Town Planning & Green Building

WEEK – 3 (Session – 1)
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING
CONCEPTS, TECHNIQUES AND GPS

Topography is the study of the shape and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area
refers to the surface shapes and features on the ground and their arrangement. Traditional
definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features.
Topographical surveying is used in determining the relative locations of points (places) on
the earth's surface by measuring horizontal distances, differences in elevation and directions.

A topographical survey is a detailed mapping of the surface features of a piece of land. It

provides information about the natural and man-made features, as well as the elevation and
contours of the land. The concepts involved in topographical survey are:
1. Elevation and Contours: Topographical surveys capture accurate elevation data of
the land, which is essential for understanding the slopes, drainage patterns, and
topographic features. Contour lines are then generated to represent the shape and
relief of the land, indicating areas of higher and lower elevation.
2. Natural Features: Topographical surveys document natural features such as rivers,
lakes, ponds, hills, forests, and vegetation. These features help in understanding the
natural landscape and the impact they may have on development or infrastructure
projects.

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3. Man-made Features: The surveys also capture man-made features like buildings,
roads, fences, bridges, utility lines, and other structures existing on the land. These
features help in understanding the existing infrastructure and planning for future
development.
4. Boundary Determination: Topographical surveys help in determining the
boundaries of a piece of land accurately. By identifying and marking the property
boundaries, it helps in resolving any disputes related to land ownership and provides a
clear understanding of the land area.
5. Site Analysis: Topographical surveys are used for site analysis and planning of
various projects, including construction, engineering, and infrastructure development.
The detailed information obtained from the survey assists in determining the
feasibility of projects, analysing site conditions, and designing the layout to optimize
land utilization.
6. Drainage Analysis: The elevation data collected during the topographical survey
helps in analysing the drainage patterns on the land. It helps identify natural water
flow, wetlands, and potential drainage issues that need to be considered for
sustainable land development.
7. Digital Terrain Models (DTM): Topographical surveys provide the data needed to
create Digital Terrain Models, which are three-dimensional representations of the land
surface. These models can be used for visualization, analysis, and simulation
purposes.

PROCEDURE FOR TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING

When conducting a topographic survey using surveying instruments, the procedure typically
involves several steps to accurately measure and map the surface features of a piece of land.
The steps involved in topographical survey are as follows:
1. Planning and Preparation: Define the project objectives, survey area, and scope of
the survey. Gather relevant existing maps, property records, and other data. Plan the
survey methodology, including the choice of surveying instruments, their calibration,
and the required accuracy. Identify the control points or benchmarks to use as
reference points.
 Reconnaissance: Before starting the actual survey, a preliminary
reconnaissance of the survey area is conducted. This involves visiting the site,
studying existing maps, and planning the method and instruments to be used.

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2. Control Point Establishment: Set up control points or benchmarks across the survey
area. These points act as reference points for measurements and help in accurately
locating and positioning the surveyed features.
 Horizontal Control: Establish a network of control points (benchmarks)
using techniques such as triangulation, trilateration, or GPS. These points
serve as references for all subsequent measurements.
 Vertical Control: Establish elevation points through leveling techniques,
which provide a reference for measuring heights.
3. Instrument Setup: Set up the surveying instrument, such as a total station or GPS
receiver, at a control point with a known position. Ensure that the instrument is
properly calibrated and aligned. Use appropriate stabilization and leveling methods to
ensure accurate measurements.
4. Traversing: Establish a surveying traverse by selecting a starting control point and
measuring the angles and distances to neighboring control points. Traverse around the
survey area, systematically measuring angles and distances between points. The
traverse can be open-ended or closed loops, depending on the survey requirements.
5. Point Measurements: Measure the coordinates (horizontal and vertical) of various
points of interest in the survey area. This may involve measuring angles and distances
using the total station, or obtaining accurate positions using GPS/GNSS receivers.
Record the measurements and any other relevant attributes, such as elevation or
feature descriptions.
6. Detail Surveys: Capture additional details of the land surface by measuring points
along the desired features, such as contours, roads, buildings, water bodies, and
vegetation. Ensure comprehensive coverage of the survey area, considering the
required density of data points and capturing features of interest.
7. Data Processing and Analysis: Process the collected survey data using appropriate
software and tools. This may involve adjusting for errors, leveling data, and
computing accurate coordinates for all points. Analyze the data to create a
topographic model or map, including contour lines, digital terrain models, or other
representations as required.
8. Mapping and Reporting: Prepare accurate and detailed topographic maps using the
processed data. Include contour lines, elevation values, features, and any other
requested information. Document the survey methodology, including instrument
details, observations, and any limitations.

