Introduction to Computer Network

A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting
and sharing information. Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a server.
These devices are connected using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they can also be
wireless.

Uses of Computer Network

 Resource Sharing: Networks enable multiple users to share resources like files, printers,
and internet connections, which can lead to cost savings and more efficient resource
utilization.
 Communication: Networks facilitate communication through email, instant messaging,
video conferencing, and collaborative work, allowing for quick and efficient information
exchange.
 Remote Access: Networks allow users to access information and services from remote
locations, making it possible to work from anywhere with an internet connection.

Benefits of Computer Network

 Cost Efficiency: Sharing resources like printers and storage devices reduces costs by
avoiding the need for multiple individual devices.
 Centralized Data Management: Networks allow for centralized data storage and
management, making it easier to back up data, apply security measures, and ensure data
consistency.
 Improved Communication: Networks enhance communication speed and reliability,
enabling real-time communication and collaboration.
 Scalability: Networks can easily be scaled by adding or removing devices and services as
needed, allowing for flexibility and growth.

Overview of Network Topologies

Network topologies describe the arrangement of various elements (links, nodes, etc.) in a
computer network. They define how different nodes in a network are connected and how data is
transmitted between these nodes. Here’s an overview of four common network topologies: Mesh,
Star, Tree, and Bus.

Types of Topologies:

Star Topology
In a star topology, all nodes are connected to a central hub or switch. The hub acts as a repeater
for data flow. Each node has a dedicated point-to-point connection to the hub.

Advantages:

 Easy to install and manage: Simple layout and easy to add or remove nodes.
 Centralized management: The hub can manage and control the entire network.
 Fault isolation: If one node or its connection fails, it does not affect the rest of the
network.

Disadvantages:

 Single point of failure: If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down.
 Higher cabling cost compared to bus topology, since each node requires an individual
cable to the hub.

Use Case:

 Commonly used in home networks and small to medium-sized businesses.

Tree Topology
Tree topology is a hierarchical structure that combines characteristics of both star and bus
topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured networks connected to a linear bus backbone.

Advantages:

 Scalable: Easily expandable by adding new groups of star networks.

 Hierarchical nature allows for efficient management and troubleshooting.
 Isolated segments: Faults in one segment don’t necessarily impact the entire network.

Disadvantages:

 Dependent on backbone: If the backbone line breaks, it can affect the entire network.
 Complex to configure and maintain compared to simple topologies like star or bus.

Use Case:

 Suitable for large networks such as corporate campuses, schools, and large office
buildings.

Bus Topology:
In a bus topology, all nodes are connected to a single central cable, called the bus or backbone.
Data sent from a node travels along the bus in both directions until it reaches its destination.

Advantages:

 Cost-effective: Requires less cable than other topologies like star.

 Simple to install and extend: Easy to add new nodes without disrupting the network.

Disadvantages:

 Limited cable length and number of nodes: Performance degrades as more devices are
added.
 Difficult to troubleshoot: A fault in the main cable can bring down the entire network.
 Collision and congestion: Multiple nodes sending data simultaneously can cause
collisions and network congestion.

Use Case:

 Common in smaller, simpler networks and early LAN setups.

Overview of Network Types

Networks are classified based on their size, range, and purpose. Different types of networks
serve different needs and have unique characteristics. They are

PAN (Personal Area Network):

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a network for interconnecting devices centered around an
individual person's workspace. It covers a very small area, typically within the range of a single
person.

Characteristics:

 Very limited range: Usually within a range of a few meters (about 10 meters).
 Wireless connections: Often utilizes Bluetooth, Infrared, or Near Field Communication
(NFC).
 Personal devices: Connects devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, wearable
devices, and printers.

Use Case:

 Connecting personal devices for data transfer, synchronization, and short-range

communication.

LAN (Local Area Network):

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that spans a relatively small area, such as a single
building or a campus. It is used to connect computers and other network devices to share
resources and information within a limited area.

Characteristics:

 Limited geographic area: Typically covers a single building or a group of buildings.

 High data transfer rates: Provides high-speed connectivity, usually ranging from 100
Mbps to 10 Gbps.
 Ethernet and Wi-Fi: Common LAN technologies include Ethernet (wired) and Wi-Fi
(wireless).

Use Case:

 Offices, schools, and homes for sharing files, printers, and internet connections.
CAN (Campus Area Network):

A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a network that connects multiple LANs within a limited
geographic area, such as a university campus or a large industrial complex. It is larger than a
LAN but smaller than a MAN.

Characteristics:

 Medium range: Covers a larger area than a single building, typically an entire campus or
business complex.
 High-speed connectivity: Provides fast data transfer rates to facilitate communication and
resource sharing among different departments or buildings.
 Private network: Owned and operated by a single organization, providing secure and
controlled network access.

