18 LIGHT

Introduction Stimulus questions

‘What is light?’ This question is somewhat difficult to answer.
Light reflects from surfaces, goes through transparent
materials and produces electricity in solar cells. If we What does light act
illuminate a green surface with orange light it appears black. What is light? like when it interacts
It is the interaction between light and matter that must be with matter?
explained. The better question, therefore, is: ‘What does light
act like when it interacts with matter?’
In this chapter we will investigate different models of light
and use the wave and ray models to describe the phenomena
of light intensity, polarisation, reflection, diffraction and
refraction.
When does light What sort of a wave
behave like a wave? is light?

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 18.1 Models of light
wave–particle In some experiments, light seems to travel as a wave but interact with matter as a particle. These
duality
the need to model light
experiments cannot be explained without the use of both the wave and particle models together.
as both a wave and a Scientists call this need for these two apparently quite different models the wave–particle duality. In fact,
particle
there are three current models used to explain the propagation of light and the interactions between light
ray model
a model that describes and matter.
light as travelling
in rays that change
direction during
interactions with
The ray model
matter
wave model
In the ray model, light is described as travelling in straight lines (rays) from any source. The rays change
a model of that direction whenever light interacts with a material. The ray model is useful for analysing the interaction
describes light as
travelling as waves of light with large objects or surfaces such as lenses and mirrors. We can model reflection and refraction
photon using the ray model.
a particle of light

The wave model

In the wave model, light is treated as a wave that propagates through a vacuum or a medium with a
speed that depends on the electric and magnetic properties of the medium. The wave model is useful for
analysing the interaction of light with objects that are similar in size to the wavelength of the light, such
LL AB as small apertures and obstacles, and the edges of objects. We can model interference and diffraction
SY

US

LI N K
using the wave model.
The photon
model and
wave–particle The photon (particle) model
duality will be
investigated Some interactions of light with matter cannot be explained by treating light solely as a wave. To understand
further in
Chapter 12 of these interactions, we model light as consisting of particles called photons, each with a characteristic
Nelson QScience energy. When light interacts with matter, an entire photon, but not part of a photon, may be absorbed (or
Physics
Units 3 & 4. emitted). This is the quantum particle model of light, as the photons are discrete quanta of light energy.
In this chapter, we shall be using the ray and wave models.

SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Name the three models of light.
18.1 2 What is a photon?
UNDERSTANDING
3 Compare the key features of the three models of light.
4 Why is the question ‘What is light?’ misleading? How should the question be restated? Why?

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 18.2    The wave model of light
Modelling light as a wave is very effective in describing many observed phenomena. However, there is electromagnetic
one major difficulty with this model that took many years to resolve: all mechanical waves need some radiation
energy that travels as
medium to transfer energy, so what exactly do light waves travel through? waves and moves at
the speed of light
The modern understanding of the expanses of space is that it consists of an effective vacuum
and, as such, light from objects such as the Sun do not travel through a medium and therefore electromagnetic
wave model
cannot be considered as mechanical waves. light acts like a
transverse wave
that has electric and
magnetic components
Electromagnetic waves
luminous aether
a non-existent
In the second half of the 19th century, James Clark Direction of substance that was
Maxwell used the new discovery that there was a motion of the wave proposed to exist in
E early wave models of
relationship between electricity and magnetism to B light as the medium
through which light
construct a mathematical model that predicted the could travel
existence of electromagnetic radiation that travelled as B
waves. His theories suggested that an oscillating electric E
charge in one direction (E in Figure 18.2.1) causes a
FIGURE 18.2.1 In an electromagnetic wave, the
magnetic effect at right angles (B in Figure 18.2.1), which electric (E) and magnetic (B) effects oscillate at
would result in an electromagnetic wave travelling off at right angles to each other, while the wave travels
in the third dimension at right angles to both
right angles to both. effects.
Maxwell’s model explained all the light phenomena
LL AB
that had been observed up until that time and,

SY

US
importantly, explained that these waves could propagate through empty space. LI N K

