DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Data

• Analog Data

– Are continuous and take continuous values

• Digital Data

– Have discrete states and take discrete values

Signal

• Analog Signal

– Can have an infinite number of values in range

• Digital Signal

– Can have only a limited number of values

Analog Signal

Digital Signal
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Analog ,Digital Signals

Analog

• Expensive

• Susceptible to noise

• Low attenuation

• Distortion not so effective

Digital

• Cheap

• Less Susceptible to noise

• High attenuation

• Distortion is effective

Periodic and Non periodic Signals

– Periodic

• Periodic signal completes pattern within a measurable time frame, called a

period

• Repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods

• Completion of one full pattern called cycle

– Non periodic

• Non periodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeat
over times

Periodic Analog Signals

NSJ ONLINE ACADEMY 3

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Sine Wave/Periodic Analog Signal

Horizontal Shifting of sine waves(phase)

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Vertical shifting of sine waves (phase)

Parameters of sinusoidal signal/sine wave

•
• Peak Amplitude (A)

• Frequency(f )

• Period(T)
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Parameters of sinusoidal signal/sine wave

• T=1/f

• F=1/T

• T- seconds(s)

• f- Hz(Hertz)

Cycle

ω = 2π f T = 2π / ω

Wavelength

V = f
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Time Domain and frequency Domain

Composite Signals
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Bandwidth

BW = fmax - fmin

Digital Signal

• Bit Rate

– The number of bits sent in 1 s (bps)

• Bit length

– Bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium

– Bit length=propagation Speed ×bit duration

• Bit interval (same as bit length)

– time required to send one single bit

Transmission impairment

Impairments can be categorized in to three types

• Attenuation

• Distortion

• Noise

Attenuation
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Distortion

Noise

▪ Thermal noise

▪ Induced noise

▪ Crosstalk

▪ Impulse noise

Signal Modulation

• Analog to analog

– Voice (Analog Data) Telephone  Analog Signal

• Digital to analog

– PC ( Digital Data) Modem  Analog Signal

• Analog to digital

– Voice ( Analog Data)  CODEC  Digital Signal

• Digital to Digital

– PC ( Digital Data) Digital Transmitter  Digital Signal

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Analog transmission--transmission of analog signals without regard to content.(whether

it represents digital or analog data)

For long distances, amplifiers are used .

Amplifiers boost noise, and are "imperfect".

Analog voice is tolerant of the distortion, but for digital data errors will be introduced.

• Digital transmission-- transmission of digital data (using either analog or digital signals).

– Concerned with the content of the signal

– For long distances, repeaters are used.(which recover the pattern of 0’s and 1’s and re-
transmits)

– Can be used with analog signals if it carries digital data

– Preferred because of: digital technology, data integrity(error coding), capacity

utilization, security, integration (of voice, data and more.)

Modem=Modulation and Demodulation

• A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to

encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the
transmitted information.

CODEC (coder-decoder)

• A codec is a device or computer program capable of encoding or decoding a digital data

stream or signal.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. This new
signal, conceivably, will have certain benefits of an un-modulated signal, especially during
transmission

Analog Transmission

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

The instantaneous amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating wave.

1. Frequency Modulation (FM)

The instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating wave.

1. Phase Modulation (PM)

The instantaneous phase of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating wave

Digital to Analog transmission

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK),

3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK).

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Digital Transmission

1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

2. Delta Modulation (DM)

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Computer Networks :Definition

• A computer network is a set of interconnected autonomous computers exchanging information

by common conventions, called protocols, over a shared communication medium.

Advantages of Computer Networks

• Accessing, databases and transferring, processing and retrieval of data can be done on-line

• Online credit card checking, e-commerce and Electronic Fund Transfer are possible

• Easily administered

• Provides an efficient means of communication such as e-mail, Voice mail, and Video
conferencing

• Users can be easily added or removed.

• Tasks of distributed nature can be processed by distributed computer systems by exchanging

data.

• Provides a way to share data, programs, peripherals and information.