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Provide a scale, legend, and necessary annotations on the final maps. Generate a
report summarizing the survey methodology, findings, and any relevant conclusions.

APPLICATIONS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS

Topographical maps have a wide range of applications across various fields due to their
detailed representation of the land surface. Some common applications of topographical maps
include:
1. Urban Planning and Development: Topographical maps are used for urban
planning and development projects. They provide valuable information on the
existing land features, elevation contours, and terrain characteristics, helping planners
determine suitable locations for infrastructure, transportation networks, and residential
or commercial developments.
2. Engineering and Construction: Topographical maps are essential for engineering
projects, including road construction, building design, and utility installations. They
assist in generating accurate site plans, assessing the feasibility of projects, and
designing structures that align with the land's natural contours and drainage patterns.
3. Environmental Management: Topographical maps play a crucial role in
environmental management. They provide necessary information for assessing
environmental impact, identifying sensitive areas, and planning conservation
measures. Topographical maps are valuable for managing natural resources,
protecting wildlife habitats, and mitigating potential risks.
4. Natural Resource Exploration and Management: Mining, forestry, and oil and gas
industries utilize topographical maps to identify potential resource-rich areas, plan
extraction activities, and assess the environmental impact of resource exploitation.
The maps help locate reserves, understand topographic challenges, and plan efficient
resource management strategies.
5. Disaster Management and Emergency Response: In disaster-prone areas,
topographical maps aid in assessing vulnerability and planning for emergency
response. They help identify flood-prone areas, evacuation routes, and locations for
emergency shelters. The maps also assist in analyzing relief and rescue efforts in
challenging terrains.
6. Outdoor Recreation and Tourism: Topographical maps are popular among outdoor
enthusiasts and adventurers. They aid in planning hiking trails, orienteering, fishing,
and other outdoor recreational activities.

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Topographical maps provide information on contour lines, elevation changes, and

landmarks, helping individuals navigate and explore unfamiliar terrain.
7. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analysis: Topographical maps serve as the
foundation for Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis. They provide the
spatial context for overlaying diverse datasets, such as demographic information,
infrastructure networks, and land use patterns. GIS analysis helps in urban planning,
resource management, logistics, and decision-making across multiple domains.
8. Education and Research: Topographical maps are widely used in educational
settings for geography, geology, and environmental studies. They assist in
understanding landforms, geological features, and the interplay of human and natural
systems. Researchers use topographical maps to study landscape changes, analyze
phenomena, and evaluate the effects of various factors on the land.

RELIEF
Relief is a fundamental aspect of topographical surveying as it provides crucial information
about the slopes, landforms, and contours of the surveyed area. It helps in understanding the
physical characteristics of the land and plays a significant role in various applications, such as
urban planning, landscape design, and engineering projects.

A relief map will show the elevation, meaning the high points, and the depressions, meaning
the low points, of a given area. Usually, relief maps use color schemes to indicate elevations
and depressions, like blue for water, green for low places located next to the ocean, yellow
for more elevated areas, and brown for the highest elevations. Contour lines on a
topographical map depict the relief by showing the shape and distribution of elevations.
Closer contour lines indicate steeper slopes, while widely spaced contours indicate flatter
areas. The shape and spacing of the contour lines provide valuable information about the
land's surface features, such as hills, valleys, ridges, and depressions.

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METHODS OF REPRESENTING RELIEF

Topographical maps represent relief or the three-dimensional shape of the land surface
through specific methods and symbols. These techniques help convey the elevation contours
and various landforms accurately. Representing relief in topographic maps allow map
readers, such as surveyors, engineers, hikers, and researchers, to interpret and understand the
landscape features, elevation changes, and natural characteristics of the area. Some common
methods used to represent relief in a topographic map:
1. Contour Lines: Contour lines are the primary method for representing relief on a
topographic map. They are lines that connect points of equal elevation. The spacing
between contour lines indicates the slope and steepness of the terrain. Closer contour
lines represent steeper slopes, while wider spacing indicates flatter areas.