The electromagnetic wave model of light states that, in its interactions with matter, light acts like a Electromagnetic
waves is
three-dimensional transverse wave. discussed in
greater detail
in Chapter 10 of
The luminous aether Nelson QScience
Physics
Units 3 & 4.
Considering the success of the mechanical wave theory, it was natural for physicists to assume that if
light was a wave it must also travel through some medium. They postulated the existence of a transparent
substance that permeated all of space which they called the luminous aether.
In this theory, the aether would be stationary while the Earth travelled INQUIRING
through it and therefore light would have to travel at different speeds in FURTHER
different directions. Scientists designed many experiments to observe Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave theory consists
of oscillations in electric and magnetic fields.
this prediction. The most famous of these was the Michelson–Morley Investigate field theory and its implications.
experiment.

In 1880, A.A. Michelson and E.W. Morley used a device called a Michelson interferometer to compare the speed of SCIENCE AS
light in the direction of Earth’s orbit and in the direction away from Earth’s orbit. They expected to observe different A HUMAN
speeds relative to the aether, in the same way that a boat travels faster relative to the bank of a river when it is ENDEAVOUR
travelling with the flow of water than when it is travelling against the flow. The fact that they observed no difference
at all confused physicists for years until, in 1905, Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity reconciled these observations
by stating that the speed of light was a fixed constant of the universe regardless of the direction in which it is interferometer
being observed. an instrument that
uses wave interference
to make precise
measurements of the
distance travelled by
waves in terms of their
wavelength

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 LL AB
FIGURE 18.2.2
SY

US

The Michelson– Full mirror 2

LI N K
Morley experiment
Einstein’s theory showed that the
of relativity time taken for light
d
and its strange to travel in different
predictions is directions through
investigated in the hypothetical
Chapter 11 of luminous aether was
the same. Source Half-silvered
Nelson QScience
Physics Units 3 mirror d
& 4.
Full mirror 1

Direction of ‘aether wind’

Observer

The ray model of light waves

In the ray model of light, light waves are modelled Pass cotton through the holes to align
as travelling in straight lines from their source. This them prior to using them with the light ray
can be shown for the waves emanating from a light
globe.
These rays represent the direction travelled by
Eye
the light waves. The waves emanating from a light
source can be considered to act like the water waves
produced when a stone is dropped into a pond. Frosted globe
Screens with a single small
Each direction is represented by a straight-line ray hole at the same height
emanating from the source and acting at right angles above the bench
to the wavefronts, as in Figure 18.2.4.
If the source of light is being observed from far FIGURE 18.2.3 Light travels along a straight line
from its source.
away, the wavefronts will appear similar to plane
waves and the rays will become more parallel. In fact,
if the source of light is infinitely far away (and the Sun and stars can be considered as approaching
this) these rays would become precisely parallel (see Figure 18.2.5).

a b
Terry Oakley/The Picture Source

Terry Oakley/The Picture Source

FIGURE 18.2.4 Light rays used in the ray model are always drawn at right angles to the wavefront. (a) Circular waves from
a point source showing radial rays at right angles to the wavefront; (b) straight waves showing rays at right angles to the
wavefront

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 Sources of light luminous
a source that produces
light
Luminous light sources (light bulbs, the Sun, lasers)
non-luminous
produce light directly by internal processes. Non- a source that reflects
luminous sources (the Moon, a photographer’s silver light
umbrella) reflect light.

Contrasting the speed of light and

the speed of mechanical waves
Between 1848 and 1862, Hippolyte Fizeau (1819–96)
and Léon Foucault (1819–68) used precision clocks
and clockwork motors to make the first terrestrial Essentially parallel
light rays
measurements of the speed of light in air and water.
They showed that light travels more slowly in water
than in air.
The medium affects the speed of light. Foucault’s
best result for the speed of light, found in 1862, was Focal point
2.998 × 108  m  s−1.
The current accepted value for the speed of light
in a vacuum and in air is 2.997  924  58 × 108 m  s−1
(3.0 × 108  m  s−1). This is an important constant that is
often used, so it is given a unique symbol, c. Compare FIGURE 18.2.5 Light rays emanating from a
this velocity to that of sound, which travels at about distant source become effectively parallel when
viewed from a distance.
343  m  s−1 in air. Light is almost 875  000 times faster
than sound!

