specified number
of times? Yes, Python provides loop programming construct that executes repetitive instruction(s) for
the specified number of times.
Can I write following repetitive instructions once and execute it 1000 times? Yes.
num=num+diff
print(“Number=” +num)
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 49

Loop is a programming construct by which a computer can execute set of instruction(s) repetitively
for a specified number of times.

We should know following information to write a loop.

➢ Repetitive set of instruction(s)
➢ Number of times the loop is executed
➢ Initial values of the variables used in the repetitive set of instruction(s)

In case of the program 4.1, information is as below.

Repetitive instruction(s) num=num+diff
print(“Number=” +num)
Number of times the loop is executed 5
Initial values of the variables used in the repetitive num=12,
set of instruction(s) diff=5

In order to count number of the times the loop is executed, there should be a variable in a program that
counts the number of times executions of the repetitive instruction(s)1 . This variable is known as a loop
counter i.e. loop counter counts the repetition of the loop.
General form of a while loop:
while loop executes a set of instruction(s) repetitively until the conditional expression is true.
while <conditional expression>
<Repetitive statement(s)> #

In case of the program 4.1, we can initialize the value of the loop_counter to 0 at the start of the loop.
When the repetitive set of instruction(s) gets executed once, loop_counter should get incremented by
1. When the value of the loop_counter becomes 5, the loop should stop executing and the next statement
in the program should get executed.
Program 4.2:
num = 12
diff = 5
loop_counter=0 # loop counter is initiliased by value 0
while loop_counter<5 :
num = num+diff # Repetitive instruction
print ("Number = “, num) # Repetitive instruction
loop_counter= loop_counter+1 # loop counter is incremented by 1

1
Instruction(s) means instruction or instructions
50 Core Python for Everyone

Advantages of loops:
1) The instruction(s) written by using loop construct are compact (small in size).
2) It’s easy to modify, enhance and maintain the programs that is written using loop construct.
3) Chances of making mistakes in writing a repetitive set of instruction(s) repetitively like a
sequential control flow are more. In case of loops, repetitive set of instruction(s) are written
only once, whereas, sequential control flow where repetitive set of instruction(s) are written
more than once.
4) Suppose if the number of times of repetition of the instruction(s) set is changed, you have to
add repetitive instruction(s) set or delete already written repetitive instruction(s) set(s) in case
of a sequential control flow. In case of loops, you have to change the conditional expression.
e.g. If tomorrow you want such 10000 numbers, you can easily do underlined change like this

Program 4.2 (Modified)

num = 12
diff = 5
loop_counter=1
while loop_counter<10000 : # Minor change
num = num+diff
print ("Number = “, num)
loop_counter= loop_counter+1

4.2 for loop

Like while loop, it is possible to use for loop.
General form of a for loop:
for value in sequence:
Repetitive instruction(s)
where
sequence: a list or a string.
value: it is a variable that stores the value of current item from the sequence.

For the above 4.2 program,

Sequence / list: [0,1,2,3,4]
Repetitive Statement:
num=num+diff
print(“Number=” +num)

Hence, the program 4.1 can be written using for loop as below.
Program 4.2:
num = 12
diff = 5
for i in [0,1,2,3,4]:
num = num+diff # Repetitive instruction
print ("Number = “, num) # Repetitive instruction
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 51

Variable i sequentially iterates through the list [0,1,2,3,4] i.e. At first iteration, i gets automatically
assigned to first value in the list i.e. 0 in the list [0,1,2,3,4] and then executes repetitive set of
instruction(s). After the first iteration, i gets assigned with the next value in the list i.e. 1 in this case.
This continues till i gets assigned with a value 4.
Now, as discussed earlier, we need to display 1000 consecutive numbers starting from 12 and with a
difference of 5. We need to specify list as below.
sequence / list: [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7……………...,999]
It is not practical to write a list of such 1000 numbers. Is there anyway by which we can generate such list
automatically? Yes, Python provides in-built function range(start, stop, step) which does it.
range(start, stop, step) where,
Start: [Optional][Default=0] An integer number specifying at which position to start.
Stop: [Required] An integer number specifying at which position to end (excluding the integer
specified).
Step : [Optional][Default=1] An integer number specifying difference between two consecutive number
in sequence.
range(5) produces list [0,1,2,3,4]
The complete program can be written as below by using for loop construct
Program 4.2 (for loop):
num = 12
diff = 5
for i in range (5):
num = num+diff
print ("Number = “, num)

Loop is an example of iteration control flow.

Let’s understand simpler example for the better understanding of for loop.
Practice Example 1: Calculate the sum of the numbers starting from 0 to 12.
Let us store the summation of numbers starting from 0 to 12 in a variable sum. Before beginning to add
the numbers starting from 0, we have to initialize variable sum with value 0.
sum=0
sum=sum+0
sum= sum+1
sum= sum+2
sum= sum+3
sum= sum+4
sum= sum+5
sum= sum+6
sum= sum+7
sum= sum+8
sum= sum+9
sum= sum+10
sum= sum+11
52 Core Python for Everyone

sum= sum+12

It is seen that left hand operand of + is a variable name i.e. sum is a variable present at the left side of +
operator. Right side operand is a constant value which is varying from 0 to 12. Hence, we can write it
as sum=sum + value.

As sequence is varying from 0 to 12, we can initialize sequence to range (13). For the above program,
sequence / list: range (13)
Repetitive Statement: sum=sum + value

Fig.4.1
The complete program can be written as below.
Program 4.3:
sum = 0
for value in range (13):
sum = sum + value
print ("Number = ",sum)
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 53

Practice Example 2: Write a program that calculates a factorial of a given number.

The steps involved are as follows.
1. Ask the user to enter a number for which he or she wants to calculate the factorial.
2. Receive an input number for which you want to calculate the factorial
3. As we know factorial of a number
Fact=number*(number-1) * (number-2) *……...*1
e.g. For a number 5
Fact=5*4*3*2*1
which can be written as
Fact=Fact*5
Fact=Fact*4
Fact=Fact*3
Fact=Fact*2
Fact=Fact*1
It means above operation is repetitive where num is varying from num to 1.
The decrement is by 1. Hence, we can write
Sequence: range(1,6)
Repetitive Statement:
fact=fact*value
4. Display the factorial value.

The complete program can be written as

Program 4.4:
factorial=1
num = int(input("Enter the number = "))
if if num < 0:
print("Sorry, factorial does not exist for negative numbers")
elif num == 0:
print ("The factorial of 0 is 1")
else:
for i in range(1,num + 1):
factorial = factorial*i
print("The factorial of",num,"is",factorial)
54 Core Python for Everyone

Let’s write a program 4.3 using while loop that calculates sum of the numbers starting from 1 to 12.
Program 4.5:
sum = 0
loop_counter = 0
while (loop_counter<13):
sum = sum+loop_counter
loop_counter+=1
print("The total sum is = ",sum)

Q. Guess the output of the following programs.

I. i=0
sum=0
for i in range( 11):
pass
sum=sum+i
print("Number is:" ,sum)
Output:
Number is: 10

If you see carefully, there is a pass keyword in for block, it indicates the repetitive statement is
blank. Hence, this loop gets executed 10 times. After the execution of the loop, the statement
sum=sum+i gets executed. The value of the sum is 0 and the value of i becomes 10. Hence, the output
is 10.

II. sum = 0
i=0
for i in range (0,10,2):
if (i==10):
i=i+1
sum = sum+i
print (sum)
Output:
0
As variable i starts with value 0, it iterates like 0,2,4,6,8 and stops when its value becomes 10. Hence,
if condition never becomes true and does not execute its body. Hence, the value of the sum variable
remains 0 and 0 gets printed.
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 55

III. a=[10,20]
for i in a:
a.append(i)
print(a)
Output:
This is an infinite loop because the list a grows in each iteration. You will understand list in the later
part of this book.

IV. sum = 0
for i in range (0,21,2):
if (i!=10):
i+=2
sum = sum+i
print (sum)
Output:
120

Guess the value of the MAX so that following loop gets executed exactly 12 times.
V.
sum = 0
max = int(input("Enter the value of MAX so that following loop should get execute only 12 times"))

for i in range(1,max,2):
sum = sum+i//2 # // is integer division operator
print("Iteration ",(1+i//2))
Output:
User should enter the value of MAX as 24 or 25 in order to get following output.
Iteration1
Iteration2
Iteration3
Iteration4
Iteration5
Iteration6
Iteration7
Iteration8
Iteration9
Iteration10
Iteration11
Iteration12
56 Core Python for Everyone

Q. Why multiple loop constructs are provided? Which loop construct should be used?
You can use any loop construct. Following is the detailed comparison chart. Multiple loop constructs
are present only for programmer’s convenience.

for while
1 for value in (sequence) while(expression)
statement statement

2 for loop iterates through a sequence. while loop works based on a condition.

3 It may execute zero or multiple times It may execute zero or multiple times based on
based on the sequence provided. the condition specified as expression.

4 Generally used when the number of Generally used when the number of the
the repetitions of a loop are fixed or repetitions of a loop is not fixed.
to iterate over a list or string.

5 for loop requires a list or iterable, Only 1 expression is mandatory. Initialization

there is no expression, condition or expression generally appears before while loop
increment/ decrement expression. starts. Increment / decrement expression appears
inside the statement part of while loop.

6 When continue is executed inside the When continue is executed inside the while loop,
for loop, it skips the rest of the code the control is transferred to the conditional
inside the loop for the current expression which gets evaluated.
iteration only and loop continues on
with next iteration.
7 When accessing element from list or When we have a condition after which loop has
any iterable for loop is preferred. to be terminated while loop is preferred.

sdfdsfd
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 57

4.3 break (Jump control flow)

break is a jump control flow. When the break statement gets executed inside the loop, it immediately
stops the execution of the instruction(s) inside that loop and the next statement after the loop gets
executed.

Let’s understand this concept by a simple program that calculates the number of the digits present in
each number.
1. Receive an input number from the keyboard.
2. Assume the input number received is 8745. Divide the number by 10 and again divide the result of
division by 10 unless the division is less than 1.
i. Let’s divide 8745 by 10 which results in 874.
ii. Let’s divide 874 by 10 which results in 87.
iii. Let’s divide 87 by 10 which results in 8.
iv. Let’s divide 8 by 10 which results in 0.8, which is less than 1.
v. No. of digits in the number = No. of times the division operation carried as above

Program 4.6:
num=int(input())
count=1
while 1:
if(num/10>1):
count+=1
num/=10
else:
break
print(“No. of digits”, count)

OR
Alternative method is as below.
1. Receive an input number from the keyboard.
2. When any integer number is divided by 10,100,1000,10000 etc. and if we get the division less
than 1 and more than 0.1, then that particular number has n digits where divisor=10^n. i.e. If
we divide 57382 by 100000 then we get the division 0.57382. Hence, the number is 5 digits.
e.g. If the input number is 57382 then
Divisor Division
10 5738.2
100 573.82
1000 57.382
10000 5.7382
100000 0.57382
3. As the number of the digits are not known in advance, we are not sure how many times the
division operation by values 10, 100, 1000 etc. is needed to be repeated. Hence, we can operate
this repetitive operation infinite number of times and exit from the loop when the division is
less than 1 and above 0.1
58 Core Python for Everyone

When the condition i.e. division is less than 1 and above 0.1 is fulfilled, break
statement should be used to exit from the loop.
if division < 1 and division >0.1
break
4. In this case divisor is needed to be changed by a factor of 10. Hence, we have to write it like
this inside the loop.
divisor = divisor*10
Divisor is initialized by:
divisor=1
5. We can define variable that stores the value of the number of times of repetition of a loop. The
final value stored in this variable is the number of the digits in a number.
6. We need to check for ‘0’ in input as 0 is one-digit number.