• Provides data security.

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

The Abstract Model of Communications

Establishment of Communication

• Availability of a sender

• Availability of a Receiver

• Availability of a transmission medium

• Availability of response from the receiver.

• Availability of a set of protocols that governs the communication.

Data Communication

• Communication of binary encoded data from one place to another is known as Data
Communication.

• A channel used for communicating data is known as a data channel.

• In Data Communications all kinds of data (Text, Audio, Imaging) are encoded into binary form
at the sender and decoded at the receiver.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

A Simple Data Communication System

The Key Elements of a Communication System

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Direction of Data Flow (Data Transmission Modes)

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Data Communication :Applications

• e-mail, Voice mail,

• File transfer, Document transfer,

• Fund Transfer, e-commerce,

• Software download

• Tele-shopping, Tele-medicine, Telecommuting

• Distance learning, Teleconferencing,

• Long distance telephone calls, Chat,

• Weather reports, Stock exchange information,News

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Network Security

Why we need security ?

• Protect vital information while still allowing access to those who need it

• Provide authentication and access control for resources

• Guarantee availability of resources

Who is vulnerable?

• Financial institutions and banks

• Internet service providers

• Pharmaceutical companies

• Government and defense agencies

• Contractors to various government agencies

• Multinational corporations

• ANYONE ON THE NETWORK

• Computer Security - generic name for the collection of tools designed to protect data and to
thwart hackers

• Network Security - measures to protect data during their transmission

• Internet Security - measures to protect data during their transmission over a collection of
interconnected networks
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Confidentiality

❖ Data confidentiality: Assures that private or confidential information is not made available or
disclosed to unauthorized individuals.

❖ Privacy: Assures that individuals control or influence what information related to them may be
collected and stored and by whom and to whom that information may be disclosed.

Integrity

❖ Data integrity: Assures that information and programs are changed only in a specified and
authorized manner.

❖ System integrity: Assures that a system performs its intended function in an unimpaired
manner, free from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system.

Availability

• Ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information.

• Assures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to authorized users.

• A loss of availability is the disruption of access to or use of information or an information

system.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Cryptography

• Network security is mostly achieved through the use of cryptography, a science based on
abstract algebra.

• Cryptography, a word with Greek origins, means "secret writing.“

Cryptography components

Three types of Keys in Cryptography

1. Secret key -is the shared key used in symmetric-key cryptography

2. Public key - used in asymmetric-key cryptography

3. Private key -used in asymmetric-key cryptography

Digital Signature

• A digital signature is a mathematical scheme for demonstrating the authenticity of a digital

message or documents.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Networks Types

1. Peer to Peer

2. client/server (Server-based).

Peer-to-Peer

• This is a simple network configuration that requires some basic knowledge-how to set up.

• Each of the interconnected machines share dual capability and responsibility on the network

• Advantages

– Easy to install and configure.

– No dedicated server required.

– Users control their own resources.

– Inexpensive to purchase and operate.

– No specialist software required.

– No dedicated administrator to run the network required.

• Disadvantages

– Difficult to employ security.

– Too many passwords for shared resources.

– Backups difficult to manage.

– No centralization.

– Limited users.

Client/server (server-based).

– Server based networks, has a machine at the heart of its operations called the server.

– A server is a machine that provides services over a network by responding to client

requests.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

– install, configure or manage its capabilities.

– The server's essential role on the network is to be continuously available to handle the
many requests generated by its clients.

• Advantages

– Centralized user accounts, security and access controls simplify network administration.

– More powerful equipment means more efficient access network resources.

– Single password login, means access to all resources.

– Supports greater numbers of users, or networks where resources are heavily used

• Disadvantages

– More costly to install and maintain.

– Single point of failure, server goes down, the network goes down.

– Complex special-purpose software requires appointment of expert staff, increasing

costs.