2. Index Contours: Index contours are thicker contour lines that are labelled with the
elevation value. They usually appear at regular intervals, providing a visual reference
of the elevation throughout the map. These lines help the map reader quickly identify
the major elevation changes and prominent features.
3. Intermediate Contours: Intermediate contours are thinner contour lines that appear
between the index contours. They provide a more detailed representation of the land
surface and help in understanding the smaller-scale elevation changes.
4. Spot Elevation: Spot elevations are specific points marked on the map with their
corresponding elevation. These points often represent significant features or
elevations of interest.

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5. Hachures: Hachures are short, parallel lines drawn perpendicular to contour lines.
They indicate a depression or a valley. The hachure marks are typically drawn on the
downhill side of the contour line, depicting the direction of slope.

6. Form Lines: Form lines are used to represent landforms such as ridges, peaks, and
cliffs. They are shorter and denser lines, often drawn adjacent to contour lines or
around specific features to show the shape of the land surface more precisely.

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7. Shaded Relief: Shaded relief is a method to represent relief by simulating light and
shadow on the map. It involves adding tonal gradations or shading to the map to give
a three-dimensional appearance. This technique helps visualize the landforms and
their spatial relationships more vividly.

8. Bench marks: Bench mark represent the actual height of a tall structure like a tall
building, pillar, bridges or any other object of permanent nature. They are marked
with the letters BM with the respective height.

9. Trigonometrical Stations: Trigonometrical Stations are points included in the

triangulation survey and are marked in the map with a triangle with the actual height
of the place.

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10. Layer Colouring: Layer Colouring is a method showing relief in layers and each
layer is given a different colour. Physical maps in atlas and wall maps use this method
to show relief features. Ocean depth is also shown in various shades of blue. There is
an international recognition for colours used in these maps. Accordingly blue
represents water bodies, green for plains, various shades of brown for highlands and
white for snow covered peaks.

MAPS
Topographical maps, also known as topo maps, are detailed representations of the physical
features and characteristics of a specific area or region of land. They provide a visual
depiction of the land's topography, including its relief, elevation contours, and various natural
and human-made features. Topographical maps are widely used for a variety of purposes,
such as navigation, land surveying, urban planning, environmental analysis, and outdoor
activities.

Topographical maps are essential tools for a wide range of applications, including land
navigation, environmental analysis, recreational activities like hiking and camping,
geological exploration, urban planning, and infrastructure development. Their detailed
representation of the land's topography provides invaluable information for understanding
and interpreting the physical characteristics of a specific area.

The key components of a topographical map include:

1. Elevation Contours: One of the primary features of topographical maps is the
presence of contour lines. These lines connect points of equal elevation and help to
visualize the shape and profile of the land. Contour lines represent variations in
elevation, providing information about the steepness, slopes, and relief of the terrain.

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2. Scale and Legend: Topographical maps feature a scale bar that indicates the ratio
between distances on the map and actual distances on the ground. This allows users to
determine the distance between points and estimate travel times.
3. Coordinate Grid: Topographical maps often incorporate a coordinate grid system to
help locate specific points on the map accurately. The grid can be based on latitude
and longitude, UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinates, or a local grid
system used in a specific region.
4. Relief Representation: To provide a more realistic representation of the land's three-
dimensional features, topographical maps may include relief shading, hachures, or
contour interval coloring.
5. Datum and Projection: Topographical maps are created using a specific datum,
which serves as the reference point for elevation measurements and coordinates.

TYPES OF MAPS
There are several different types of topographical maps that serve specific purposes and
provide varying levels of detail. The availability and specific types of topographic maps may
vary depending on the region and the organization responsible for map production, such as
government mapping agencies. It's important to choose the appropriate type of map based on
the intended use and specific information required. Various type of topographical maps are:
General Topographic Maps: These are the most commonly used topographic maps. They
provide a comprehensive representation of the land's topography, including contour lines,
elevation information, rivers, lakes, roads, and other physical and cultural features. General
topographic maps are suitable for a wide range of activities, from outdoor recreation to land
planning.
1. Geological Topographic Maps: Geological topographic maps focus on providing
information related to the geological features, formations, and rock types of a specific
region. These maps can be helpful for geological surveys, mineral exploration, and
understanding the geology of an area.