Use Case:

 Universities, business campuses, and military bases for connecting multiple buildings and
facilitating communication and resource sharing.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that spans a city or a large campus. It
connects multiple LANs to create a larger network, covering a metropolitan area.

Characteristics:

 Larger geographic area: Typically covers a city or a large metropolitan area.

 Medium to high data transfer rates: Offers speeds that are higher than WANs but can
vary based on the infrastructure.
 Public or private: Can be operated by private companies or public entities to provide
network access across a city.

Use Case:
  Municipalities, city-wide Wi-Fi networks, and connecting multiple branch offices within
a city.

WAN (Wide Area Network):

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that spans a large geographic area, often a country or
continent. It connects multiple smaller networks, such as LANs and MANs, to enable
communication over long distances.

Characteristics:

 Extensive geographic coverage: Can cover entire countries, continents, or even the globe.
 Lower data transfer rates: Typically slower than LANs and MANs due to the vast
distances involved.
 Public infrastructure: Often relies on public telecommunications infrastructure, such as
leased lines, satellites, and the internet.

Use Case:

 Large organizations with offices around the world, the internet as a global WAN, and
connecting branch offices over long distances.

Networking Types

Networking types refer to the different ways in which devices or nodes within a network
communicate and share resources. Here are three primary networking types: Peer-to-Peer (P2P),
Multipoint, and Client/Server.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networking:

In a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network, each computer (or node) functions both as a client and a server.
There is no centralized server; instead, every node can share resources directly with other nodes.

Characteristics:
  Decentralized: No central server controls the network. Each node is equal and can initiate
or complete transactions.
 Resource Sharing: Nodes share resources such as files, printers, and internet connections
directly with each other.
 Scalability: Can easily add new nodes without significantly affecting network
performance.

Advantages:

 Easy setup: Simple to configure and maintain, ideal for small networks.
 Cost-effective: No need for expensive server hardware or software.
 Redundant: No single point of failure since each node can act independently.

Disadvantages:

 Security: More vulnerable to security risks since each node has access to others.
 Management: Difficult to manage and monitor because there is no central control.
 Performance: Can suffer as the number of nodes increases due to the lack of centralized
management.

Use Case:

 Small office networks, home networks, and file-sharing applications like BitTorrent.

Multipoint Networking

In a Multipoint network, multiple nodes are connected through a shared medium, such as a single
communication line (e.g., a bus or wireless medium). All nodes can transmit and receive data
over this shared medium.

Characteristics:

 Shared medium: All devices share the same communication channel.

  Simultaneous communication: Multiple devices can communicate with each other
simultaneously, but only one device can send data at a time to avoid collisions.

Advantages:

 Simple topology: Easy to set up and expand.

 Cost-effective: Less cabling and infrastructure required compared to point-to-point
networks.

Disadvantages:

 Collisions: Data collisions can occur if two devices transmit data simultaneously, leading
to network congestion.
 Performance: Network performance can degrade as the number of connected devices
increases.
 Security: All devices share the same medium, so data can be intercepted more easily.

Use Case:

 Traditional Ethernet networks (bus topology), wireless networks where multiple devices
share the same frequency, and industrial control systems.

Client/Server Networking:

In a Client/Server network, there is a central server that provides resources and services to
multiple client devices. The server handles requests from clients, which access and use the
resources and services provided by the server.

Characteristics:

 Centralized control: A dedicated server manages resources, services, and data.

 Clients and servers: Clients request services, and the server responds to these requests.
 Scalability: Can add more clients and servers to scale the network as needed.
Advantages:

 Centralized management: Easier to manage, update, and secure the network from a
central point.
 Performance: Efficient resource utilization and better performance due to centralized
control.
 Security: Improved security as the server can enforce access controls and policies.

Disadvantages:

 Cost: Requires investment in server hardware and software, and potentially more
complex infrastructure.
 Single point of failure: If the server fails, clients lose access to resources and services.
 Maintenance: Requires skilled personnel to manage and maintain the server.

Use Case:

 Corporate networks, websites and web applications, email services, and database
management systems.

Protocols and Standards in Networking

Protocols

Network protocols are rules and conventions for communication between network devices. They
ensure that data is transmitted accurately and efficiently. Protocols define the syntax, semantics,
and timing of communication.

1. Syntax:

Definition: Syntax refers to the structure and format of the data. It includes the layout of the data
packet, headers, and the sequence of bits.