Dedicated hardware and software increases costs

Types of Network

• LAN - Local Area Network

• WAN - Wide Area Network

• MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

• SAN - Small Area Network

• CAN - Campus Area Network,

• PAN - Personal Area Network

• WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Network Topology

– BUS

– RING

– STAR

– TREE

– MESH

Transmission Media

Guided Transmission Media

• Twisted Pair

• Coaxial cable

• Optical fiber
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Wireless Media

Terrestrial Microwave

• Parabolic dish

• Focused beam

• Line of sight

• Long haul telecommunications

• Higher frequencies give higher data rates

Satellite Microwave

• Satellite is relay station

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• Satellite receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and transmits on another
frequency

• Requires geo-stationary orbit

– Height of 35,784km

• Television

• Long distance telephone

• Private business networks

Satellite Point to Point Link

Broadcast Radio

• Omnidirectional

• FM radio

• UHF and VHF television

• Line of sight

• Suffers from multipath interference

– Reflections
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Infrared

• Modulate noncoherent infrared light

• Line of sight (or reflection)

• Blocked by walls

• e.g. TV remote control, IRD port

Wireless Propagation

• Signal travels along three routes

– Ground wave

• Follows contour of earth

• Up to 2MHz

• AM radio

– Sky wave

• Amateur radio, BBC world service, Voice of America

• Signal reflected from ionosphere layer of upper atmosphere

• (Actually refracted)

– Line of sight

• Above 30Mhz

• May be further than optical line of sight due to refraction

• More later…
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Access Point(AP)

❑ To solve compatibility problems among devices, an infrastructure mode topology can be set up
using an access point (AP) to act as a central hub for the WLAN.

LAN Components

Network Interface Card(NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board that provides network
communication capabilities to and from a personal computer. Also called a LAN adapter.

Repeaters

• Length of cable used influence the quality of communication

• Attenuation or signal loss – signal degrades over distance

• Repeaters clean, amplify, and resend signals that are weakened by long cable length.

• Repeaters only work with the physical signal

– Cannot reformat, resize, or manipulate the data

• Built-in to hubs or switches

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• Physical layer (layer 1) device

Hubs

• regenerate and retime network signals

• propagate signals through the network

• cannot filter network traffic

• cannot determine best path

• used as network concentration points

• multi-port repeaters

• Uplink

• port – crossover mode or straight through mode

• Physical layer 1 device

Bridge

A bridge is a physical unit, typically a box with two ports in it, that you use to connect network
segments.

You can use a bridge to join two existing LANs or to split one LAN into two segments.

Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as perform basic data transmission
management.

Bridges, as the name implies, provide connections between LANs.

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Switch

• Switch has largely replaced the bridge in the modern network.

• It is also replacing routers in many instances.

• A switch is a box with multiple cable jacks, making it look similar to a hub.

• In fact, some manufacturers have hubs and switches of various sizes that are identical in
appearance, except for their markings.

• Advantages of switches

– Increase available network bandwidth

– Reduced workload, computers only receive packets intended for them specifically

– Increase network performance

– Smaller collision domains

• Disadvantages of switches

– More expensive than hubs and bridges

– Difficult to trace network connectivity problems through a switch

Switch Types
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• A cut-through switch forwards packets immediately by reading the destination address. The
switch doesn't even wait for the entire packet to arrive before it begins forwarding it.

• A store-and-forward switch waits until an entire packet arrives before forwarding it to its
destination.

Routers

• Provide filtering and network traffic control

• Used on LANs and WANs

• Connect multiple segments and networks

• Multiple routers create an “internetwork”

• Operate at the Network layer

• Create a table to determine how to forward packets

• Filtering and traffic control base on logical addresses

Wireless Access Points

• Wireless local area networks (WLANs)

• Wireless access points provide cell-based areas

– Contains radio transceiver

– Function like a hub

– Bandwidth is shared

– May also function as a wireless repeater

Gateways
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• A gateway is a combination of hardware and software

• Translate between different protocol suites

• a computer or a network that allows or controls access to another computer or network

(telecommunication)

• a link between two computer programs allowing them to share information and bypass
certain protocols on a host computer(computer program)

• Operates on all 7 layers of the OSI model

Layered Architecture and OSI

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Layer 1 - Physical layer

❑ Coordinates the functions required to transmit a stream of bits over a physical medium.