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2. Topo-Bathymetric Maps: Topo-bathymetric maps combine topographic and

bathymetric (depth of water bodies) data. They provide a comprehensive view of both
the land surface and the underwater features, including the shape of the land, contours
of lake or ocean floors, and other relevant details. These maps are useful for coastal
and marine planning, hydrological studies, and marine navigation.

3. Thematic Topographic Maps: Thematic topographic maps focus on specific themes

or topics. They highlight particular aspects of an area, such as vegetation, soil types,
land use, or hydrological features. Thematic maps can be useful for ecological studies,
environmental planning, and resource management.

4. Military Topographic Maps: Military topographic maps are specially designed for
military purposes. They provide detailed information about the terrain, including
natural and human-made features. These maps may also include additional military-
specific markings, such as military installations, strategic points, and transportation
routes.

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5. Digital Topographic Maps: With the advancement of technology, digital

topographic maps have gained popularity. These maps are available in digital format
and can be viewed and analyzed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
software. Digital topographic maps offer the advantage of easy data integration,
analysis, and customization.

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WEEK – 3 (Session – 2)
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is a satellite-based navigation system that
allows users to determine their precise location, velocity, and time anywhere on Earth. It
consists of a network of satellites in orbit, ground-based control stations, and user receivers.

The GPS system works by triangulating signals from multiple GPS satellites. The satellites
continuously transmit microwave signals that are received by GPS receivers on the ground.
The receivers then calculate the distance between each satellite and the receiver based on the
time it took for the signals to travel. By combining the distances from multiple satellites, the
receiver determines its exact position using a process called trilateration.

GPS satellites fly in medium earth orbit (MEO) at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km
(12,550 miles). Each satellite circles the Earth twice a day. The satellites in the GPS
constellation are arranged into six equally-spaced orbital planes surrounding the Earth. Each
plane contains four "slots" occupied by baseline satellites. This 24-slot arrangement ensures
users can view at least four satellites from virtually any point on the planet.

COMPONENTS OF GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) utilizes a constellation of satellites to provide accurate
positioning and navigation information.
1. Satellites: The GPS consists of a constellation of satellites in orbit around the Earth.
Currently, there are over 30 GPS satellites positioned at specific intervals in six
different orbital planes.

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2. Control Segment: The control segment consists of ground-based control stations that
monitor and track the GPS satellites. These control stations ensure the accuracy and
reliability of the satellite signals and update satellite positions and clock data.
3. User Segment: The user segment includes handheld GPS receivers or devices that
receive signals from the GPS satellites. These devices calculate the receiver's position,
velocity, and time based on the signals received from multiple satellites. Users can
view their coordinates and navigation information on the device's display.

APPLICATIONS OF GPS IN URBAN PLANNING

GPS (Global Positioning System) has several applications in urban planning, helping
professionals make informed decisions, improve efficiency, and enhance the overall planning
process. By leveraging the capabilities of GPS technology, urban planners can enhance their
planning and decision-making processes, optimize resource allocation, and create sustainable
and well-designed urban environments. Some of the applications of GPS in urban planning
are:
1. Data Collection: GPS is used to collect accurate and up-to-date data for urban
planning purposes. It enables urban planners to gather precise location information,
such as the coordinates of infrastructure assets, land use patterns, transportation
networks, and natural features. This data serves as a foundation for creating
comprehensive and reliable urban plans.
2. Mapping and Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GPS data is integrated into
GIS platforms to create detailed and accurate maps for urban planning.
By combining GPS coordinates with other datasets, urban planners can analyse spatial
relationships, identify patterns, and make informed decisions regarding land use,
infrastructure, and transportation planning.

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3. Infrastructure Planning: GPS assists in planning and managing urban infrastructure.