Program 4.7:
num=int(input())
count=0
divisor=1
while 1:
if(num==0): # if we encounter 0 as input
count+=1
break
if(1<num/divisor>0.1):
count+=1
divisor*=10
else:
break
print(“No. of digits”,count)

4.4 continue
continue is a jump control flow. When the continue statement gets executed inside the loop, the program
control gets immediately transferred to the conditional expression in case of while loop and next value
in the list gets assigned to a loop counter in case of a for loop. If the conditional expression is true, the
loop continues in a usual manner in case of while loop, whereas, the loop continues until value is present
in the sequence.

break continue
1 When break statement gets executed inside the When continue statement gets executed
loops (like for, while), it immediately stops the inside the loop, the program control gets
execution of instruction(s) in the loop and the next immediately transferred at the beginning
statement after the loop gets executed. of the loop. The loop execution continues
with its next iteration.

2 break statement can be used inside any loop. continue statement can be used inside any
loop.
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 59

Let’s write a program that calculates the sum of numbers starting from 0 till 20 and the number should
not be divisible by 2 or 3. In this program, we need to modify repetitive statement in such a manner
that when any number that is completely divisible by 2 or 3, it should not be added.

We cannot use if-else statement because we need to exit from the loop. If we use break statement, the
loop will get terminated & other numbers won’t be considered. As we just want to skip that number
and want to continue the loop for other consecutive numbers, we should use continue statement

Program 4.8:
rem1= 0
rem2= 0
sum= 0
for i in range (0,21):
rem1=i%2
rem2=i%3
if (rem1==0 or rem2==0):
continue
sum+=i
print("The sum of all numbers starting from 0 to 20 and not divisible by 2 or 3 is ",sum)

4.5 Nested loops

Every loop has a repetitive statement. When any loop statement contains one or more loops inside it,
it is called as a nested loop.

Let’s write a program that displays the following pattern.

*
**
***
****
*****
******
*******
********
*********
**********
Explanation:
‘*’ is a character that needs to be displayed for fixed number of times based on the line number.
Line 1: Display character 1 time.
Line 2: Display character 2 times.
Line 3: Display character 3 times.
Line 4: Display character 4 times.
Line 5: Display character 5 times.
Line 6: Display character 6 times.
Line 7: Display character 7 times.
60 Core Python for Everyone

Line 8: Display character 8 times.

Line 9: Display character 9 times.
Line 10: Display character 10 times.

‘*’ is a character. Hence, we need a variable which will store it.

ch =’*’ ;ch holds the character ‘*’ where ch is the name used to refer memory location where ‘*’ is stored.

The print method can be used to display a character.

print(ch)

Suppose we want to display ‘*’ as output 10 times, the simplest logic to implement it is
for i in range(1,11) :
print(‘*’)
Above code prints exactly one star in each line, as print method in Python automatically appends
newline character. To avoid printing to new line each time we must prove a blank string in ‘end’
argument of print method.
print(‘*’, end=””)
It will print in same line. However, we want to print the ‘*’ as per the line number. Now, when the line
number is 2, we need to print * twice. Hence, it is another loop that prints * equal to line number times.
For this we need a new loop which would start iteration from 0 for every iteration. All these characters
should be printed on a line and when the last character is printed, cursor should be moved to next line.
Hence, print () should be the instruction after the execution of inner for loop.

Program 4.9:
ch = "*"
for i in range (1,11):
for j in range (0,i):
print(ch, end="")
print()

The program 4.9 can be alternately written as below. This program executes if-else condition which
requires more CPU cycles and subsequently time to execute the same. Hence, it’s not advisable solution.
Program: 4.10:
ch = "*"
for i in range (1,11):
for j in range (0,i):
if (j==i-1):
print(ch)
else:
print(ch, end="")
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 61

4.6 Counter Controlled and Sentinel Controlled Loops

When the number of the repetitions of a loop is known in advance, it is known as controlled or
definite loop. e.g. All the programs discussed so far are examples of this category.

Suppose now we want to calculate the average marks of many friends standing in a queue in front of
your computer, you need to click executable of this program for every friend. As we are doing the same
operation, let’s use the loop. However, we do not know the number of the repetitions of a loop in
advance. Hence, we will define a condition that will be evaluated based on user input. The program
should be continued unless the user enters N as a choice.
Program 4.11:
while 1:
physics=int(input("Please Enter Physics Marks : "))
chemistry=int(input("Please Enter chemistry Marks : "))
mathematics=int(input("Please Enter mathematics Marks : "))
average= (physics+chemistry+mathematics)/3
print("Average marks is ",average)
choice=input("If don’t want to continue, press 'N’,Otherwise press any other character")
if choice[0]=='N':
break

Practice Example 3: Write a program that calculates LCM and GCD of 2 input numbers.
Program 4.12:
x = int(input(“Enter a number”))
y = int(input(“Enter a number”))
if x>y:
smaller = y
greater = x
else:
smaller = x
greater = y
for i in range(1, smaller//2+1):
if((x % i == 0) and (y %i == 0)):
gcd=i
while 1:
if((greater % x == 0) and (greater % y == 0)):
lcm = greater
break
greater += 1
print(“LCM is “,lcm , “ and GCD is “, gcd)
 62 Core Python for Everyone

Practice Example 4: Write a program that generates following pattern using 4 2 for loops. e.g. If the
input value is 5, it should generate a pattern as below.
1
12
123
1234
12345
1234
123
12
1
Program 4.13:
inp = int(input("Enter input “))
for i in range(1, inp+1):
for j in range(1,i + 1):
print(j, end=””)
print(“”)
for i in range(1, inp+1):
for j in range(1, inp-i):
print(j, end=”)
print(“”)

Practice Example 5: Write a program that produces following pattern.

*
**
***
****
*****
Program 4.14:
for i in range(1,6):
print(" " *(5-i), "* " *(i),sep="")

Q. What is a structured programming? Does Python support structured programming?

Structured programming defines logical structure of instruction(s) that makes easy to read, write and
maintain a program. It follows following approaches in general.
i. It sets certain rules to use nesting, branching and doing iterations in a program. Ideally, it allows
sequential, selection and iteration control flow in a program.
ii. It divides a program into small units known as function (method).
iii. It defines a block structure that allows to define local variables.
iv. Python language supports methods, sequential, selection, iteration control flows and block
structure. Hence, Python is a structured language.

Q. What are the different keywords used to to exit from a loop?

i. break ii. return
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 63

4.7 Points to Remember

1 for, while, break, continue are reserved keywords
2 for i in range(10):
print(i)
i = 5 #assigning any value here doesn’t affect the execution of for loop as it is overwritten
# in next iteration.
3 A loop that executes set of instruction(s) endlessly is called as an infinite loop. Conditional
expression never becomes false in case of infinite loop if it does not contain any jump
statement like break, exit, return etc. that gets executed in repetitive set of instruction(s) of a loop
Following program is an example of infinite loop.
i=1
while i>0:
print(“I am learning to write a program”)
4 In while loop Loop_counter can be incremented/decremented by any value based on the
requirement as below.
loop_counter= loop_counter + 2
loop_counter= loop_counter - 1
loop_counter= loop_counter+0.45
Following program calculates sum of all even numbers starting from 0 to 1000 & displays it.

sum = 0
loop_counter=0
while(loop_counter<=1000):
sum+= loop_counter
loop_counter+=2
print (“The sum is “, sum)

4.8 Deep Knowledge Section

Q Guess the output of the following program.
I. t=[1,5] # Pl, study this example after studying chapter 6 i.e. list
for i in t:
t.remove(i)
t.append(i+1000)
print(t)
Output:
[5, 2001]
The sequence is modified inside the loop, Python internally keep track of item to be used
next iteration. As first item is removed, 5 becomes the first item & 1 is appended to list
after adding 1000 to it since the actual length of list is unchanged Python in second
iteration the internal counter uses the next element which is now 2001 hence, the output.
64 Core Python for Everyone

II. Write a program that calculates the sum of integers starting from 0 to 100. Do not use
for, or while loop.

def add(num):
if (num==0):
return 0
else:
return (num+add(num-1))
a = add(100)
print(a)

III. Write a program that calculates the sum of integers starting from 1 to 100 using while
loop that has conditional expression always true.

sum=0;i=1
while 1: #Conditional expression is always true
if i!=101 :
sum=sum+i
else:
break
i=i+1
print("The sum of the numbers starting from 1 to 100 is",sum)

IV. Write a program that generates following pattern using 1,2 and 3 for loops.
e.g. If the input value is 5, it should generate a pattern as below.
1
12
123
1234
12345
1234
123
12
1

#for loop Approach:

inp = int(input("Enter input "))
for i in range(1, inp+1):
for j in range(1,i + 1):
print(j, end=’’)
print(“”)
for i in range(1, inp):
for j in range(1, inp-i+1):
print(j, end='’)
print(“”)
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 65

V. Write a program that calculates  using Monte Carlo method?

Let’s first understand how to calculate  (pi) manually. This method is invented by
Monte Carlo. Fig. shows a circle having center(0,0) and radius N which is inscribed inside
a square. Needless to mention, length of the side of a square is 2N.

Area of a Circle =*N2 Where N is the radius of a circle.

Area of a Square =(2N)2 = 4N2 Where 2N is the length of the side of a square.
Area of a Circle Number of points present inside a Circle
--------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------
Area of a Square Number of points present inside a Circumscribed Square

*N2 Number of points present inside a Circle

---------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------
4N2 Number of points present inside a Circumscribed Square

 Number of points present inside a Circle

--------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------
4 Number of points present inside a Circumscribed Square

Number of points present inside a Circle

 = 4 * ---------------------------------------------------------------
Number of points present inside a Circumscribed Square
It means we can calculate  if we can count number of points present inside a circle
considering all points inside a square. As square and circle are equally divided in 4
quadrants, let’s consider all points in a 1st quadrant and inside a circumscribed square.

Coordinates of end point of a diagonal in a 1 st quadrant are (N, N). Any other point
whose x or y coordinate are greater than N are outside the square. Hence, we have to
consider points whose x and y coordinates values lies in a range starting from 0 to N.
66 Core Python for Everyone

Let’s check mathematically whether any point a(x1, y1) is inside a circle. Hope you
remember the distance formula.
distance of point a(x1, y1) from origin(0,0)=√ (x 1-0)2 +( y1-0)2
=√ (x12 + y12) i.e. square root of (x12 + y12)
When distance of a point from origin is less than radius N, the point lies inside a circle.
Hence, we can verify
N=√ (x12 + y12)
i.e. (x12 + y12) < N2 # Squaring both sides

Assume radius of a circle is 1000 i.e. N=1000

Let’s divide x-axis of 1st quadrant of radius N into 1000 strips. For first strip, the value of
x-coordinate is 1 and the value of y-coordinate varies from 1 to 1000. It means we need
to check,

(1)2+(1)2 <= (1000)2 # Point is inside a circle

(1)2+(2)2 <= (1000)2
(1)2+(3)2 <= (1000)2
…………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………….

(1)2+(999)2 <= (1000)2

(1)2+(1000)2 <= (1000)2

These are error prone and tedious calculations, let’s use Python for loop.
for j in range(N+1):
if (1*1+(j*j)<=N*N) :
count+=1
Similarly, For 2nd strip
(2)2+(1)2 <= (1000)2
(2)2+(2)2 <= (1000)2
(2)2+(3)2 <= (1000)2
…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

(2)2+(999)2 <= (1000)2

(2)2+(1000)2 <= (1000)2

Similarly, For 1000th strip

(1000)2+(1)2 <= (1000)2
(1000)2+(2)2 <= (1000)2
(1000)2+(3)2 <= (1000)2
…………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………….