❑ Deals with electrical and mechanical specifications of the

interface and transmission medium.

❑ Physical Layer specifications define features such as:

o voltage

o timing sequence of voltage changes

o data rate 19.2 kbps

o distance of transmission – 50 ft

o physical connectors. ( DB 9 / DB 25)

Layer 2 – Data link layer

❑ DLL transforms the physical layer function of transmission of raw bits into a
reliable one and is responsible for node to node delivery.

❑ Concerns with error notification, detection & correction

❑ sequencing of frames and flow control.

Layer 3 - Network layer

❑ Defines logical addresses for nodes, networks / segments

❑ Translates logical addresses and names into physical addresses.

❑ Defines the logical network layout so routers can determine how to forward packets
through an internetwork
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

❑ Network Devices - Router

Layer 4 - Transport layer

• The transport layer provides transport services from the source host to the destination host.

• It establishes a logical connection between the endpoints of the network.

Transport services include the following basic services:

• Segmentation of upper-layer application data

• Establishment of end-to-end operations

• Transport of segments from one end host to another

end host

• Flow control provided by sliding windows

• Reliability provided by sequence numbers and

acknowledgments

Layer 5 – Session layer

❑ A session is an exchange of messages between computers.

❑ The session layer establishes, manages, maintains and terminates

communication channels between software programs on network nodes.

❑ Provides error reporting for the application and presentation layer.

❑ Network Devices

o Gateways

Layer 6 - Presentation Layer

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• Defines coding and conversion functions.

• Ensures that information sent from the application layer of

one system is readable by the application layer of

another system.

• Includes common data representation formats,

conversion of character representation formats etc.

Layer 7- Application Layer

• Provides network services directly to applications.

• Determines the identity and availability of communication

partners, and determines if sufficient resources are

available to start program-to-program communication.

• The layer is closest to the user.

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

TCP/IP Model

– Application layer

– Transport layer

– Internet layer

– Network access layer

The Application Layer

The application layer of the TCP/IP model handles high-level protocols, issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog control.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• Domain Name System (DNS)

• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

The Transport Layer

The transport layer provides transport services from the source host to the destination host. It
constitutes a logical connection between these endpoints of the network. Transport
protocols segment and reassemble upper-layer applications into the same data stream
between endpoints.

The transport layer data stream provides end-to-end transport services.

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

– Transport Control Protocol (TCP)

– User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

The Internet Layer

The purpose of the Internet layer is to select the best path through the network for packets to
travel. The main protocol that functions at this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP). Best path
determination and packet switching occur at this layer.

The Network Access Layer

The network access layer is also called the host-to-network layer. It the layer that is
concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to actually make a physical link to
the network media. It includes LAN and WAN details, and all the details contained in the OSI
physical and data-link layers. NOTE: ARP & RARP work at both the Internet and Network
Access Layers.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

TCP/IP and OSI model

Well Known Port Numbers

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Device Addressing

Addressing

• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical,
logical(IP), port, and specific.

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

Physical Address

• Also known as the link address

• Is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.

• Is included in frame used by data link layer

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• Is the lowest level address

• Eg. Ethernet uses 48 bit physical address that imprinted on the NIC .

Logical address(IP)

• Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of
underlying physical networks.

• Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different

networks can have different address formats.

• A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely,
regardless of the underlying physical network.

• The logical addresses are designed for this purpose. A logical address in the Internet is
currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.

• No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP address.

Port Address

• The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a
source to the destination host.

• However, arrival at the destination host is not the final objective of data communications on
the Internet.

• A system that sends nothing but data from one computer to another is not complete.

• Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time.

MAC Address(Physical Address )

• is a unique identifier assigned to most network adapters or network interface cards (NICs) by
the manufacturer for identification, and used in the Media Access Control protocol sub-layer.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's

registered identification number.