It allows urban planners to accurately map infrastructure assets such as roads, utilities,
and public facilities. GPS data helps identify optimal locations for new infrastructure
projects, evaluate existing infrastructure performance, and plan for upgrades or
improvements.
4. Transportation Planning: GPS plays a vital role in transportation planning,
including traffic management, public transit planning, and route optimization. GPS
data is used to track and analyse traffic patterns, identify congestion areas, measure
travel times, and evaluate transportation infrastructure. This information helps in
developing efficient transportation systems and improving mobility within cities.
5. Urban Design and Development: GPS facilitates urban design and development by
providing accurate location data. It aids in creating walkable neighbourhoods,
identifying suitable locations for parks and green spaces, and optimizing the
placement of buildings and infrastructure. GPS also assists in evaluating the impact of
new development on the surrounding environment, ensuring that planning decisions
align with sustainable development goals.
6. Emergency Management: GPS is essential for emergency management in urban
areas. It aids in coordinating emergency response efforts by providing real-time
location data for emergency vehicles, evacuees, and critical infrastructure. GPS also
assists in mapping vulnerable areas, identifying safe evacuation routes, and managing
resources during emergencies.
7. Monitoring and Evaluation: GPS allows for ongoing monitoring and evaluation of
urban planning initiatives. By comparing GPS data over time, urban planners can
assess the effectiveness of implemented plans and policies. This helps in identifying
areas that require adjustments or improvements and enables evidence-based decision-
making.

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VARIOUS SATELLITES USED BY GPS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) utilizes a constellation of satellites to provide accurate
positioning and navigation information. While GPS is commonly associated with the United
States' satellite system, there are also other satellite systems that are part of the global
navigation satellite system. The various satellite systems used by GPS are:
1. GPS (United States): The GPS system developed and maintained by the United
States government consists of a network of at least 24 satellites in medium Earth orbit
(MEO). The GPS satellites are operated by the United States Space Force and provide
global coverage for accurate positioning and timing information.
2. GLONASS (Russia): GLONASS, developed by Russia, is a satellite-based
navigation system similar to GPS. It comprises a constellation of around 24 satellites
in Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). GLONASS provides worldwide coverage, primarily
for navigation and positioning purposes.
3. Galileo (European Union): Galileo is an independent satellite navigation system
developed by the European Union and European Space Agency (ESA). It aims to
offer more precise and reliable positioning services, with a constellation of around 30
satellites deployed in Three Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) planes.
4. BeiDou (China): The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS), developed by
China, is a satellite positioning and navigation system. It consists of both
geostationary orbit (GEO) satellites and MEO satellites. BeiDou provides regional
coverage in the Asia-Pacific region, but with the launch of global coverage satellites,
it is evolving into a global navigation system.

GPS RECEIVERS
A GPS receiver is an electronic device that determines its precise location by receiving
signals from GPS satellites. These signals carry information about the satellite's position and
the time it was sent. They play a crucial role in navigation, tracking, and various applications
that require accurate positioning information.

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Components of a GPS Receiver

 Antenna: Captures GPS signals from satellites.
 RF (Radio Frequency) section: Amplifies and processes the received signals.
 Baseband processor: Extracts navigation data from the signals.
 Microprocessor: Calculates position, velocity, and time information.

Working Principle
 Signal Reception: The receiver picks up radio signals from at least four GPS
satellites. These signals travel at the speed of light.
 Time Measurement: The receiver calculates the exact time it took for each signal to
reach it.
 Distance Calculation: Knowing the speed of light and the travel time, the receiver
determines its distance from each satellite.
 Triangulation: Using the distances from at least four satellites, the receiver employs
a mathematical process called triangulation to pinpoint its precise location (latitude,
longitude, and altitude).

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF WORKING PRINCIPLE

The location tracking is based on a mathematical principle called trilateration. Trilateration is
a geometric method used to determine the absolute or relative locations of points by
measuring distances, using the geometry of circles, spheres, or triangles. Trilateration is a
method used to determine the exact position of a point by measuring distances from known
reference points. It's the underlying principle behind technologies like GPS. There are two
types of trilateration:
 2-D trilateration and
 3-D trilateration

2D trilateration: It is a method used to determine the position of a point on a two-

dimensional plane by measuring its distances from at least three known points. This
technique is fundamental in fields like surveying, navigation, and GPS technology. This
requires two parameters:
First, the location of the place is required to be known, which will subsequently be
traced by at least 3 satellites. The range of these satellites should be able to cover the specific
position.