(1000)2+(999)2 <= (1000)2

(1000)2+(1000)2 <= (1000)2

For 2nd strip

for i in range(N+1):
if (2*2+(i*i) <=N*N):
count+=1
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 67

It means we need above repetitive calculation for x coordinate values varying from 1 to
1000.

for i in range(N+1):
for j in range(N+1):
if (i*i+(j*j) <=N*N):
count+=1
The complete program is as below.

n= int(input("Enter the value of N : "))

count = 0
for i in range (1,n+1):
for j in range (1,n+1):
if ((i*i)+(j*j)<=(n*n)):
count+=1
pi = 4.0*count/(n*n)
print ("Value of Pi is: ",pi)

The above program may not calculate correct value of pi for smaller values of N like 5,
10, 100 etc. Following modified version of the program calculates correct value of pi for
any value of N like 0.000000000000000000001, 0.000000.1,0.1,1,10 ,1000,100000 or more.

n= int(input("Enter the value of N : "))

count = 0
step = 5000
total_points = 0
i=n/step
while i<=n:
j=n/step
while j<=n:
total_points+=1
if ((i*i)+(j*j)<=(n*n)):
count+=1
j+=n/step
i+=n/step
pi = 4.0*count/total_points
print ("Value of Pi is : ",pi)
68 Core Python for Everyone

Questions
Q.1 State true or false.
i. Loop is a programming construct by which a computer can execute set of instruction(s)
repetitively for the specified number of times.
ii. While loop executes a set of instruction(s) repetitively while a condition is true.
iii. For loop in Python evaluates the condition in every iteration.
iv. A loop that executes sets of instruction(s) endlessly is called as infinite loop
v. When the break statement gets executed inside the loop, it immediately stops the
execution of instruction(s) inside that loop and the program terminates.
vi. It is possible to write a nested loop.
vii. Range method takes up to two argument.
viii. Label keyword is present in Python.
ix. We can have nested for loop
x. Sequence(iterable) is optional in for loop.
xi. For loop is preferred in case of iterating through a list of element.
xii. Expression is mandatory in while loop
xiii. When the break statement gets executed inside the loop, it immediately stops the
execution of instruction(s) inside that loop and the next statement after the loop gets
executed
xiv. When the continue statement gets executed inside the loop, the program control gets
immediately transferred to the conditional expression in case of while loop

Q.2 Guess the output of the following program.

i. sum = 0
for loop_counter in range(10):
sum+=loop_counter
print(“The total sum is sum” ,sum)

ii. t[1]
for i in t:
t.append(i)
print(i)

iii. sum=0
for i in range(0,10,2):
sum=sum+i
print(“Sum is “, sum, end=””)

iv. sum=0; i=1

while i!=10 :
sum=sum+i
i+=2
print(“Sum is”, sum)
v. for i in range(1, 10):
print ("*"*i)
 Structured Programming: Iteration Control Flow 69

vi. t=list(range(1,10))
for i in t:
if i%2 == 0:
t.append(i*1.5)
print(t)

vii. t=[100, 1000, 10000]

for i in t:
t.remove(i)
t.append(i+5)
print(t)

Q.4 Which control flow types are features of structured programming?

Q.5 Which control flow is not a feature of structured programming?
Q.6 Using for loop and range method create two lists, one of even and other of odd number
till 100?
Q.7 Is sequence mandatory in case of for loop?
Q.8 Compare the followings.
I. break and continue
II. structured and unstructured programming
i. for and while
Q.9 Which expression is mandatory in case of while?
Q.10 Write a program that finds the average of 4 decimal values supplied by a user?
Q.11 Write a program that determines number supplied by a user is even or odd?
Q.12 Write a program using if-elif-else construct that checks the number supplied by a user
is completely divisible by 2, 4 and 16?
Q.13 Write a program using for loop that checks the number supplied by a user is completely
divisible by 5, 25 and 125?
Q.14 Write a program using any loop that prints following text.
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
70 Core Python for Everyone

Q.15 Write a program using any loop that prints following text.
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hello
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Hi
Q.16 Write a program using continue statement that prints all numbers expect numbers
which are not divisible by 7 and or 9.
Q.17 Write a program by using a break construct that prints all numbers starting from 10 to
100 until the sum of the digits of a number are divisible by 11. (Hint: Use break construct
when this condition becomes true.)
Q.18 Write a program without using a break construct that prints all numbers starting from
10 to 100 until the sum of the digits of a number are divisible by 11.
Q.19 Write a program that calculates the average of 4 numbers until the user types the
character Y?
Answers:

Q1.
i. True ii. True iii. False iv. True
v. False vi. True vii. False viii. False
ix. True x. False xi. True xii. True
xiii. True xiv. True

Q2.
i. The total sum is sum 45 v. *
ii. NameError: Name t is not defined **
iii. Sum is 20 ***
iv. Infinite loop ****
vi. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 3.0, 6.0, 9.0, 12.0, 9.0, 18.0, 27.0] *****
vii. [1000, 105, 10010] ******
*******
********
*********
 Chapter

5
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING:
FUNCTION
5.1 Introduction
We have been using mobile in our daily life. But, do we know how mobile is designed and created?
Without knowing the details of it, we are using it. Similarly, as a programmer, we have been using
print function since we wrote first Python program. Do we know whether print is a single instruction
or set of instructions? We don’t know, but we are using print function to print output as per our
requirement.

5.2 Function
5.2.1 Why Function?
Let’s write a program that calculates the highest number from a set of 3 numbers i.e. 12, 79 and 18. One
can easily write following algorithm to develop this program.
1. Store the numbers 12, 79 and 18 into a memory.
2. Compare number1 with number2. If number1 is greater than number2, store number1 as the
highest number else store number2 as the highest number.
3. If number3 is greater than the highest number, number3 is the highest number.
4. Display the value of highest number.

Program 5.1:
number1=12; number2=79; number3=18
if(number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3

print('The highest number from a given set of three numbers is ',highest)

72 Core Python for Everyone

Output:
The highest number from a given set of three numbers is 79.

Good job! In the above program, you have written a set of instructions (code) that finds the highest
number from 12, 79 and 18.

Assume for some reason, again you need to find highest number from following set of three numbers.
i. 12, 79, 18 ii.534, 8, 91 iii.314, 2, 10

You may write a program in a following manner.

Program 5.2:
number1=12
number2=79
number3=18
if(number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3
print('The highest number from a given set of three numbers is ',highest)
number1=534;number2=8;number3=91
'' 'Repetition One'''
if (number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3
print('The highest number from a given set of three numbers is ',highest)
number1=314;number2=2;number3=10
'''Repetition Two'''
if(number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3
print('The highest number from a given set of three numbers is ',highest)
Output:
The highest number from a first set of three numbers is 79.
The highest number from second set of three numbers is 534.
The highest number from third set of three numbers is 314.
 Structured Programming: Method 73

It is easily understood that the instructions shown in the bold letters in the above program are used 3
times to calculate the highest number from the sets. i.e. (12, 79, 18); (534, 8, 91) ;(314, 2, 10).

Suppose if you need to find the highest number from such 1000 sets of numbers, you may feel to copy
and paste repetitive set of these instructions 1000 times.

But, do you think it is a practicable approach? Of course not! it’s not at all practicable approach. There
can be mistakes in copying and pasting these set of instructions. Moreover, it increases the source
code size of a program. Naturally, following thought will pop up in your mind.

Is there any way by which one can write set of instructions once and use (refer) it for different values to perform
the same task whenever needed? The solution is to use Python function feature that allows to write set of
instructions once, refer it by name and use it whenever required.

It means it is possible to write the above bold lettered set of instructions once (that calculates highest
number from 3 numbers), refer it by some name and use it to find the maximum number from any 3
integers whenever needed.

5.2.2 What is a Function?

In layman’s language, function provides functionality. e.g. Watch provides functionality of showing
you a correct time. Here, we pay money for the watch and purchase it. We are not bothered how watch
is designed and developed to display the correct time. We are only interested to use the watch to see
correct time whenever needed.

Function Name: PurchaseWatch

Parameters: Money and Name of the company of watch
Return Value: Watch

The idea is to identify repetitive set of instructions & develop a function so that instead of writing the
same instructions (code) again and again for different inputs, we can call the function.

Function is a set of instructions arranged in a logical sequence to perform a certain task repeatedly.

Following steps can be used to define a function.

1. Identify set of instructions that needs to be repeated to perform certain task
2. Refer these set of instructions by a valid identifier (function name) & write it in this standard
format. def <function name>: . Do not forget to write after writing the function name.
3. Mention the input parameters on which these set of instructions operate. All these input
parameters must be mentioned after a function name inside parentheses separated by a comma.
4. Function operates on input parameters and returns result as it’s return value. Unlike Java, the data
type of this return value is not mentioned before the name of a function name.
74 Core Python for Everyone

Let’s use above 4 steps to write a function that finds maximum number from three integer numbers.

Following are the steps to write a function that finds the highest number from 3 integer numbers.

Step 1: Identify repetitive set of instructions & write it as shown below.

if(number1 > number2):

highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3

Step 2: These set of instructions can be referred by any valid identifier/function name. e.g. find_max
Do not forget to mention def keyword before writing function name and : after writing function name.

def find_max(): # Do not forget to mention def keyword before writing function name
if(number1 > number2): # and : after writing function name
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3

Step 3: These instructions operates on 3 numbers. Hence, input parameters number1, number2 and
number3 must be mentioned inside parentheses separated by a comma after find_max.

def find_max(number1,number2,number3) :
if (number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest)
highest = number3

Step 4: These repetitive set of instructions operate on the values number1, number2 and number3 and
returns the highest value among them.

The complete function find_max can be defined as below.

def find_max( number1,number2,number3):

if(number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3
return highest
 Structured Programming: Method 75

Program 5.1 can be rewritten using function concept as below.

Program 5.3:
def find_max( number1,number2,number3):
highest=0
if(number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3
return highest

# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)

highest=find_max(12,79,18)
print("The highest number from given set of three numbers is ",highest)
Output:
The highest number from given set of three numbers is 79.

FAQ:
Q. What is the meaning of the below instruction in the above program?
highest = find_max(12,79,18)
Here, find_max(12,79,18) is used to call the find_max function. As per the definition, find_max function
accepts 3 numbers and returns a number. When compiler tries to compile this statement, it checks
whether the definition of find_max function is present in the code or not. If it is not present, it gives
compilation error. e.g. def find_max( num1, num2, num3) can be interpreted as

Function Name find_max

Input Parameters 12,79,18
Return Value Highest

Function parameters are separated by a comma as shown in the calling find_max function.

Q. How a function find_max( number1, number2, number3) can be called/invoked/used?

It can be called by passing input parameter values appropriately. e.g.

find_max(12,89,78) # Finds maximum value between 12,89,78 and returns it to the calling function

However, it is not a practicable approach as we are not storing value returned by a function find_max.

If you want to save the return value of the called function, you must define a variable that can store the
return value of find_max function.

max_value = find_max(12,89,78)

Q. Is it mandatory to save the return value of a function when it is called?

No. It’s optional.
76 Core Python for Everyone

Q. What are actual and formal parameters of a function?

A formal parameter, i.e. a parameter in the function definition. An actual parameter, i.e. a parameter,
in a function call. Formal parameters need to be mentioned in the function definition.
e.g. def find_max(number1, number2, number3)

Here number1, number2 and number3 are the formal parameters. No memory is allocated for the
formal parameters.

When a function is called as shown below.

max_value = find_max(number1, number2, number3) #Actual Parameters

values stored in variables number1, number2, number3 are copied to the corresponding formal
parameters in a sequence. These are actual parameters because the actual values stored in these
variables are passed to a function.

Q. What will happen if the statement returns highest; is not mentioned at the end of function
find_max? Will it give compile time error?
No, this is allowed in Python. But it will not serve our purpose of writing and using function.

Q. Is it possible to write program 5.3 without storing result in a variable like highest? How?
Yes.

print("The highest number from a given set of three numbers is " ,find_max(12,79,18))

Q. Instead of using name find_max, can I use abc as a function name?

Yes, it is legal. Any valid identifier can be used. However, it is better to use function names which has
relevant meaning to a functionality of that function. It improves the readability of a program and hence
helps at the time of maintenance, enhancement of the application.