• It may also be known as an Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA), hardware address, adapter
address, or physical address.

Network Protocols

• In order for computers to communicate with one another, they must agree on a set of rules
for who says what, when they say it, and what format they say it in

• This set of rules is a protocol

• Different programs can use different protocols

• Protocols may be in ASCII (characters) or in binary

• Some common protocols are HTTP (for web pages), FTP (for file transfer), and SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol)
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

TCP/IP

• The Internet (and most other computer networks) are connected through TCP/IP networks

• TCP/IP is actually a combination of two protocols:

– IP, Internet Protocol, is used to move packets (chunks) of data from one place to
another

• Places are specified by IP addresses: four single-byte (0..255) numbers

separated by periods

• Example: 192.168.1.1

– TCP, Transmission Control Protocol, ensures that all necessary packets are present,
and puts them together in the correct order

• TCP/IP forms a “wrapper” around data of any kind

• The data uses its own protocol, for example, FTP

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

– Datagrams

– Connection Oriented

– End to End error checking

– Source Port, Destination Port

• Sockets, Well Known Ports

– HTTP, SMTP, TELNET,FTP

UDP (user datagram protocol)

• Connectionless

• One Way

• Fast, Simple

• No guarantee of delivery
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• NFS, DNS, DHCP, NTP, TALK

ICMP (Internet control message protocol)

• Error Messages

• Intended for the TCP/IP software itself

• PING (host unreachable messages)

• Simple Headers

Application Protocols

• SMTP: Simple Mail Transport Protocol

• HTTP: Hyper Text Transport Protocol

• HTTPS: Hyper Text Transport SSL (Secure)

• SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol

• FTP: File Transfer Protocol

• Telnet: Interactive login

• SSH: Secure Shell telnet

• DNS: Domain Name Service

FTP

• File Transfer Protocol (TCP)

– User authentication

– Anonymous

• used to transfer computer files between a client and server on a computer network.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• built on a client-server model architecture and uses separate control and data connections
between the client and the server.

• GET/PUT/DEL/CWD

HTTP

• Hyper text Transfer Protocols

• HTTP is a pull protocol, the user pulls information from a remote site.

• Protocol consists of GET and POST commands to transfer data.

HTTPS

• Secure communication over a computer network

• HTTPS consists of communication over Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) within a connection
encrypted by Transport Layer Security or its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer.

The main motivation for HTTPS is authentication of the visited website and protection of the
privacy and integrity of the exchanged data

SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• The protocol is very simple

• SMTP is a push protocol, information is pushed to a remote site

• Uses port 25
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

POP3

• Post Office Protocol 3

• Most recent version of a standard protocol for receiving e-mail.

• Mail access client

• Uses port 110

• Messages are downloaded to client but can be stored on server.

• Does not easily allow multiple clients

IMAP

• Internet Mail Access Protocol

• Improved POP3

• Automatically assigns folders

• Leaves mail on server

• Only transfers as much as needed per message (headers, subject only on list)

DHCP

• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a way of assigning temporary IP addresses as

needed

DNS

• Domain Name Service

• consists of different types of DNS messages that are processed according to the information in
their message fields

• There are three types of DNS messages

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

– Queries

– Responses

– Updates

ARP

• Address Resolution Protocol

• Protocol used by the Internet Protocol (IP), specifically IPv4, to map IP network addresses to
the hardware addresses used by a data link protocol.

• The protocol operates below the network layer as a part of the interface between the OSI
network and OSI link layer.

RARP

• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

• used by a client computer to request its Internet Protocol (IPv4) address from a computer
network, when all it has available is its Link Layer or hardware address, such as a MAC
address.

Telnet

• User command and an underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote computers.

• Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can access someone else's computer
remotely.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

SSH

• A cryptographic network protocol for operating network services securely over an unsecured
network.

• The best known example application is for remote login to computer systems by users.

DNS

What is DNS?