FIGURE 18.2.6 Fizeau’s

method for measuring
the speed of light. A ray
of light passes between
adjacent teeth of a
toothed wheel and is
reflected. When the wheel
is turned fast enough, the
reflected light is blocked
by the next tooth.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.2.1

A race official will traditionally fire a pistol to signal the beginning of a 100  m sprint. Calculate the delay
that a spectator standing at the finish line will observe between seeing the flash of smoke from the gun
to hearing its sound.

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 ANSWER

State the correct equation:

s
t=
v
Substitute values for light:
s 100 m
t= = = 3.33 × 10 −7 s
v 3.0 × 10 8 m s −1
Substitute values for sound:
s 100 m
t= = = 0.292s
v 343 m s −1
Find the difference:
Δt = tsound − tlight = 0.292  s − 3.33 × 10 −7  s = 0.292  s
The spectator will hear the gun fire 0.292  s after she sees the smoke of the gun.

Like all waves, the velocity of light can be calculated from the
KEY FORMULA

The speed of light frequency and wavelength with the formula v = ƒλ. But since the speed of
c = ƒλ light is constant in a given medium, the velocity (v) in this equation can be
Where: replaced with a constant (c) representing the speed of light in that medium
c = the speed of light = 3.0 × 108  m  s−1 (cair = 3.0 × 108  m  s−1).
ƒ = the frequency of the light wave
λ = the wavelength of light

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.2.2

If a light wave has a wavelength of 450  nm in air, calculate its frequency.

ANSWER

Apply the equation:

c = ƒλ

Rearrange for the unknown:

c
f =
λ
Insert known values (1  nm = 1 × 10−9  m):
3 × 10 8 ms−1
f =
450 × 10 −9 m
Calculate the answer:
ƒ = 6.6667 × 1014  Hz
Give the answer to the correct number of significant figures:
ƒ = 6. 7 × 1014  Hz

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 Light intensity

KEY FORMULA
Intensity of a wave
Light from a point source spreads uniformly into the surrounding space in E
P
much the same way as the energy of mechanical waves. The light intensity is I= t =
calculated as the energy per unit time (power) that is transported through an A A
area perpendicular to the direction of travel and has units of watts per square Where:
metre (W  m−2).
I = intensity (W  m−2)
A light wave will travel out in all directions from its source in a three-
dimensional sphere. As the wave moves outwards, the energy that was E = energy (J)
emitted from the source becomes spread over a larger spherical surface t = time (s)
(Figure 18.2.7). As a result, the intensity of the wave decreases as the wave A = area (m−2)
gets further from the source.
P = power (W)
The intensity at any point can be calculated as the power over the area
(4πr2):
P
I=
4 πr 2 3r
If we assume the power at the source is constant, then we can see that the 2r
intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source: r

1 S
I∝
r2
In Figure 18.2.7, if the source (S) emits a wave of power P, then at a distance
r from the source the wave has an intensity I1 of:
P
I=
r2
FIGURE 18.2.7 Light from a point source
which can be rearranged: spreads uniformly into the surrounding space.

P = I1r2
Similarly, at a distance 2r from the source:
P P
KEY FORMULA

I2 = = 2 Light wave intensity

(2 r ) 2 4r 1
I∝
or: r2
Where:
P = 4I2r2
I = intensity (W  m–2)
Since the power of the source, P, is constant:
r = distance from the source (m)
4I2r2 = I1r2
or:
1
I2 = I
4 1
This shows that if the distance doubles (2r/r = 2), then the intensity is reduced to a quarter.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.2.3

If the wave in Figure 18.2.7 has an intensity of 900  W  m−2 at a distance r from the source, calculate its
intensity at a distance 3r from the source.