Q. How many input parameters a function can have?

Function can have 0 to any number of parameters depending upon the requirement.
Following program shows the use of a display function that accepts input as an integer, displays the
word “Great” on a new line equal to the value of the integer passed as a parameter and does not return
anything.
Program: 5.4
def display(n):
while(n>0):
print("Great")
n=n-1
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
display(2)
Output:
Great
Great
 Structured Programming: Method 77

Q. Give an example of a function that does not require any input parameter and returns nothing?
Assume that you need to write a postal address more than once in a particular situation. Writing an
address of someone is tedious task. Being a repetitive task, let’s write address inside a function once
and (use) call a function whenever it is necessary to display.

Following program defines function showAddress that displays the address. It does not require any
input parameter and does not return any value to the calling function.

Functions which do not have a return statement are called as void functions. void functions are those
that do not return anything. None is a special type in Python which is returned after a void
function end.

Program: 5.5
def showAddress():
print(" Amit Deshapande.")
print(" 34,Dhanraj Housing Society.")
print(" Flat No.5.")
print(" Shaniwar Peth.")
print(" Pune.")
print(" Maharashtra.")
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
showAddress()

Q. Is function feature of a structured programming? How it helps to write better programs?

Function is a feature of structured programming.
Function provides systematic structure to write better programs. By using function, one can reduce the
size of the source program that improves the readability and helps at the time of
maintenance/enhancement. Moreover, use of function allows us to divide the project work in a team
that we will study in the later part of this chapter.

Q. Guess the output of the following program.

def fun(a,b,c):
return (a + b + c)/3.0
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
print("Values is" ,fun(10,20,30))

Output:
Value is 20.0
(a + b + c)/3.0 represents an expression. As expression results into a value, function can return an
expression. (a + b + c) / 3.0 is evaluated as value of float type and returned to the called function.
78 Core Python for Everyone

5.3 Scope of a Variable

One of my friends lost his driving license. When he visited police station, the concerned authority said
”You cannot complaint at this police station. Please, visit the police station of area where you have lost
the license.” You must be thinking how this narration is related to Python programming? Yes, Python
also defines certain rules so that defined variable or function can be accessed based on the visibility of
that variable or function in the area of a program (project) from where it is accessed.
Let’s guess the output of the following program.

Program 5.6:
def find_max( number1,number2,number3): # Function starts
highest=0
if(number1 > number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3 > highest):
highest = number3
return highest # Function ends
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
print("The highest number from given set of three numbers is ",highest) #Line 13

You must be surprised to see this compilation error.

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "Test.py", line 13, in <module>
print("The highest number from given set of three numbers is ",highest)
NameError: name 'highest' is not defined
Yes, highest variable is defined inside find_max function. When variable is defined inside any function,
it is accessible inside that function only. It means variable has function scope.
Scope of a variable depends upon a program unit (i.e. block, function, global etc.) where it is defined.
e.g. If the variable is defined inside a function, it has a function scope
Similarly, if the variable is defined inside a block it is only accessible in that block.
Program 5.7:
a=10
def fun():
if(a>0): #if block starts
b=201 # b is defined inside a block
print(b) #if block ends
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
print(b) #Line 8
Again, you must be surprised to see the compilation error.
 Structured Programming: Method 79

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "Test.py", line 8, in <module>
print(b)

Yes, b variable is defined inside if block as shown. When variable is defined inside any function,
it is accessible inside that function only. It means variable has function scope.
Variable defined inside a function or block is known as local variable. The scope of a local variable
starts from its definition and continues till the end of the block that contains the variable. A local
variable must be declared before it can be used. Local variable must be initialized.

5.3.1 Nested Function

When a function is defined inside another function, it is called as nested function.

Program 5.8:
def fun(): # Outer function fun1 begins
i=10

def fun1(): # Inner function fun1 begins

print(i) # Inner function fun1 ends
fun1() # Outer function fun1 ends

fun()

Output:
10

Here, fun1() is defined inside outer function fun() & referred as inner function.

It is important to note that the outer function must be called in order for the inner function to execute.
If the outer function is not called, the inner function will never execute.

Let’s try to guess the output of the following program.

Program 5.9:
def fun():
i=10

def fun1():
print(i)
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
fun()

Output:

The output is blank because inner function fun1 is defined inside outer function fun(), but it is not
called. Hence, it is necessary to call inner function from outer function to use it.
80 Core Python for Everyone

Let’s try to guess the output of the following program.

Program 5.10:
def fun():
i=10
def fun1():
i=20
print(i)
fun1()
print(i) # Accessing value of i from outer function
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
fun()
Output:
20
10

It is seen that though we have changed value of variable i inside inner function, it is not reflected (got
changed) in outer function. So, how it is possible to achieve so that the value changed in inner function
gets reflected in outer function as well? Yes, Python provides nonlocal keyword.
Program 5.11:
def fun():
i=10
def fun1():
nonlocal i # Modified value of i gets reflected in the outer function as well
i=20
print(i)
fun1()
print(i) # Accessing value of i from outer function
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
fun()

Output:
20
20

When any variable is defined inside function, it is only accessible in that function. Is there any why by
which we can declare a variable inside function, and it can be accessed outside? Yes, define that variable
as global inside that function.
Program 5.12:
def fun():
global j
j=123
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
fun()
 Structured Programming: Method 81

print(j)
Output:
123

The same is true for nested functions as well.

Program: 5.13
def fun():
i=10

def fun1():
global i
i=20
fun1()
fun()
print(i)

Output:
20

It is important that the function where global variable is defined must get called at least once before it’s
used, otherwise, the instruction that defines global variable does not get called and variable is not
initialized. Hence, you will get compilation error.

Let’s try to guess the output of the following program.

Program: 5.14
def fun():
i=10

def fun1():
global i
i=20
fun1()
print(i) # Though i is defined global, this i refers to the value stored in outer function i.
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
fun()
print(i)

Output:
10
20

Though i is defined global, this i refers to the value stored in outer function i.

✓ In general, indentation defines a scope.

✓ In Python, we can usually access a variable if it is defined with the same level of indentation until
indentation level changes
82 Core Python for Everyone

5.3.2 Teamwork is Spirit

Do you think that it is possible to construct a building by a single person? Of course not, it’s not
practical. Many people work together to construct a building. Similarly, software application is
developed by more than one person.

In the software industry, when any application is developed, it is difficult for a single person to write
all functions. Hence, the work is divided into different team members.

Let’s write a program that finds the difference between maximum and minimum number from given
set of 3 numbers. Assume that there is a team of 3 members Amit, Nisha and Team Leader who are
involved in the development of this program.

Let’s divide the work among team members as below.

Amit: find_max function
Nisha: find_min function
Team Leader (TL): program from where we call the functions

As all these 3 team members cannot work in the same file, let them work independently. Initially, they
require to develop separate programs and deliver these programs to a team leader so that he can
integrate it.
As Amit has to write find_max function, he has to create a file Max.py where he can write the definition
of a find_max function as below.

#Max.py
def find_max(number1,number2,number3):
highest=0
if(number1>number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3>highest):
highest = number3
return highest

Similarly, Nisha has to write find_min function, she has to create a file Min.py where she can write the
definition of a find_min function as below.
#Min.py
def find_min(number1,number2,number3):
lowest=0
if(number1<number2):
lowest = number1
else:
lowest = number2
if(number3<lowest):
lowest = number3
return lowest
 Structured Programming: Method 83

What about Team Leader’s work? Team leader must write a driver file (main file) which can use
find_max and find_min functions to find the difference between maximum & minimum number from
given set of numbers. Max.py, Min.py and Driver.py should be in the same directory.

In order to access functions defined in Max.py, it is necessary to define below instruction before you
use it.
from Max import find_max

#Driver.py
from Max import *
from Min import *
max1 = find_max(34,23,22)
max2 = find_max(314,123,122)
max3 = find_max(234,223,222)
max4 = find_max(4,23,5)
min1 = find_min(34,23,22)
min2 = find_min(314,123,122)
min3 = find_min(234,223,222)
min4 = find_min(4,23,5)
print("The difference between highest and lowest number is ",(max1-min1))
print("The difference between highest and lowest number is ",(max2-min2))
print("The difference between highest and lowest number is ",(max3-min3))
print("The difference between highest and lowest number is ",(max4-min4))
Output:
The difference between highest and lowest number is 12
The difference between highest and lowest number is 192
The difference between highest and lowest number is 12
The difference between highest and lowest number is 19

This program successfully executes and displays the expected result.

Suppose if there are many functions and we want to use only one function; we can use below
instruction. Below is the instruction to access find_max function from Max.py file assuming there is
more than one function inside Max.py file.

from Max import find_max

5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of using Functions

Advantages:
1) Function avoids writing the same instructions repetitively to achieve the same functionality
for different parameters. This reduces the number of the instructions in the source program. It
helps at the time of maintenance or enhancement of an application.

2) Reusability of a code is one of the main advantages of using functions. Functions once written
and tested thoroughly can be used from anywhere.
84 Core Python for Everyone

Function follows the approach “Write once, use forever”. e.g. In the calculation of highest marks
in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics subjects’ program, we can use find_max function
developed here.

3) Standard library contains many functions like print() that is used frequently in a program
without knowing how these functions are developed. Otherwise, one must write around 125-
150 instructions to achieve a functionality of print() function which is not advisable.

4) It’s possible to divide the project work among different team members to complete the project
in time. e.g. One member can write find_max function, another find_min and TL can write driver
function. This helps to team members to work independently and develop defect free code.

5) Independent software vendors can write function implementations as per the requirement. It
means they need not have to provide function implementation and hence they can keep their
code secret. At the same time, client can use it without any problem. In a big project, it is not
possible for a client to develop whole project on own. Hence, he/she can ask the vendors to write
functions.

More Explanation point 3:

Do you know how mobile is designed and created? Without knowing the details of it, you are using it.
You are least bothered if it is fulfilling your expectation. In daily life, we use many standard readymade
units (Components) instead of reinventing the wheel. Similarly, it’s better to use standard
independently functioning separate units to develop a program so that

➢ It saves the time in program development as no pains to develop these units.

➢ As these units are tested well, chances are rare to cause any defect because of the incorrect
functioning of these readymade standard units. e.g. We have used print() function to display data
on the console without knowing the details of the implementation of print() function. If a function
concept wouldn’t be available, one had to copy and paste around 100 lines each time a print needs
to be invoked.

Explanation Point 4:

If function construct is not used and work is divided in a team, it is necessary to copy and paste the
code written by every member in the main program. If there is any error in the work of any member,
whole instructions in the main function needs to be checked which is time consuming and not
practicable. Suppose if the member who has written find_max function leaves the company and new
member joins, he/she must understand the whole main program which is not desirable. New member
can only understand find_max function.

Q. Are there any disadvantages of using a function?

When a function is called,
i. Address of the instruction that is present after a function call is made is copied on the stack.
ii. Values of actual parameters passed to function are copied on the stack as formal parameters.
ii. Local variables of a functions are created on the stack.

It means function call requires more memory and consumes time in copying the data. Hence, it reduces
speed and memory.
 Structured Programming: Method 85

Python function is a collection of statements that are grouped together to perform an operation. When
you call the print() function, for example, the system executes several statements in order to display a
message on the console.
Q. Is it possible to find the highest number between 6 whole numbers by using a find_max
function that just finds highest number between a set of 3 numbers?
Yes, it is possible.
Program 5.15
def find_max(number1,number2,number3):
highest=0
if(number1>number2):
highest = number1
else:
highest = number2
if(number3>highest):
highest = number3
return highest
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
max1 = find_max(17,111,67)
max2 = find_max(9,78,6)
highest = find_max (max1, max2,max2)
print("The highest number is ",highest)

Q. Is it possible to use the find_max function to find highest number between these 2 numbers like
789,112? If yes, write a Python program that calls a function find_max to find the highest value
between 789,112?
Yes. Following is the instruction that finds highest number between 789 and 112.
max_num = find_max(789,112)
Q. Can function max find the highest number between 11.5, 19.1, 581?
Yes. Python provides a special library function max(). If we write the following instruction
max_num = max(11.5,19.1,581) It will give us the maximum value between them.