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Next, distance between the object and one of the satellites is required to be known. Hence, for
this, a miniature receiver/device is installed on the vehicles/phones to capture the radio
(electro-magnetic signals) emitted by the satellite. This helps to compute the distance
between the vehicle and satellite as well as the satellite's location. Thus, by locking
the signals onto 3 satellites, the location of the vehicle can be gauged by using
Triangulation technique, which can be extended to the mathematical principle of
trilateration.

3D trilateration: It is an extension of 2D trilateration into three dimensions. It involves

determining the position of a point in three-dimensional space by measuring its distances
from at least four known points.

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To achieve 3-D trilateration, one need to take consider spheres instead of two
dimensional circles. Unlike 2-D trilateration, the radii of the sphere is said to spread in all
directions, thus forming imaginary 3-dimensional spheres around a given point. Thus
the intersection of these three spheres, gives the location of the object. In case of 3-D
trilateration, two intersection points are obtained because of the 3 spheres. The earth helps by
eliminating one of the points by acting as the fourth sphere. This enhances the search and
makes it possible to locate the exact position of the given object, place or person.

HANDHELD GPS RECEIVER

A handheld GPS receiver is a portable electronic device that incorporates GPS technology to
provide users with accurate positioning and navigation information while being easily carried
and operated.

Handheld GPS receivers are portable devices designed to provide users with accurate
geographic location data and navigation capabilities. They are widely used in various
activities, such as hiking, geocaching, surveying, and outdoor adventures. Here’s a
comprehensive explanation of handheld GPS receivers, including their components,
functionality, and typical uses.

Components of Handheld GPS Receivers

 GPS Antenna: Receives signals from GPS satellites to determine the device's
location.
 Receiver and Processor: The receiver decodes signals from multiple GPS satellites.
The processor calculates the device's position (latitude, longitude, and altitude) using
trilateration.
 Display Screen: Shows maps, navigation data, and other relevant information.

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 Control Interface: Buttons, touchscreens, or a combination of both for user input and
menu navigation.
 Memory and Storage: Internal memory for storing maps, waypoints, routes, and
tracks.
 Power Supply: Usually powered by replaceable or rechargeable batteries.

FUNCTIONS OF HANDHELD GPS RECEIVERS

1. Positioning and Navigation
 Determine the current geographic location with high accuracy.
 Display location on a digital map, often with various map types (topographic, road
maps, etc.).
 Mark and save specific locations as waypoints for future reference.
2. Route Planning and Guidance
 Create and store routes by connecting waypoints.
 Provide turn-by-turn navigation instructions along a predefined route.
 Calculate estimated time of arrival (ETA) and distance to the destination.
3. Tracking and Logging
 Record the path traveled (track logging), which can be saved and reviewed later.
 Use the Trackback feature to retrace the exact path taken.
4. Environmental Data
 Include additional sensors like altimeters, barometers, and electronic compasses.
 Measure altitude, monitor atmospheric pressure changes, and provide directional
information.
5. Data Sharing and Management
 Share waypoints, routes, and tracks with other compatible devices wirelessly.
 Connect to computers for downloading map updates, uploading data, and performing
software upgrades.
6. Special Features for Activities
 Geocaching support with dedicated modes and the ability to store and display
geocache details.
 Modes for specific activities like hiking, cycling, or boating with tailored features.

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WEEK – 3 (Session – 3)
SPATIAL DATA INFRASTRUCTURE

Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) is a framework that facilitates the organization, access,
sharing, and use of geospatial data and related resources within a specific domain or
jurisdiction. It provides a standardized approach for managing and integrating spatial data
from various sources, enabling the interoperability of different geospatial systems and
applications. The components of a Spatial Data Infrastructure include:
1. Data: Data may include maps, satellite imagery, aerial photography, survey data, and
other geospatial information.
2. Metadata: Metadata enables users to discover and understand available data,
facilitating proper data selection and usage.
3. Standards: Standards help facilitate data sharing, integration, and exchange between
organizations and enable seamless data usage across various applications.
4. Technology Infrastructure: This infrastructure enables data sharing, access, and
visualization through web-based mapping platforms and other geospatial applications.
5. Policies and Governance: These policies ensure data integrity, privacy, security, and
compliance with legal and ethical requirements.