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 ANSWER

Apply the equation at a distance r from the source:

P
I1 =
r2
Make P the subject:
P = I1r2 (1)
Apply the equation at a distance 3r from the source:
P
I3 =
(3 r )2
Expand the bracket and rearrange:
P
I3 =
9r 2
1 P
I3 = × (2)
9 r2
Substitute equation (1) into equation (2):
1
I3 = I
9 1
Insert known values:
1
I3 = × 900 W m−2
9
Calculate the answer:
I 3 = 100 W m−2

Use of the wave model of light to describe phenomena

The wave model of light, coupled with the ray model, is very effective in describing many common
observations. This chapter will use these models to investigate polarisation, reflection, total internal
reflection, refraction, dispersion, diffraction and interference.

SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Define the key features of an electromagnetic wave.
18.2 2 What is the difference between luminous and non-luminous sources of light?
UNDERSTANDING
3 Explain the great benefit of the electromagnetic theory of light.
4 Explain why light rays emanating from distant objects can be considered parallel.
5 Explain how the wave model of light can explain the intensity law for point sources of light.
APPLYING
6 If the frequency of a light wave is 5.0 × 1014  Hz, calculate its wavelength.
7 If the intensity of light from a constant power light source is 200  W  m−1 at a distance of 1.5  m from the
source, calculate the intensity of light 3.0  m further out.
ANALYSING
8 Discuss how you could use Fizeau’s experiment to measure the distance to objects.

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 Polarisation and the transverse
18.3
wave model
Polaroid material is made from many small, naturally polarising and transparent crystals on a polyvinyl polarisation
orientation in one
plastic base. When two sheets are arranged so that their polarising planes are parallel, light is transmitted. direction of the
However, when one sheet is rotated through 90°, no light is transmitted. electrical part of
electromagnetic waves
Polarisation can be observed in natural and human-constructed environments. It shows that
polariser
electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. A mechanical analogy or model can be used to explain material that selects
polarisation. In Figure 18.3.1(a), both slits A and B are arranged vertically. If slit B is placed horizontally, the direction of
polarisation
the vertically polarised waves from slit A (polariser) cannot pass through slit B (analyser), as seen in
analyser
Figure 18.3.2(b). material that allows
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised. They travel in the same plane, so the oscillations can always or stops polarised
electromagnetic
go through both slits A and B. radiation

a String A Vibrations B
up and down only
Fixed end

Hand makes vibrations Polarised waves Polarised waves

in all directions
Boards with vertical slits

Direction of travel of waves

Waves in a horizontal plane cannot Waves in a vertical plane, only:

pass through the vertical slit in A these are said to be polarised

b String A Vibrations B
up and down only

No waves

Hand Polarised waves

Boards with slits set crossed
at right angles

FIGURE 18.3.1 A mechanical model for explaining polarisation. (a) Vertically orientated transverse waves pass through slits A and B. (b) Vertically
polarised waves pass through slit A but cannot pass through slit B, which is perpendicular to A.

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 SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Define ‘polarisation’.
18.3 2 Describe why longitudinal waves cannot be polarised.
UNDERSTANDING
3 Explain the use of the polariser and the analyser in the mechanical model of polarisation.
4 Explain how sunglasses use polarised lenses to reduce the intensity of light from the Sun.
APPLYING
5 Light from an electric globe passes through a polariser. An analyser is placed over the polariser, making
the globe look dark. With every quarter turn, the transmitted light goes from a dark minimum to a bright
maximum. Use the electromagnetic wave model of light to explain this phenomenon.

18.4 Reflection of light

When a beam of light is incident on a smooth, polished surface such as a plane mirror or a very still water
plane mirror surface, the rays of light forming the beam are reflected in a predictable way. This is regular or specular
a mirror with a plane reflection.
(flat) reflecting surface
Most surfaces reflect incident light in all directions. This is known as diffuse reflection or scattering.
regular or
specular reflection For example, a sheet of paper or a painted wall appears smooth, but a microscopic examination of the
predictable reflection surface will show it to be rough. Parallel rays incident on a rough surface are scattered in all directions.
from a very smooth
surface; rays in a beam This is a particularly important property – opaque objects are visible from many different angles.
all reflect in the same
direction
Shutterstock.com/puttsk