Following chart gives detail information of scope

Type of Scope Life Initial Default Storage

variable Values
Local Function/Block Until the block/function Need to be Stack
level Scope gets executed where it is initialized
declared/defined.
Class/Static Class level Till a program execution 0 Stack
Variable scope completes.

Instance Determined by Until the object to which it Need to be Heap

access specifier belongs is defined initialized
NOTE: Static variables & instance variables will be discussed in the later part of this book.
86 Core Python for Everyone

5.5 Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself.

Let us go through a program that calculates addition of numbers starting from 1 to that number. e.g. If
the input number is 5, the addition of all numbers starting from 1 to 5 is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 5

Program 5.16:
def add(num):
sum=0
for num in range(1,num+1):
sum = sum + num
return sum
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
addition =add(3)
print(" ",addition)

Explanation:
If you think slight differently, you will feel addition of numbers starting from 5 to 1 can be written as
below. You can pass 5 as input parameter to a function add.

Addition of number starting from 5 to 1 = add(5)

= 5 + add(4)
= 5 + 4 + add(3)
= 5 + 4 + 3 + add(2)
= 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + add(1)
= 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + add(0)
It is clear that
• add(5) can be computed if add(4) is known.
• add(4) can be computed if add(3) is known.
• add(3) can be computed if add(2) is known.
• add(2) can be computed if add(1) is known.
• add(1) can be computed if add(0) is known.

You can easily interpret add(0) as addition of numbers starting from 0 and ending with 0. i.e. add(0) is
0. It means we know return value of add(0) without any computation. If we write add function
specifying the value of add(0) as 0, add function can easily compute add(1),add(2)…,add(number)
where number is an input parameter to a function add.

add function can be written by using below approach.

“If the input number is 0, return 0 as a return value, else return number + add(number); “

def add(number):
if(number==0):
return 0
else:
return number + add (number - 1)
 Structured Programming: Method 87

Let’s assume that number 0 is passed as input parameter, then 0 is returned (as a return value) which
is the expected behavior of a function. If number is 2, then

def add(number):
if(2==0):
return 0
else:
return 2 + add(1)

Function add(2) calls itself by passing a parameter1. Hence a new space on the stack for add(1) is
created for function add(1). Now, add(1) calls add(0). Hence, again new space in the memory for a
function add(0) is created on the stack. When 0 is passed as input parameter, 0 is returned. Hence, we
get the value of add(1) as 1. Subsequently, add(2) is 3 which is returned as a return value to the calling
function.

Following program defines function addOrFactorial. addOrFactorial function accepts 2 parameters.

➢ It calculates the addition of the first parameter if second parameter passed is 0.

➢ It calculates the factorial of numbers starting from that number to 1 if second parameter
passed is 1.
➢ If second parameter is neither 0 nor 1, function returns -1.

addOrFactorial

Second Second
parameter parameter 1
0

add fact
Fig.5.2
88 Core Python for Everyone

Program 5.17
def addOrFactorial(x, y):
if (x == 1):
return 1
elif( y == 0):
return add(x)
elif(y ==1):
return fact(x)
else:
return -1
def add(y):
return(y + addOrFactorial( (y - 1),0))
def fact(y):
return(y*addOrFactorial( (y - 1),1))
# Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
print("Addition of numbers starting from 1 to 5 is ",addOrFactorial(5,0))
print("Factorial of 5 is ",addOrFactorial(5,1))
Output:
Addition of numbers starting from 1 to 5 is 15
Factorial of 5 is 120

It is seen that addOrFactorial function calls either add or fact function which again calls addOrFactorial.
As addOrFactorial function does not call itself directly but calls another function which in turn calls
again addOrFactorial, it is known as indirect recursion.

When a recursive function is indirectly called, it is known as indirect recursion.

If recursive function “fun” calls another function “fun1” which in turn again calls function “fun”, then
it is an example of indirect recursive function.
Hence, we can write the definition of recursive function more precisely as below.

When a function calls itself directly or indirectly, it is known as recursive function.

It is little difficult to write indirect recursion function when the number of the instructions in a function
implementation increases. These functions sometimes become difficult to understand. Hence, it should
be used wherever required with precaution.

5.5.1 Practice Program 1:

Q. Write a recursive function power that calculates power of a given integer number.
Program 5.18:
def power(x,y):
if (y==0):
return 1
else:
return x*power(x, y-1)
 Structured Programming: Method 89

#Driver function(Actual execution of program begins here)

print(power(3,2))

5.5.2 Practice Program 2:

Q. Write a recursive function factorial that calculates factorial of a given number.
Program 5.19:
def factorial(num):
if (num==1):
return num
else:
return num*factorial(num-1)
print(factorial(5))

5.5.3 Practice Program 3:

Q. Write a program that calculates a Fibonacci number of a given number.
The series of numbers that starts with 2 numbers 0, 1 and then each next number in the series is the
sum of the two preceding numbers is known as the Fibonacci series. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, ... (each number is the sum of the previous two).

Every number in the Fibonacci series is Fibonacci number. e.g.

First Number: 0 Second Number: 1

Third Number: First Number + Second Number = 0 + 1 = 1
Fourth Number: Second Number + Third Number = 1 + 1 = 2
………………………
……………………………….
nth Fibonacci Number = (n-1)th Fibonacci number + (n-2)th Fibonacci number

Program: 5.20
def fibonacci(num):
if (num==0):
return 0
elif(num==1):
return 1
else:
return fibonacci(num-1) + fibonacci(num-2)
#Driver function(Actual execution of program begins here)
print(("Fibonacci is ", fibonacci(10))
90 Core Python for Everyone

5.5.4 Practice Program 4:

Q. Write a recursive function display that accepts integer value as a parameter and display "Hi" on
separate line equal to the value of the argument passed.

Program: 5.21
def display(i):
if(i==0):
return i
else:
print("hi")
display(i-1)
display(4)

5.6 Lambda (Anonymous) Function

Lambda or anonymous function is a function that is defined without a name.

lambda arguments: expression

lambda is a keyword in Python. Lambda function can have any number of parameters, but, only 1
expression. The expression is evaluated & returned as a result (return value).

Let’s write lambda function that accepts x,y as arguments and return multiplication of x,y.

lambda x,y: x*y # lambda function begins with lambda keyword as shown,

This can be called by writing lambda function as shown and providing arguments in the parentheses.

(lambda x,y : x*y) (3,4)

This will print nothing. However, if you use print statement, you will able to see output.
Program 5.22:
print( (lambda x,y: x*y) (3,4) )
Output:
12

So, whenever you want to use lambda function, you have to write definition and then provide
parameters inside parentheses as shown in the above program. This can be avoided by referring
lambda function by any variable .
Program 5.23:
Multiply=lambda x,y : x*y
print(Multiply(2,3))
print(Multiply(9,8))
Output:
6
72
 Structured Programming: Method 91

Lambda function is used when we require a function without name and that too for short time.

Let’s use lambda function as a first argument of filter function. Filter function takes first argument as
a function and second argument as list1 of parameters.

Let’s write filter() function that filters out the list and returns only odd numbers

filter( lambda x: (x%2 != 0) , my_list )

oldList = [1, 5, 4, 6, 8, 11, 3, 12]

filter( lambda x: (x%2 != 0) , oldList )

As there will not be output, let’s create list of filtered out odd numbers. i.e. odd numbers are stored in
the lst and displayed.

Program 5.24:
oldList = [1, 5, 4, 6, 8, 11, 3, 12]
lst=list( filter( lambda x: (x%2 != 0) , oldList ) )
print(lst)
Output:
[1, 5, 11, 3]

5.7 Points to Remember

1. Function definition/implementation is always written with respective indentations.

2. Python supports dynamic typing.

3. It is not necessary that function should always have last instruction as a return value
instruction. Multiple return statements can exist for a single function. However,
when 1 return statement is executed, no other statement inside that function gets
executed.

4. Function can only return one value at a time. It is not possible to return more than 1
value from a function at a time.

5. Parameters must be passed to a function in the order mentioned in a function

declaration/prototype/signature.

6. We can define one function inside another function.

7. Function employs top down design approach. One can start with the main function
and later he or she can divide a program in many functions.

1
You can study this part of lambda function after understanding the concept of list in the chapter 6.
92 Core Python for Everyone

8. When we call any function by passing variable names as below,

one = 9
two = 12
k = sum(one, two)

Variable names are not passed. Values of the variables are passed. It means in the
above function, 9 and 12 are passed as parameters to a function.

9. Static variables are known as class variable. Static variables are not instance or local
variable. We cannot define static variables inside a function.

10. If static variable is not explicitly initialized, it gets automatically initialized with a
value 0.

11. Return statement can return an expression because expression results into a value.

def sum(int a, int b):

return (a + b)

12. When function calls itself, more complicated call to a function is expressed as a simple
calculation. e.g. fact(5) is expressed as 5*fact(4) and so on.

13. A case for which the answer is known (and can be expressed without recursion) is
called a base case. e.g. In case of factorial function, return value of fact(0) is known in
advance. Each recursive algorithm must have at least one base case as well as the
general (recursive) case. e.g. fact function cannot be expressed recursively if return
value of fact function for any number is known.

14. Advantages of using recursive function are it can be written more elegantly.

15. It reduces source code size of that function.

16. Disadvantages of using recursive functions is that more space (memory) is

required on the stack to store return address of calling function, local variable as
well as parameters passed to that function. The speed of the execution is also lesser
than the iterative function calls because the same function is called which requires
copying of the parameters while passing to it.

17. In case of recursive function, if the condition is not satisfied that calls further
execution of the same recursive function, program abnormally terminates as it goes
into the infinite loop.

18. The static function cannot use non-static data member or call non-static function
directly. ( You will study this in the class related concept)
 Structured Programming: Method 93

19. Function body can’t be empty.

def fun():
# Empty function body. This will not work.

20. It is possible to define a function that does not do anything.

def fun():
pass

5.7 Deep Knowledge Section

Q 1. What is a Python decompiler?
Decompiler is to reverse engineer Python bytecode back into equivalent Python source code. A
decompiler for Python should get the respective source file.

Q2. Guess the output of the below programs.

i.
def main():
k=1
print("inside")
if(k==1):
k+=1
main()
print("k=",k)
main()

This program displays “inside” as output continuously and terminates as it is an infinite loop.

ii.
def display(j):
print(j )
return(j)
i=5
print(display(i) + i)
Output:
5
10
94 Core Python for Everyone

Questions
Q.1 State true or false.
i. The default return data type of a function is an integer.
ii. Function is a set of instructions arranged in a logical sequence to perform a certain task.
iii. Function can return one or more parameters at a time.
iv. Maximum 3 parameters can be passed to a function.
v. The scope of local variable is the block or function where it is declared/defined.
vi. Life of static variable is till the end of a program.
vii. Function employs bottom up approach.
viii. Every function should contain at least one statement.
ix. Recursive function can be called directly or indirectly.
x. One function cannot call another function.
xi. Instance variable can be speedily accessed as compared to class variable.
xii. print() is a user defined function.
xiii. Function is a primitive data type.
xiv. Function is a user data type.
xv. Though standard print() function is available, one can write print() function as per his/her
requirement and use it.

Q.2 Guess the output of the following programs.

i. class test: # Note: Pl, solve this after studying class concept in chapter 9.
x=0
def stat(self):
self.x+=1
print("x= ",self.x)
t=test()
k=0
j=0
for j in range(1,4):
t.stat()
print("x = ",t.x)

ii. def sqr(x):

x=x*x
return x
t=sqr(3)
a=10
print(a+1,sqr(a+1))

iii. def fun(x):

y=0
 Structured Programming: Method 95

y=x*2
return y
k=7
j=3
print(fun(j))

iv. def fun(x):

y=0
y=x*2
return y
k=7
k=fun(fun(k))
print(fun(k))

v. class Test:
count = 0
@staticmethod
def display():
print(Test.count)
Test.count = Test.count+1
Test.display()
Test.display()

Q.3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a function?