Example: In HTTP, the syntax includes the request line (e.g., GET /index.html HTTP/1.1),
headers, and the message body.
2. Semantics:

Definition: Semantics defines the meaning of each section of bits or fields within a protocol
message. It ensures that both the sender and receiver interpret the data correctly.

Example: In TCP/IP, the semantics define what an acknowledgment (ACK) means and how
sequence numbers are used to track the order of packets.

3. Timing:

Definition: Timing involves the synchronization and coordination of data transmission. It

includes specifying when data should be sent and how fast it should be transmitted.

Example: In Ethernet, timing rules define when a device can send data on the network and how
to handle collisions if two devices transmit simultaneously.

Standards

Standards ensure interoperability and compatibility between different devices and technologies.
They are established by consensus and provide guidelines for the design and implementation of
hardware and software.

1. De facto Standards:

Definition: De facto standards are widely accepted and used, but not formally recognized by an
official standards organization. They become standards through widespread adoption and usage.

Example: The PDF format by Adobe became a de facto standard for document exchange before
being adopted as an open standard.

2. De jure Standards:

Definition: De jure standards are officially recognized and approved by a formal standards
organization. They undergo a rigorous approval process involving consensus from multiple
stakeholders.
Example: The IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless networking (Wi-Fi) is a de jure standard.

Standards Organizations

Several organizations develop and maintain standards to ensure interoperability and consistency
across technologies.

1. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers):

Role: Develops and publishes standards for a wide range of industries, including electrical
and electronics engineering, computer science, and telecommunications.

Example: IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi).

2. IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force):

Role: Develops and promotes voluntary internet standards, particularly those related to the
TCP/IP protocol suite.

Example: The HTTP/1.1 standard (RFC 2616) and IPv6 (RFC 8200).

3. ISO (International Organization for Standardization):

Role: Develops and publishes international standards for a wide range of industries and
sectors.

Example: The ISO/IEC 27001 standard for information security management.

4. ITU (International Telecommunication Union):

Role: A specialized agency of the United Nations that develops international standards for
telecommunications, including radio communications, satellite, and internet technologies.

Example: The ITU-T H.264 standard for video compression.

5. W3C (World Wide Web Consortium):

Role: Develops standards for the World Wide Web, ensuring long-term growth and
interoperability of web technologies.

Example: HTML5 and CSS3.

Layers of the OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer: Deals with the physical connection between devices and the
transmission and reception of raw data bits over a physical medium.
2. Data Link Layer: Responsible for node-to-node data transfer, error detection and
correction, and framing.
3. Network Layer: Manages the routing of data packets between devices across different
networks.
4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer, error correction, and flow control
between end systems.
5. Session Layer: Manages sessions or connections between applications, including
establishment, maintenance, and termination.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data for the application layer,
ensuring data is in a usable format.
7. Application Layer: Provides network services directly to end-user applications, such as
email, file transfer, and web browsing.
TCP/IP Models and Its Comparison with OSI

TCP/IP model is a set of communication protocols used for the internet and similar networks. It
is derived from the OSI model but is more practical and simplified into four layers. The 4 layers
are:
 Network Interface Layer: Combines the functions of OSI’s Physical and Data Link layers,
handling hardware addressing and access to the network medium.
 Internet Layer: Corresponds to OSI’s Network layer, responsible for routing packets across
networks using IP.
 Transport Layer: Corresponds to OSI’s Transport layer, ensuring reliable data transfer with
protocols like TCP and UDP.
 Application Layer: Combines OSI’s Session, Presentation, and Application layers,
providing network services directly to applications.
Comparison with OSI Model:

Similarities: Both models are layered and serve as a framework for understanding network
communication. They facilitate modular design and troubleshooting.

Differences:

OSI is a theoretical model with seven layers, providing a more detailed and comprehensive
understanding of network functions.

TCP/IP is a practical model with four layers, used as the standard for internet communications. It
is more streamlined and widely implemented.

Connection and Connection-Oriented Network Services

Network services that require a connection to be established before data transfer can occur are
called connection oriented services. They ensure reliable and ordered data delivery.
Network services where data is sent without establishing a connection are called connectionless
services. They offer faster but less reliable communication.

Examples:
  Connection-Oriented Services:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Establishes a connection before data transfer,

ensuring reliable and ordered delivery of data packets.

 Connectionless Services:

UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Sends data without establishing a connection, offering
faster but less reliable communication, suitable for applications like streaming and online
gaming.

Connectionless and Connection-Oriented Network Services

Network services can be classified into two main types based on how data transmission is
managed: connectionless and connection-oriented. Each type has distinct mechanisms for
handling data transfer, and they are suited for different types of applications and network
environments.

Connection-Oriented Network Services

Definition: Connection-oriented network services establish a dedicated communication path

between the sender and receiver before data transfer begins. This path remains active for the
duration of the session.