• Domain Name Service/Domain Name System

• Is an Internet-wide distributed database that translates between domain names and IP

addresses

• Defines a hierarchical namespace where each level of the namespace is separated by a “.”

• Provides resolution of names to IP addresses and resolution of IP addresses to names

What is a DNS Server?

• Computer running DNS service

• Can be:

– Microsoft® Windows® .NET Server 2003

– Windows 2000

– Microsoft Windows® NT 4

– UNIX

– Linux

– NetWare

– Etc.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• Capabilities vary by operating system and/or DNS server software version

DNS Resolution analogy

Looking up a phone number

• Get the phone book of the right city

• People are listed by last name

• Then narrow it down to a first name.

It is the phone number that allows you to communicate over the phone, not the person’s
name.

Domain Names vs. URLs

A domain name is contained in a URL. See
examples below.
ftp://ftp.company.com/downloads.report.doc
http://www.networkclue.com/index.php

Protocol
Hostnam Domain Name Resource or File
e/name
of the

Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN)

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Resolver

• Computer that requests DNS resolution

• Issues queries that ask for specific types of mappings of computers and IP addresses (records)

• Query types determine behavior of DNS server receiving query

• Lookup types determine whether a name-to-IP mapping or an IP-to-name mapping is sought

DNS Name Hierarchy

.
(root)

.net
.com
.lab8.net

.mylab.com

Domain name system

.
(root)

.net
.com
.lab8.net

.mylab.com
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Top-level domains

• Three types of top-level domains:

– Organizational: 3-character code indicates the function of the organization

• Used primarily within the US

• Examples: gov, mil, edu, org, com, net

– Geographical: 2-character country or region code

• Examples: us, va, jp, de,lk,uk

– Reverse domains: A special domain (in-addr.arpa) used for IP address-to-name mapping

IP Addressing(IPv4) & Subnetting

IP addresses –IPv4

• The IP Address identifies a system’s location on the network in the same way a street address
identifies a house on a city block

• Just as a street address must identify a unique residence, an IP address must be unique and
have uniform format

• Each IP address has two parts

– Network ID

– Host ID

Network ID

• Identifies a physical network

• All hosts on the same network require the same network ID, which should be unique to the
internet work
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Host ID

• Identifies a workstation, server, router or other TCP/IP host within a network

• Host ID must unique to the network ID

Network ID & Host ID

• There are two formats for referencing an IP address

– Binary

– Dotted decimal notation

• Each IP address is 32 bits long and is composed of four 8 bit fields, called octets

• Octets are separated by periods and represent a decimal number in the range 0-255

• The 32 bits of the IP address are allocated to the network ID & host ID

• The human readable format of an IP address is referred to as dotted decimal notation

IP address
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

• Class A

– Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a very large number of hosts

– The high order bit in a class A address is always set to zero.

– The next 7 bits complete the network ID

– The remaining 24 bits represent the host ID

– Allows 126 networks

– Approximately 17 millions hosts per network

• Class B

– Class B addresses are assigned to medium sized to large networks

– The two high order bit in a class B address is always set to binary 1 0.
 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

– The next 14 bits complete the network ID

– The remaining 16 bits represent the host ID

– Allows 16384 networks

– Approximately 65000 hosts per network

• Class C

– Class C addresses are used for small networks

– The three order bit in a class A address is always set to binary 1 1 0.

– The next 21 bits complete the network ID

– The remaining 8 bits represent the host ID

– Allows 2 million networks

– Approximately 254 hosts per network

Note:

– The network ID cannot be 127

 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK SHORT NOTE

Subnet mask

• The subnet mask used in the TCP/IP configuration for a network tells the OS which part of an IP
address is the network portion and which part identifies the host.

• Using a subnet mask, a computer or other device can know if an IP address of another computer
is on its network or another network

• A subnet mask is a group of ones followed by a group of zeros.

• The ones in a subnet mask say, “On our network, this part of an IP address is the network part,”

• and the group of zeros says, “On our network, this part of an IP address is the host part.”