Q.4 Write a function that finds highest number from a set of 4 decimal numbers.
Q.5 Write a function that finds lowest number from given 5 numbers.
Q.6 Explain in detail how a function is called?
Q.7 Explain the meaning of the following keywords.
a. return
b. static
c. local instance
Q.8 Discuss the situations where you will use following type while defining a variable.
a. local
b. instance
c. static
Q.9 What is a scope of a variable? What different types of scopes a variable can have?
Q.10 Write a program that calculates simple and compound interest. Create separate functions
for simple and compound interest and write them in the same source file. Before program
termination, display the count which shows number of times these functions called in the
program.
96 Core Python for Everyone

Q.11 Write a program that calculates simple and compound interest. Create separate functions
for simple and compound interest and write them in separate files. Before program
termination, display the count which shows number of times these functions called in a
program.
Q.12 Write a program that calculates factorial of numbers starting from 2 to 8.
Q.13 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using recursive function?
Q.14 Compare iterative and recursive function.
Q.15 What are actual and formal parameters in a function
Q.16 What is called function and calling function? Explain with an example

Answers:
Q1.
i) False ii) True iii) False iv) False
v) True vi) True vii) False viii) True
ix) True x) False xi) True xii) False
xiii) False xiv) True xv) True

Q.2
I x = 1,2,3 ii 11 121 iii 6 iv.56 v 0
x=3 1

General Information
The Fibonacci numbers are Nature's numbering system. They appear everywhere in Nature, from the
leaf arrangement in plants, to the pattern of the florets of a flower, the bracts of a pinecone, or the scales
of a pineapple. The Fibonacci numbers are therefore applicable to the growth of every living thing,
including a single cell, a grain of wheat, a hive of bees, and even all of mankind.
For more information, please visit http://www.world-mysteries.com/sci_17.htm
 Chapter

9
(a)

CLASS
9.1 What, Why and When Class Data Type?
Think for a moment that you are staying in a hostel. Let’s say that there are 253 students staying in 253
rooms. Consider for a while that no room is allocated to a student, anyone can stay in any room and
keep his/her books, clothes, bags and other items in any room.

➢ Will it be easy task for you to locate your item like book, bag etc. after say 2 weeks?

Practically this problem can be solved by allocating a room to a student where he/ she can keep his/her
books, clothes, bag and other items. It means your books and items are bound to a room now and can
be easily located.

Similarly, there are many entities involved in programming (project), Every entity has many attributes.
Managing data associated with entities become challenging & leads to cause errors. Hence, systematic
organization of data helps to develop better programs (projects). It’s better idea to group attributes
related to a particular entity into a single unit. At this stage, you can think entity is an item that has
physical existence. e.g. person, car, book. Attributes of a book can be book name, author name, number
of pages, price, ISBN number, Edition etc.

We will learn soon how this (grouping of attributes related to an entity) approach enables systematic
organization of data, reduces number of variable names (identifiers) in a program which automatically
improves readability and hence, maintenance becomes easy.

Let me define class at primary level as below. We will improve its definition eventually as your
knowledge enhances ☺.

Class is a data type that provides a convenient means of grouping attribute(s) and method1(s) related
to a particular entity under a single name. It helps for easier handling and identification of data. These
attributes can be of similar or dissimilar (int or float or char etc.) data types.

Entity time is associated with 3 attributes. i.e. seconds, minutes and hours. Entity tile is associated with
attributes: type of tile (like ceramic, marble etc.), length, breadth, price, weight etc.

11
Function defined inside the class is known as method.
144 Core Python for Everyone

It might be difficult for you to digest this concept at this stage, but, let us try to understand the concept
of a class practically by understanding the following program.
Let’s write program checks and displays whether individual metal brick purchased is pure or impure.
Assume that the shape of the metal brick is cuboid as shown in the figure.

Metal Length Breadth Height Mass Accurate

Name (cm) (cm) (cm) (gm) Density
gm/cm3
Silver 10 9.5 2.8 2793 10.5

Gold 7.1 5.8 9.1 89 19.3

Platinum 3.5 2.7 1.8 189 21.4

Hint: i. Calculate the volume of a cuboid=length*breadth*height;

ii. Then, calculate density=mass/volume;
iii. Check whether calculated and accurate density of a metal are equal.
• If the calculated density and accurate density of metal are equal, metal is said to be pure.
Every metal has a unique density. It means density of silver is always 10.5. If the calculated density of
a brick is exactly equal to accurate density, the metal is pure.
Program 9.1:
# Silver Metal Plate. Initialization of attributes associated with a metal brick.
s_name="Silver"
s_length=10.00
s_breadth=9.5
s_height=2.8
s_mass=2793
s_accurate_density=10.5
# Gold Metal Plate. Initialisation of attributes associated with a metal brick.
g_name ="Gold"
g_length=7.1
g_breadth=5.8
g_height=9.1
g_mass=89
g_accurate_density=19.3
# Platinum Metal Plate. Initialisation of attributes associated with a metal brick.
p_name="Platinum"
p_length=3.5
p_breadth=2.7
p_height=1.8
p_mass=189
p_accurate_density=21.4
 Class 145

def determinePurity(name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
volume=length*breadth*height
density=mass/volume
if(density == accurate_density):
print("Metal " + name + " is pure.")
else:
print("Metal " + name + " is not pure.")
#Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
determinePurity(s_name,s_length,s_breadth,s_height,s_mass,s_accurate_density)
determinePurity(g_name,g_length,g_breadth,g_height,g_mass,g_accurate_density)
determinePurity(p_name,p_length,p_breadth,p_height,p_mass,p_accurate_density)

Output:
Metal Silver is pure.
Metal Gold is not pure.
Metal Platinum is not pure

Q. What is the functionality of determinePurity( ) function?

This function accepts parameters associated with a cuboid shaped metal brick referred here.
It calculates density of a given metal brick and compares with the accurate density of a given metal.
If the calculated density and accurate density of a given metal is equal, the metal is said to be pure.
In the above program 9.1, there are 6 variables associated with every metal brick i.e. Metal name, length,
breadth, height, mass, accurate_ensity. Hence, total variable names associated with 3 metal plates are
6 3=18.
If we want to check purity of such 1000 metal bricks, we require 6000 (Number of variable names
per metal brick  Number of bricks=61000=6000) variables. As the number of the variables
increases, the program 9.1 becomes unreadable. Consequently, it becomes difficult at the time of
debugging2 the instructions and subsequently also in the maintenance 3/enhancement of an application.
Is there any data type in Python which allows user to define all attributes associated with an entity so that number
of variables gets reduced in the program? Yes, it’s class.
As metal brick is associated with the attributes name, length, breadth, height, mass and accurate
density, let us define class CuboidMetal that associates these mentioned attributes.

class CuboidMetal #Beginning of CuboidMetal class

name
length
breadth
height
mass
accurate_density #End of CuboidMetal class

2
Debugging is a process of finding and reducing the number of bugs/defects in a program.
3
Software Maintenance is the process of enhancing the application or remedying defects.
146 Core Python for Everyone

Further, it is seen that values of the attributes related to class CuboidMetal are initialized as below.

# Silver Metal Plate

name="Silver"
length=10.00
breadth=9.5
height=2.8
mass=2793
accurate_density=10.5

This has been repeated 3 times to initialize values of attributes associated with Silver, Gold &
Platinum metal plates. The instructions (code) are repetitive. Instead of writing the same instructions, is
it possible to write a method to initialize these attributes associated with every metal plate? Yes.

def createCuboidMetal(name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
name = name
length = length
breadth = breadth
height = height
mass = mass
accurate_density = accurate_density

In case of referred metal brick, createCuboidMetal and determinePurity methods are associated with
entity CuboidMetal. Hence, class CuboidMetal can be defined as

class CuboidMetal # Beginning of CuboidMetal class

name
length
breadth
height
mass
accurate_density
def createCuboidMetal(name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
name = name
length = length
breadth = breadth
height = height
mass = mass
accurate_density = accurate_density
def determinePurity(name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
volume=length*breadth*height
density=mass/volume
if(density == accurate_density):
print("Metal " + name + " is pure.")
else:
print("Metal " + name + " is not pure.") # End of CuboidMetal class
 Class 147

Important point is that there is no need to declare attributes of the class as Python does not declare any
variables. e.g. We write a=10 and not int a=10 in Python as declaration is not required. Hence, removing
the declaration of these attributes and rewriting class CuboidMetal as below.

class CuboidMetal: # Beginning of CuboidMetal class

def createCuboidMetal(name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
name = name
length = length
breadth = breadth
height = height
mass = mass
accurate_density = accurate_density
def determinePurity(name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
volume=length*breadth*height
density=mass/volume
if(density == accurate_density):
print("Metal " + name + " is pure.")
else:
print("Metal " + name + " is not pure.") # End of CuboidMetal class

Let’s discuss more about the special method createCuboidMetal that is used to initialize the attributes
associated with CuboidMetal. e.g. "Silver", 10.00, 9.5, 2.8, 2793, 10.5. values are assigned to name,
length, breadth, height, mass, accurate_density of silver metal brick.

The method which is used to initialize the attributes associated with a particular entity is called
constructor. Constructor is a special method and it is referred by a reserved name __init__. Note that
there are 2 underscores at the beginning and at the end of init.

Aim of the object-oriented programming languages is to create variables of class in the same way we
create variables of built in data types. e.g. a=10

Similarly, we can create variable of a class as below.

s=CuboidMetal (“Silver”, 2793, 10.00, 9.5, 2.8, 10.5) # Variable of a class (i.e. object)

Constructor does not have any return data type. It does not return any value. Also, first parameter of
constructor is always self. Let’s write a complete CuboidMetal class4 as shown below.

def __init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density): #Constructor

self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density

4
Reader must understand class CuboidMetal. In this book, majority of Python concepts are explained with this
class by gradually enhancing it.
148 Core Python for Everyone

Let’s write a complete CuboidMetal class as shown below.

class CuboidMetal: # Beginning of CuboidMetal class

def __init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density): # Constructor
self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density
def determinePurity(self):
volume=self.length*self.breadth*self.height
density=self.mass/volume
if(density == self.accurate_density):
print("Metal " + self.name + " is pure.")
else:
print("Metal " + self.name + " is not pure.") # End of CuboidMetal class

Let’s write a complete program 9.1 with class CuboidMetal class as shown below.
Program 9.2:
class CuboidMetal: # Beginning of CuboidMetal class
def __init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density): #Constructor
self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density
def determinePurity(self):
volume=self.length*self.breadth*self.height
density=self.mass/volume
if(density == self.accurate_density):
print("Metal " + self.name + " is pure.")
else:
print("Metal " + self.name + " is not pure.") # End of CuboidMetal class
# Driver Function (Actual execution of program begins here)
s = CuboidMetal("Silver",10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5) # s is object of CuboidMetal class
s.determinePurity()
g = CuboidMetal("Gold",7.1,5.8,9.1,89,19.3)
g.determinePurity()
p = CuboidMetal("Platinum",3.5,2.7,1.8,189,21.4)
p.determinePurity( )

Output:
Metal Silver is pure.
 Class 149

Metal Gold is not pure.

Metal Platinum is not pure.

Q. What is the meaning of the instructions?

s = CuboidMetal("Silver",10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
g = CuboidMetal("Gold",7.1,5.8,9.1,89,19.3)
p = CuboidMetal("Platinum",3.5,2.7,1.8,189,21.4)
s, g and p are objects of class CuboidMetal. Like a is variable in case a=10 instruction, s, g, p are objects
of data type class CuboidMetal. We would be studying objects concept in the next section.

Q. What is self ?
self refers to the object itself. It is used to bind attributes of a class to the given parameters of a method
or constructor. e.g. self of the object s in the above program associates "Silver",10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5
values to the name, length, breadth, height, mass & accurate_density of the object s respectively.