ROLES OF NNRMS, NUIS, AND NATIONAL URBAN OBSERVATORY

NNRMS: National Natural Resources Management System

The NNRMS was established to provide guidelines on major issues related to urban
applications, identify new areas for research, and advise on specific national programs. It
primarily focuses on:
 Supporting Master/Zonal plan preparation: Providing a database and tools to facilitate
the creation of urban development plans.
 Urban Local Body (ULB) administration and utilities management: Assisting ULBs in
managing their operations and utilities efficiently.
 Establishing a comprehensive data bank: Creating a repository of urban-related data
for analysis and planning.
 Supporting the National Urban Observatory (NUO): Contributing data and analysis to
monitor urban health.

NUIS: National Urban Information System

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NUIS is a more specific system designed to develop Geographic Information System (GIS)
databases for various towns and cities. Its key roles include:
 Creating spatial databases: Developing detailed maps and geographic information for
urban areas.
 Supporting urban planning: Providing data for Master/Development plans and
detailed town planning schemes.
 Enabling e-governance: Facilitating the use of technology for urban administration.
 Contributing to the National Urban Data Bank and Indicators (NUDBI): Providing
data for monitoring urban trends.

NATIONAL URBAN OBSERVATORY

The National Urban Observatory is a monitoring and evaluation framework that utilizes data
from various sources, including NUIS, to assess the health and performance of urban areas.
Its primary role is to:
 Monitor urban trends: Track changes in urban indicators like population, economy,
environment, and infrastructure.
 Inform policymaking: Provide data-driven insights for urban development and
planning.
 Support evaluation: Assess the impact of urban policies and programs.
 Enhance public participation: Share urban data and information with citizens.

INTRODUCTION TO GIS
GIS, or Geographic Information System, is a technology-based tool that allows us to capture,
store, analyse, and visualize geographic data. It integrates various types of data such as maps,
satellite imagery, aerial photography, and tabular data to provide a spatial context and enable
us to understand patterns, relationships, and trends in the real world.

GIS is designed to work with geospatial data. Geospatial data refers to any information that
has a location or spatial component associated with it. With GIS, we can store these data in a
structured manner, linking attributes to specific geographic locations or areas. This spatial
database allows us to query, search, and analyse the data based on location or specific
criteria. GIS provides a set of powerful tools and functionality that enable us to perform
various tasks. These tasks include:

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1. Data Capture: GIS allows us to collect geographic data from different sources, such
as satellite imagery, GPS devices, and surveys. It provides the tools to digitize paper
maps or convert data from other formats into a digital form.
2. Data Storage and Management: GIS provides the capability to organize and store
geospatial data in a structured manner, often in a relational database format. This
facilitates efficient data retrieval, management, and updating.
3. Data Analysis: One of the key strengths of GIS is its ability to analyse geospatial
data. It offers a wide range of analytical tools and techniques to examine spatial
relationships, perform spatial queries, conduct spatial modelling, and generate insights
from the data.
4. Data Visualization: GIS allows us to represent geospatial data visually through
maps, charts, graphs, and other graphical representations. This helps in
communicating and interpreting complex spatial patterns and trends in a more
understandable manner.
5. Decision Making and Planning: GIS supports decision-making processes by
providing a spatial framework for analysing and evaluating different scenarios. It
helps in identifying suitable locations for facilities, optimizing routes, assessing
environmental impacts, and supporting overall planning and management.

CONCEPT OF GIS

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1. Geographic Information: GIS is all about geographic information, which includes

any data that has a location or spatial component. This can range from physical
features like rivers and mountains to man-made features like roads and buildings.
2. Spatial Data: Spatial data refers to the data that represents the location and shape of
geographic features. It can be represented in different forms, such as points, lines,
polygons, or raster grids.
3. Layers: GIS organizes spatial data into layers. Each layer represents a specific theme
or type of information. Layers can be stacked on top of each other to create a
composite map that shows multiple features and their relationship.
4. Attribute Data: In addition to the spatial data, GIS also integrates attribute data.
Attribute data provides additional information about the geographic features. Attribute
data is stored in tables or databases and can be linked to spatial data through a
common identifier. For example, a layer representing cities might have attributes such
as population size, name, and area.
5. Geographic Coordinate System: A geographic coordinate system is a reference
system used to locate features on the Earth's surface. It uses latitude and longitude to
specify the position of a point relative to the Earth's surface.
6. Projections: Projections are used in GIS to transform the curved, three-dimensional
surface of the Earth into a two-dimensional plane for mapping and analysis. Different
map projections are used to optimize certain properties such as preserving distances,
areas, or shapes.
7. Spatial Analysis: Spatial analysis is at the heart of GIS and involves using various
tools and techniques to examine spatial patterns, relationships, and trends. It allows us
to answer questions like proximity analysis, buffering, overlay analysis, interpolation,
and network analysis.