Terry Oakley/The Picture Source

diffuse reflection
(scattering)
reflection from a rough
surface; rays in a beam
reflect in different
directions
opaque
not transparent;
not able to be seen
through
FIGURE 18.4.2 Diffuse and regular reflection from
a mirror in front of a white piece of paper. The mirror
is mainly dark because light is not reflected to the
FIGURE 18.4.1 An almost perfect reflection camera, while the paper reflects light in all directions,
in a still pool of water is an example of specular including towards the camera. The candle and its image
reflection. are recorded by diffuse reflection to the camera.
normal
a line drawn
perpendicular to a
surface Law of reflection
coplanar
in the same plane Reflection from surfaces always follows the law of reflection. This is true for specular and diffuse
angle of incidence reflection; however, it is easier to observe specular reflection. The law of reflection has two parts.
the angle made
between an incident 1 The incident ray, the normal perpendicular to the surface, and the reflected ray all lie in the same flat
wave and a normal surface (they are coplanar).
drawn to the surface at
the point of incidence 2 The angle between the incident ray and the normal (the angle of incidence) is equal to the angle
angle of reflection between the normal and the reflected ray (the angle of reflection): ∠i = ∠r.
the angle made
between a reflected This applies at any point on a surface (Figure 18.4.3). Figure 18.4.3(a) shows the simple case of a flat
wave and a normal
drawn to the surface at surface, and hence is specular reflection. Figure 18.4.3(b) shows the case of a rough surface, and hence
the point of incidence shows diffuse reflection.

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 FIGURE 18.4.3
a Normal b
(a) Specular reflection;
i9 r9 (b) diffuse reflection
Incident Reflected
ray ray

r
i i r
i0 r0

Mirror

Solving problems: reflection of light using ray diagrams

Problems involving the reflection and refraction of light waves off mirrors and through lenses can often
be diagrammatically solved with the use of the ray diagram convention. ray diagram
a diagram that traces
In this convention, light rays are drawn both for the incident and for the reflected and refracted rays. the path taken by light
The angles of the rays are measured from the normal to the surface rather than the surface itself. The in order for a person to
view an object
normal is drawn perpendicular to the surface, and in the plane of the two rays.
image
picture of an object

Reflection using the ray model point source

single localised source
E from light transmits
When a person stands in front of a plane mirror, they equally in all directions
O
see a reflection of themselves. This reflection appears to virtual image
i
be in front of them, beyond the mirror, but it isn’t; it is an image of an object
r r9 where the rays do
image of the person. not pass through the
M A N image; the image
Light radiates from a point source in all directions. B cannot be projected
When the rays strike a plane mirror, they reflect i9 onto a screen

(∠i = ∠r). They appear to come from an image point, a real image
I image of an object
virtual image, behind the mirror. The rays that enter where the rays of the
FIGURE 18.4.4 Reflected rays are perceived to be image do not pass
our eyes must affect our retinas. Reflected rays form coming from behind the mirror. The image is virtual through the image
a real image in our eyes. Psychologically, we perceive because the rays do not pass through the image. A itself; the image can be
real image is formed on the retina of the eye. projected onto a screen
a virtual image of the object to be where it is not
physically present. magnification (M)
ratio of image height to
Figure 18.4.4 shows how the image is formed and seen by an observer. Rays of light from the object, object height
O, travel to the mirror and reflect such that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Two
rays are shown, which reflect at points A and B. When we look towards points A and B on the mirror, it
appears that light is coming from these points. If we extend the rays behind the mirror, they intersect at
point I behind the mirror. Point I is the position of the image.
Figure 18.4.5 shows a ray diagram that allows us to find the magnification
and position of the image. We draw our object as having some actual size,
such as the arrow in Figure 18.4.5. We draw rays coming from the top of the O N R
object and reflecting from the mirror. The rays must obey the law of reflection i
as shown. We again extend the reflected rays behind the mirror to the point i r
at which they intersect. This point corresponds to the top of the image, the M M9
A
arrowhead. Our object has a height equal to the distance between the mirror,
M, and point O; the image has a height equal to the distance between the I
mirror, M, and point I. The ratio of these distances is the magnification. For a
h
plane mirror, M = hi = 1 . FIGURE 18.4.5 Geometric construction to show
o the law of reflection