Q. What is the meaning of the s.determinePurity()?

s associates with following values of the attributes.
Name “Silver”
Length 10.00
Breadth 9.5
Height 2.8
Mass 2793
accurate_density 10.5

These values can be accessed & used from determinePurity() method. Hence, there is no need to pass
any value separately as a parameter list.

Q. Is it possible to directly call determinePurity() method defined inside class CuboidMetal?

No. Object of CuboidMetal class is required to call determinePurity() method.
Let’s enhance the definition of class now.

Class is a data type by which attributes & methods associated with an entity can be grouped together
and referred as a single unit.
150 Core Python for Everyone

9.2 Class and Object

9.2.1 Class
9.2.1.1 Definition
class is a keyword used to define class data type.
General form of a class definition is given as below.

class <class_name>:
def __init__(self, <one or more parameters>): #optional
def <method_name> (self, attribute 1, attribute 2, ……, .…., attribute n): #optional

By using the “self” keyword, we can access the attributes and methods of the class in Python. We will
discuss further about it in chapter 11.

9.2.2 Object Definition

A variable of integer data type is known as an integer variable. e.g. a=10; Though, it seems easy to think
that variable of integer data type is integer variable, variable of a class type is a class variable, but it is
referred as an object of that class and not as a class variable.

A variable of a class is known as an object.

General Form:

class_object= class_name(value of variable1, value of variable2, ….,value of last variable)

Class CuboidMetal object can be created as below:

s = CuboidMetal ("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
#s is a class object of class CuboidMetal. Definition of s indicates
s.name="Silver"
s.length =10
s.breadth =9.5
s.height =2.8
s.mass =2793
s.accurate_density=10.5

Let me explain class & object concept using practical example. Amit lives in a big lavish bungalow; he
has lavish car. We say Amit is from high class family. Trupti is also from wealthy family with
bungalow, lavish car. We say Trupti is also from high class family. Here, we can say Amit, Trupti are
objects of high class. Object is also known as an instance of a class.
 Class 151

Following table gives better picture of class & object concepts.

Class Definition class CuboidMetal:

def__init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density
def determinePurity(self):
volume=self.length*self.breadth*self.height
density=self.mass/volume
if(density == self.accurate_density):
print("Metal " + self.name + " is pure.")
else:
print("Metal " + self.name + " is not pure.")

Object Definition s = CuboidMetal ("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)

Q: How can we create an object of a class?

Object is created by calling constructor of a class.
s = CuboidMetal ("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)

Q: How can we access objects?

Just like we need variables to access and use values, we need variables to access and reuse the objects
that we create. Such variables that are used to access objects are called reference variables. In above
example s, g, p are reference variables.

Q: Can we have method in a class which has the same name of a class attribute?
You can't have both method and an attribute with the same name.

Q: What is the meaning of instruction CuboidMetal ("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)?

CuboidMetal ("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5) is used to create the object of the class CuboidMetal.

The enhanced complete definition of a class is as below.

Class is a data type that provides a convenient means of grouping attributes & methods related to a
particular entity under a single name. It helps for easier handling and identification of data. These
attributes can be of similar or dissimilar (int or float or char etc.) data types.

Don’t you think class definition is analogous to an architectural plan of a building? Based on the plan, many
similar types of buildings can be constructed. Similarly, based on class definition, many objects can be created.
Moreover, building’s plan is made on the paper/computer and does not require any physical space, but space is
required to construct a building.
152 Core Python for Everyone

Memory representation of object of class CuboidMetal is as shown below.

metal_type length breadth height mass accurate_density
String float float float Float Float
1245040 1245050 1245054 1245058 1245062 1245066
Memory representation of object of class CuboidMetal

Fig. 9.1: Class & Object Concept

FAQ:

Q. How many classes are defined in the above program 9.2? Enlist them.
There is 1 class in the program 9.2. i.e. class CuboidMetal

Q. How many objects are defined in the above program 9.2? Enlist them.

Three objects defined are s, g and p are below the class.

Q. How one can access attributes of a class?

Object of a class can be used to access every attribute of a class. Attributes of a class can be
accessed using . (dot operator) in the following manner:

s.name # In the above example, s is an object of a CuboidMetal class.

 Class 153

Q. What are the differences that you have observed in Program 9.1 and Program 9.2?
Sr. Program 9.1 Program 9.2
No. (Without Class Concept) (With Class Concept)
1 Program 9.1 uses variables of built in data Program 9.2 defines class to associate
type to store actual data. attributes and methods of CuboidMetal.
2 Number of variable names are 18 to store Numbers of variable names are only 6+3=9
data related to 3 metal bricks. to store data related to 3 metal bricks.

3 6 separate instructions are used to initialize Constructor is used to initialize variables

variables associated with a single metal brick. associated with a single metal brick.
name="Silver"
length=10.00
s=CuboidMetal("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
breadth=9.5
height=2.8
mass=2793
accurate_density=10.5

4 Size of the source code (instructions) is Size of the source code (instructions) is less
more in case of this approach. in case of this approach.

5 Method signature is lengthy as every Attributes associated with an object are

attribute associated needs to be passed. implicity to the called method.

determinePurity(name,length, t = CuboidMetal()
breadth,height,mass, accurate_density) t.determinePurity()

6 Not concise and often ambiguous. Compact coding with no repetition

resulting in quicker workflow.
7 Program 9.1 is little difficult to understand Program 9.2 is easy to understand as
as compared to program 9.2. Hence, compared to program 9.1. Hence,
enhancement and maintenance are enhancement and maintenance are
comparatively little difficult. comparatively easier.

Q. Does program 9.2 saves memory as compared to program 9.1?

No. Memory allocated for variable storage is same in both the cases.
154 Core Python for Everyone

Q. Is there any difference between class and object? If yes, compare class with an object?
Sr.
Class Object
No.
Class is a blueprint (Master copy) to create objects. It is a variable/instance of class.
1
class CuboidMetal:
def init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
self.name = name
CuboidMetal is a class and any
self.length = length
variable of it is an object.
2 self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density

When we define an object,

memory is allocated
3 No memory is allocated when class is defined. corresponding to the size of the
class.

Class can be defined only once in a scope. e.g. Once Many class objects of a class
CuboidMetal class is defined, it cannot be redefined in the can be defined.
4 program in the same scope.

Class data types cannot be assigned. Objects of same class can be

assigned.
class A:
pass c1=CuboidMetal
("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
class B:
5
pass c2=CuboidMetal
("Gold",7.1,5.8,9.1,7103,19.3)
A=B which is meaningless and cannot be compiled.
c1=c2

Q. Is it possible to assign values of one class object to another object of the same class?
Yes, it is possible and implemented like this
s = CuboidMetal (“Silver”,10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
p = CuboidMetal ("Platinum",10,9.5,2.8,5400,21.4)
s=p

Q. What is the difference in copying and assigning an Object?

The difference is that in case of copying an object, a new object is created, while, in case of assignment,
new copy of the object is not created. Rather, a reference to the same object is facilitated.
 Class 155

Q. Is it possible to define multiple objects of same class?

Yes.

class CuboidMetal:
def __init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density

#Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)

s = CuboidMetal("Silver",10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
g = CuboidMetal("Gold",7.1,5.8,9.1,89,19.3) #Another object
p = CuboidMetal("Platinum",3.5,2.7,1.8,189,21.4) #Another object

Q. Guess the output of the following program.

I. class CuboidMetal:
def __init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density
t = CuboidMetal ("Silver",10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
print(t.name)
print(t.length)
print(t.breadth)
print(t.height)
print(t.mass)
print(t.accurate_density)
Output:
Silver
10.00
9.5
2.8
2793
10.5
II. class CuboidMetal:
def __init__(self,a,b,c,d,e,f):
self.name = a
156 Core Python for Everyone

self.length = b
self.breadth = c
self.height = d
self.mass = e
self.accurate_density = f
t = CuboidMetal ("Silver",10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
print(t.accurate_density)
print(t.length)
Output:
10.5
10.00

III class CuboidMetal:

def __init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density
t = CuboidMetal()
print(t.name)
print(t.length)
print(t.breadth)
print(t.height)
print(t.mass)
print(t.accurate_density)
Output:
TypeError: __init__() missing 6 required positional arguments: 'name', 'length',
'breadth', 'height', 'mass', and 'accurate_density'
When we called default constructor, it should have 6 arguments.
Note: Constructor will be discussed later in this book.

9.3 Objects and Method

Like any other built in data type, it’s possible to pass an object as a parameter to a method.

determinePurity(< object of CuboidMetal class>) # program 9.2

As determinePurity method is directly called by object, then, there is no need to pass the same object
as a parameter. i.e s.determinePurity(). However, we need to pass the object(s) as parameter when
the object is of not that class which calls a method or even in the cases where we require more than one
object of the same class to pass to the method. i.e.

s.determinePurity(g) # s & g are objects of CuboidMetal class

 Class 157

From above declarations, it’s clear that it is possible to just pass an object instead of passing all the
parameters associated with a particular entity individually. Needless to mention, it improves the
readability and thereby makes maintenance / enhancement of the program easy.

Let’s write a program to calculate the money required to paint 4 rooms of a bungalow. Dimensions of
a bungalow are as given below. Also, print the message if the volumes of these 2 rooms are same.

Length Breadth Height

Room1 8.5 7 9

Room2 8 8 9
Painting rate per square feet is Rs 98.
Hint: Area of a room=2*(length*breadth+ length*height+ height*breadth)
Program 9.3:
class Paint:
def __init__(self,length,breadth,height):
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
def compareVolume(self, p1): # Object is passed to a method
if (self.length*self.breadth*self.height) == (p1.length*p1.breadth*p1.height) :
print (“Volume of the both the rooms are equal”)
else :
print (“Volume of the both the rooms are not equal”)
def calculatePaintingCost(self):
area=2*(self.length*self.breadth + self.length*self.height + self.breadth*self.height)
money=98*area
return money
#Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
t1 = Paint (8.5,7,9)
t2 = Paint (8,9,9)
total_cost = t1.calculatePaintingCost() + t2.calculatePaintingCost()
print("Total Rupees required to paint all 4 rooms is " + str(total_cost))
t1.compareVolume(t2) # Object that calls method is implicitly, while other object is passed explicitly
Output
Total Rupees required to paint all 4 rooms is 83104.0
Volume of the both the rooms are not equal
158 Core Python for Everyone

9.4 Objects and List

As we know, list is a data type which stores variables of similar or dissimilar data type elements in
adjacent memory locations.

Let’s declare a list that stores integers.

arr = []
data_type: int
list_variable: arr

Similarly, we can write

CuboidMetal_arr = []
data_type: class CuboidMetal
list_variable: arr

Let’s rewrite the program 9.1 using list concept. List of three CuboidMetal objects is created and
determinePurity method is called. It helped to use for loop and code size is reduced.

Program 9.4:
class CuboidMetal:
def __init__(self,name,length,breadth,height,mass,accurate_density):
self.name = name
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
self.height = height
self.mass = mass
self.accurate_density = accurate_density
def determinePurity(self):
volume=self.length*self.breadth*self.height
density=self.mass/volume
if(density == self.accurate_density):
print("Metal " + self.name + " is pure.")
else:
print("Metal " + self.name + " is not pure.")
#Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
CuboidMetal_arr= [ CuboidMetal("Silver",10.00,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5),
CuboidMetal("Gold",7.1,5.8,9.1,89,19.3),
CuboidMetal("Platinum",3.5,2.7,1.8,189,21.4) ]
for i in CuboidMetal_arr:
i.determinePurity()

Output:
Metal Silver is pure.
Metal Gold is not pure.
Metal Platinum is not pure.
 Class 159

FAQ:

Q. Can I define a list arr as below?

s=90
g=1045
p=78
arr=[s, g, p]
Yes.

Q. Can I define a list arr as below?

arr = []
arr.append(90)
arr.append(1045)
arr.append(78)
Yes.

Q. Can I define a list arr as below?

t1= CuboidMetal ("Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
t2= CuboidMetal ("S",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
t3= CuboidMetal ("Si",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5)
arr1=[t1,t2,t3]
Yes.