COMPONENTS OF GIS

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1. Hardware: The hardware component of GIS refers to the physical equipment used to
operate and store data. This includes computers, servers, storage devices, GPS
receivers, scanners, printers, and other peripheral devices.
2. Software: GIS software is the core component of a GIS. GIS software allows users to
perform spatial analysis, create maps, manage data, and access various geospatial
tools and functions. A variety of GIS software is available, ranging from open-source
solutions like QGIS and GRASS GIS to commercial software like ArcGIS and
MapInfo.
3. Data: Data is a crucial component of GIS. It consists of both spatial (geographic) data
and attribute (non-spatial) data. Spatial data represents the location and shape of
geographic features and can be stored in different formats such as points, lines,
polygons, or raster grids. Attribute data includes descriptive information about the
features, such as population, land use type, or elevation. GIS data can come from
various sources, including satellite imagery, aerial photography, survey data, census
data, and user-generated data.
4. People: People play a critical role in GIS as users, analysts, and administrators. GIS
professionals, such as GIS analysts, data scientists, cartographers, and planners, are
responsible for managing and analysing the data, creating maps, and applying spatial
analysis techniques to solve problems.
5. Methods and Processes: Methods and processes refer to the techniques and
workflows employed in GIS to manipulate and analyse data. This includes data
collection, data entry, data management, spatial analysis, map creation, and data
visualization techniques.
6. Procedures and Standards: Procedures and standards provide guidelines for the
efficient and consistent use of GIS. This includes data standards, metadata creation,
data sharing protocols, quality control processes, and best practices. Adhering to
standards ensures data interoperability, accuracy, and consistency across different GIS
projects and organizations.
7. Applications: GIS applications refer to the specific uses and domains where GIS
technology is applied. GIS has a wide range of applications in sectors like urban
planning, environmental management, agriculture, transportation, public health,
emergency management, and many others. Each application incorporates the
principles of GIS to address specific challenges and make informed decisions based
on spatial analysis and visualization.

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FUNCTIONS OF GIS
The functions of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) include:
1. Data collection and integration: GIS allows for the collection and integration of
various types of spatial data, such as satellite imagery, maps, and survey data.
2. Data analysis and visualization: GIS enables the analysis and visualization of spatial
data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. It helps in making informed
decisions based on the analysis of geospatial information.
3. Mapping and cartography: GIS can create maps and cartographic visualizations that
display spatial data in a user-friendly and informative manner. It allows for the
creation of customized maps for different purposes.
4. Spatial modelling and simulation: GIS can be used to create models and simulations
that help in understanding how different factors interact in a specific geographic area.
This can be used for urban planning, environmental impact assessment, and other
applications.
5. Spatial querying and database management: GIS enables the querying and
retrieval of specific spatial information from large databases. It helps in organizing
and managing spatial data efficiently.
6. Network analysis: GIS can be used to analyse networks, such as transportation or
utility networks, to optimize routes, identify bottlenecks, and improve efficiency.
7. Geocoding and geolocation: GIS allows for the conversion of addresses or place
names into geographic coordinates (geocoding) and the identification of the location
of an object or individual based on its coordinates (geolocation).
8. Decision support system: GIS provides a platform for decision-making by
integrating spatial data with other non-spatial data. It helps in evaluating different
scenarios and making informed decisions based on spatial information.
9. Emergency management and planning: GIS is used in emergency management to
assess risks, plan evacuation routes, and coordinate response efforts during natural
disasters or emergencies.
10. Natural resource management: GIS is widely used in natural resource management
to monitor and manage forests, water resources, wildlife habitats, and other natural
assets. It helps in understanding the impact of human activities on the environment
and supports sustainable resource management.

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