Basic Working Mechanism:

1. Connection Establishment:

 A connection is established between the sender and receiver.

 Example: In TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), this involves a three-way handshake
(SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK).

2. Data Transfer:

 Data is transmitted over the established connection.

  The protocol ensures that data packets are delivered in the correct order and without
errors.
 Example: In TCP, each data packet is acknowledged by the receiver, and if packets are
lost or corrupted, they are retransmitted.

3. Connection Termination:

 Once data transfer is complete, the connection is terminated.

 Example: In TCP, this involves a four-step process (FIN, ACK, FIN, ACK) to close the
connection.

Advantages:

 Reliable: Ensures data is delivered accurately and in the correct order.

 Suitable for applications requiring guaranteed delivery, such as file transfers, emails, and
web browsing.

Disadvantages:

 Overhead: Establishing and maintaining a connection adds overhead, which can reduce
efficiency.
 Latency: The initial connection setup can introduce latency, which may not be suitable
for real-time applications.

Example Protocol:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

Connectionless Network Services

Definition: Connectionless network services send data without establishing a dedicated end-to-
end connection. Each data packet, called a datagram, is sent independently and may take
different paths to reach the destination.

Basic Working Mechanism:

1. Data Packetization:

Data is divided into smaller packets, each containing a destination address.

Example: In UDP (User Datagram Protocol), data is encapsulated into datagrams with minimal
header information.

2. Transmission:

Packets are sent independently over the network.

There is no guarantee of packet order, delivery, or error checking by the network layer.

Example: In UDP, packets are transmitted without establishing a connection or awaiting

acknowledgments.

3. Reception:

The receiver collects packets as they arrive, which may be out of order or missing.

The application layer is responsible for handling any necessary error checking or data reordering.

Advantages:

Efficiency: No connection setup or maintenance overhead, leading to faster transmission.

Suitable for applications where speed is critical and some data loss is acceptable, such as
streaming media, online gaming, and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol).

Disadvantages:

Unreliable: No guarantees of packet delivery, order, or error correction.

Not suitable for applications requiring guaranteed delivery or data integrity.

Example Protocol:
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Internet:

 The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate using

standardized protocols, such as TCP/IP.
 It enables various forms of communication, data transfer, and access to information and
services worldwide.
 The Internet consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks.

ISPs (Internet Service Providers):

 ISPs are companies that provide individuals and organizations access to the Internet.
 ISPs offer various services, including broadband, dial-up, fiber-optic, DSL, and wireless
Internet access.
 They manage the infrastructure, provide customer support, and ensure connectivity to the
global Internet.

Backbone Networks

Backbone networks are high-capacity networks that connect various parts of the Internet. They
handle large volumes of data and provide the primary pathways for data traffic between different
networks and ISPs.

Types of Backbone Network Topologies:

1. Bus Backbone:

Description: A single central cable (the bus) connects all nodes in a linear fashion.

Advantages: Simple, easy to install, and cost-effective.

Disadvantages: Limited scalability, difficult to troubleshoot, and a single point of failure can
disrupt the entire network.
2. Star Backbone:

Description: A central hub or switch connects multiple nodes in a star configuration. The central
hub acts as a repeater for data traffic.

Advantages: Easy to manage, scalable, and fault-tolerant (if one link fails, it does not affect
others).

Disadvantages: More cabling is required than a bus topology, and the central hub is a single
point of failure.

Connecting Remote LANs

Connecting remote LANs involves linking multiple Local Area Networks (LANs) that are
geographically dispersed. This can be achieved using various technologies and methods:

1. Leased Lines:

 Dedicated lines rented from telecommunications providers to connect remote LANs with
high reliability and speed.
 Suitable for permanent, high-traffic connections.

2. VPN (Virtual Private Network):

 Uses public Internet infrastructure to create a secure, encrypted connection between

remote LANs.
 Cost-effective and flexible but dependent on the reliability of the Internet connection.

3. MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching):

 A method for high-performance telecommunications networks that directs data from one
node to the next based on short path labels rather than long network addresses.
 Provides a secure, scalable, and high-performance way to connect remote LANs.

4. Wireless Connections:
  Using microwave, satellite, or other wireless technologies to connect remote LANs.
 Suitable for areas where physical cabling is impractical or too expensive.

5. SD-WAN (Software-Defined Wide Area Network):

 Uses software to manage and optimize network resources, providing a cost-effective way
to connect remote LANs using multiple types of connections (e.g., broadband, LTE,
MPLS).
 Enhances performance and reliability by dynamically routing traffic based on real-time
conditions.