Q. Can I define a list arr as below?

arr = []
arr.append({"Silver",10,9.5,2.8,2793,10.5})
arr.append({"Gold",7.1,5.8,9.1,7103,19.3})
arr.append ({"Platinum",10,9.5, 2.8,5400,21.4})
Yes. This is a list of sets.

Q. Write an instruction that displays accurate_density of Platinum?

t= CuboidMetal("Platinum",10,9.5, 2.8,5400,21.4)
print(t.accurate_density)
160 Core Python for Everyone

9.5 Nested Class- Class as a Data Member of Another Class

Entity is associated with various attributes. Sometimes, associated data can be another entity. e.g. Entity
Identity card contains name, roll number, permanent address. Permanent address being a separate
entity, it’s advisable to define it as a separate class and declare its object in the definition of IdentityCard
class as below.

Program 9.5:
class Address:
def __init__(self,lane, city, colony, pin_code):
self.lane_no=lane
self.city=city
self.colony=colony
self.pin_code=pin_code
class IdentityCard:
def __init__(self,roll_no, name, surname, address):
self.roll_no=roll_no
self.name=name
self.surname=surname
self.address=address
#Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
a1=Address(189, 'Pune','col',411010)
t=IdentityCard(11, "Sameer","Mane",a1)
print('Roll Number = ',t.roll_no)
print('Name =',t.name)
print('Surname =',t.surname)
print('Lane Number =’,t.address.lane_no)
print('City =',t.address.city)
print('Colony =',t.address.colony)
print('Pin Code =',t.address.pin_code)
Output:
Roll Number=11
Name =Sameer
Surname =Mane
Lane Number =189
City =Pune
Colony =col
Pin Code =411010
 Class 161

Let’s write a program that displays gender, 10th class percentage and average marks obtained by Amit,
Atul and Nisha in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics in 12 th standard. Following chart shows data
of the students as below.

Gender Tenth Percentage Physics Chemistry Mathematics

Amit M 88.5 % 97 98 96
Atul M 89.33% 89 99 99
Nisha F 90.00% 96 94 99

Program 9.6:
class Average:
def __init__(self, Tenth_Percentage, Gender, Physics_Marks, Chemistry_Marks,
Mathematics_Marks):
self.Tenth_Percentage = Tenth_Percentage
self.Gender = Gender
self.Physics_Marks = Physics_Marks
self.Chemistry_Marks = Chemistry_Marks
self.Mathematics_Marks = Mathematics_Marks
def calculate_average(self):
return ((self.Physics_Marks + self.Chemistry_Marks + self.Mathematics_Marks)/3)
#Driver function (Actual execution of program begins here)
student_Amit= Average (88.5,'M',97,98,96)
student_Atul= Average (89.3,'M',89,99,99)
student_Nisha= Average (90.0,'F',96,94,99)
Amit_PCM_Avg = student_Amit.calculate_average()
Atul_PCM_Avg = student_Atul.calculate_average()
Nisha_PCM_Avg = student_Nisha.calculate_average()

print("Amit’s gender, tenth percentage and PCM average marks are ",
student_Amit.Gender , "," , student_Amit.Tenth_Percentage , ","
, Amit_PCM_Avg , " respectively.")

print("Atul's gender, tenth percentage and PCM average marks are " ,
student_Atul.Gender ,"," ,student_Atul.Tenth_Percentage ,","
,Atul_PCM_Avg , " respectively.")

print("Nisha's gender, tenth percentage and PCM average marks are " ,
student_Nisha.Gender ,",", student_Nisha.Tenth_Percentage ,","
,Nisha_PCM_Avg ," respectively.")

Output:
Amit’s gender, tenth percentage and PCM average marks are M, 88.5, 97.0 respectively.
Atul's gender, tenth percentage and PCM average marks are M, 89.3, 95.66666666666667
respectively.
162 Core Python for Everyone

Nisha's gender, tenth percentage and PCM average marks are F, 90.0, 96.33333333333333
respectively.
After successful completion of this program 9.8, we get a new enhancement/requirement to find
average marks obtained by every student in Mathematics, Science and English apart from finding
average of PCM in 12th. We can define following variables to enhance the older version of the program.

Tenth_Mathematics_Marks
Tenth_Science_Marks
Tenth_English_Marks

After inclusion of these new elements in the class student, it will be

class student:
def __init__(self, Twelth_Physics_Marks, Twelth_Chemistry_Marks,
Twelth_Mathematics_Marks, Tenth_Mathematics_Marks,
Tenth_Science_Marks, Tenth_English_Marks)

Further, new requirement pops up stating to find average marks obtained by student in Mathematics,
Science, English in 7th standard; again, the class definition becomes lengthier. Don’t you think to
organize this data in a simpler manner so that it will be easier at the time of modification / enhancement
of the program?

Let us define separate class element for every standard and then we can make it part of the main class
i.e. student.

class Twelth_Subject_Marks:
def __init__(self, Twelth_Physics_Marks, Twelth_Chemistry_Marks,Twelth_Mathematics_Marks)
class Tenth_Subject_Marks:
def __init__(self, Tenth_Mathematics_Marks,Tenth_Science_Marks, Tenth_English_Marks)

class Seventh_Subject_Marks:
def __init__(self, Seventh_Physics_Marks,Seventh_Maths_Marks, Seventh_English_Marks)

Q. How class object helps in writing better programs?

➢ It reduces number of identifiers in the program where entity(s) are involved. By creating
object, one can easily use attributes associated with that class.
If we do not use class, number of the identifiers in the program to represent an entity increases.

➢ Instead of passing every attribute individually to a method, a single class variable can be passed.
Method can access attributes associated with an object easily. It improves program readability
thereby makes easy maintenance.

➢ When multiple entities are involved in case of a program or project, work can be easily divided
into team members based on entities.
➢ Class object can be defined once, and it can be used in other relevant projects with little or
no modification.
 Class 163

9.6 Points to Remember

1. Class represents certain types of information related to a particular entity into a single
unit.
2 Class is the basic of any object-oriented programming language.
2 Class concept helps to develop big projects systematically.
3 It is possible to define and use list of objects.
4. Class can contain object as its attributes.
5. Class cannot be compared for equality.
6 Within a given class, the member names of a class must be unique.

class student :
def __init__(self, a ,b ,a) # it is not allowed.

7 Different classes can have same names for its attribute types.

class student :
def __init__(self, a ,b)

class faculty :
def __init__(self, a ,b)

This is perfectly allowed. Object declaration of one class does not relate to object of any
other class.

Questions
Q.1 State true or false.
i. Class stores similar or dissimilar data associated with a particular entity.
ii. Class is a blueprint (Master copy) to create objects.
iii. Size of the class is the size of its largest data type that it contains.
iv. Memory is allocated when the class is defined.
v. It is possible to assign object to another variable of the same class.
vi. When we define object, memory is allocated to it.
vii. We can define many objects of a class.
viii. It is possible to assign the value of one object to another object of same class.
ix. We can have nested class.
x. Class enables to write program systematically and improves readability.
xi. It is not possible to pass object as parameter to a method.
xii. Method cannot return object.
xiii. Class cannot be compared for equality.
xiv. One can define one class inside another class.
xv. It is possible to display the memory address of a class.
164 Core Python for Everyone

Q.2 Guess the Output of the following programs.

i. class Time:
def __init__(self,a,b,c):
self.hour = a
self.minute = b
self.second = c
t = Time(10,56,55)
print(t.hour)
print(t.minute)
print(t.second)

ii. class Time:

def __init__(self,a,b,c):
self.hour = a
self.minute = b
self.second = c
t = Time(10,56)
print(t.hour)
print(t.minute)
print(t.second)

iii. class Time:

def __init__(self,a,b,c):
self.hour = a
self.minute = b
self.second = c
t1 = Time(10,56,55)
t2 = Time (10,22,33)
print(t1.hour)
print(t1.minute)
print(t1.second)
print(t2.hour)
print(t2.minute)
print(t2.second)

iv. class Test:

def __init__(self,a,b):
self.a = a
self.b = b
t = Test("m","n"")
t.show()
 Class 165

v. class Time:
def __init__(self,hour,minute):
self.hour = hour
self.minute = minute
def addTime(self,x,y):
z = Time(0,0)
z.hour= x.hour + y.hour
z.minute= x.minute + y.minute
return z
t1 = Time(1.5,4.7)
t2 = Time(1.25,6.34)
t3 = Time(0,0)
t3 = t3.addTime(t1,t2)
print("Addition hour part= " + str(t3.hour)+ " Addition min part= " + str(t3.minute))

vi. class Test:

def __init__(self,a,b,c):
self.a = a
self.b = b
self.c = c

t = Test("m","n","o")
t.c = "C"
print(t.c)

Q.3 What is a class? How it helps to write better programs?

Q.4 Define a class for an entity rectangle. Needless to mention rectangle

associates with length and breadth as individual data types. Create a rectangle of
length 10.5 and breadth 8.6. Calculate its perimeter and print it.

Q.5 Mention any 4 entities. Identify any 4 attributes associated with each entity. Define
class for an individual entity. (e.g. time is associated with hour,minute,second.)

Q.6 Differentiate.
A. class and object
B. List and class

Q.7 Write a program to calculate addition of following complex numbers. Use class to
define a complex number. Also, define a method complexAdd that accepts 2 complex
numbers as input parameters and return their addition as another complex number.
a) 7+9.1j; 10+8.78j
b) 2.3+5.22j;9.1+7.12j
c) 5j;1+8.1j
166 Core Python for Everyone

Q.8 Time can be represented by hours; minutes; second. Define class Time. Represent
following data.
a) 5 hours;13 minutes;10 seconds
b) 2 hours;10minutes;56 seconds
Write a method that accepts object of data type Time, convert time in seconds and
return it to the calling method.

Q.9 What is a nested class? Give 2 examples. Define them.

Answers:
Q1.

i. True ii. True iii. False iv. False

v. True vi. True vii. True viii. True
ix. True x. True xi. False xii. False
xiii. True xiv. True xv. True

Q2.

i. 10 ii. Compilation iii. 10 iv. Compilation

56 Error 56 Error
55 55
10
22
33

v. Addition hour vi. C

part = 2.75
Addition min
part= 11.04
Now-a-days, Python has become trending and first choice languages in the IT
world. This book is written by Madhusudan Mothe provides an easy way to
understand the core concepts of python. Basic programs are explained with the
same Cuboid metal example throughout the book which is an interesting feature of this
book. In a nutshell, any novice can learn Python with the help of this book. The
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) and the 'Points to Remember' at the end of
each chapter makes the subject very easy to revise and makes learning
interactive. Beginner who will start the journey of learning Python via this book
will definitely acquire sound knowledge of Python.

Dr. D. R. Nandanwar
Joint Director, Technical Education, Maharashtra

Python has become most demanding language these days in the IT industry
because it's not only easy to write programs using Python, but also, Python
provides huge library (modules). Usage of Python has been growing since its
development. This book "Core Python for Everyone'' by Madhusudan explains
basic concepts with real time examples to the depth of the concepts. Study of
this book will not only make reader strong in Python, but also in object
oriented programming. This book can surely serve as a text book to the students
as well as a reference book. This book can be used by a wide range of
readers, right from budding programmers to practicing professionals. Happy
Python Programming!
Prof. C. T. Kunjir
Deputy Director, Technical Education, Maharashtra

About the Author

Mr. Madhusudan Mothe is Bachelor of Engineering from Government College
of Engineering, Pune (COEP) and M. Tech. from Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT), Bombay. His all-India GATE rank was 46. His books on C and C++
are part of the syllabus of various universities. In all his books, he
has explained complicated concepts in easily understandable language. He is
currently working as a Senior Technical Manager in Edgeverve, a subsidiary of
Infosys. He has had the distinction of being interviewed by the Pune campus of
Infosys as "The Rising Star of Pune Development Centre''. His webpage is http://bit.ly/
mothemadhusudan