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 SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Write down both statements for the law of reflection. Draw a diagram to show this law.
18.4 2 Use the ray model to illustrate diffuse reflection.
UNDERSTANDING
3 A ray from a point object strikes a plane mirror at an angle of incidence of 30°. Use a carefully measured
diagram to show that the object and the image are equidistant on opposite sides of the mirror.
4 How do we see a virtual image in a plane mirror? Use a ray diagram to assist in your explanation.
ANALYSING
5 The eyes of a 170  cm tall woman are 160  cm above the ground. She stands 0.60  m in front of a plane mirror
that is mounted vertically and sees her entire image. What is the shortest mirror that can be used for such a
purpose? Illustrate your answer with a diagram.
6 Prove that the image is exactly the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
(MO = MI in Figure 18.4.5, page 405).

Snell’s law and the refraction

18.5
of light
When a ray of light travels from one transparent medium into another, it changes direction. This
phenomenon is called refraction. The amount of refraction is mainly related to differences in the
electrical properties of each medium. The electromagnetic wave changes speed depending on how well
the electromagnetic wave is permitted to move through the medium.
Refraction is responsible for many strange optical effects, such as the apparent bending of a straight
stick that is partly in water and partly in air.

Refractive index
Refraction occurs whenever light passes from one medium into another.

Terry Oakley/The Picture Source

refrangibility We can characterise any medium by its refrangibility. Refrangibility is a
a measure of how
much refraction will measure of how much refraction will occur when light moves into a
occur when light particular material from a vacuum.
moves into a particular
material from a The number used to compare refrangibilities is called the refractive
vacuum index. The value of the refractive index of a vacuum is defined as the
refractive index value 1.00. Other values express the ratio of the refrangibility of a
measure of
refrangibility; measure medium to that of a vacuum. Relative to a vacuum, all other values are
of the relative change
of direction of waves
greater than 1.00 for visible light.
or light rays when When light moves from one material to a second material with a
travelling from one
medium to another similar refractive index, there is very little refraction. This is the case
when light moves from a vacuum to air, which has a refractive index
close to 1.00. When light moves from one medium to a second medium
FIGURE 18.5.1 A straight
with a very different refractive index, there is strong refraction. For stick apparently bends or
example, diamond has a refractive index of 2.42 for visible light. Hence, breaks at the interface between
air and water.
light entering a diamond from air is slowed down a lot and bends
significantly.

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 Snell’s law of refraction angle of refraction
the angle that the
refracted ray makes
When a light ray refracts at a boundary between two different transparent with the normal
media, it makes an angle of incidence (i) with the normal to the boundary in
the first medium. The refracted ray makes an angle of refraction (r) with the

KEY FORMULA
Snell’s law of refraction
normal in the second medium.
sin i
All experiments conducted for refraction at a boundary demonstrate the = constant
sin r
two laws of refraction.
Where:
1 The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray are coplanar.
i = the angle of incidence
2 Snell’s law is the quantitative expression of the relationship between the
incident and refracted rays: r = the angle of refraction

sin i constant = a constant number

= constant (dependent upon the refractive indices
sin r
of the two media)

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.5.1

If a wavelength of light is incident at 15° upon a substance, it is observed that is has an angle of
refraction of 25°. Calculate the angle of refraction that would result if the angle of incidence was
increased to 21°.
ANSWER

State the equation:

sin i
= constant
sin r
Since the equation is true for both scenarios:
sin i1 sin i2
=
sin r1 sin r2
Rearrange for the unknown value:
sin r1
sin r2 = sin i2
sin i1
Insert known values:
sin(25°)
sin r2 = sin(21°)
sin(15°)
Calculate:
sin r2 = 0.5852
Rearrange to find the unknown:
r2 = sin −1 (0.5852)
Calculate the answer:
r2 = 35.815°
Give the answer with the correct number of significant figures:
r2 = 36°

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 Snell’s law for waves
Figure 18.5.2 shows the wavefronts of waves moving from
deep water into shallow water. The waves are bending
towards the normal, from which it can be deduced that
they are slowing down. The wavelength is also changing
when this happens – it is becoming shorter. Figure 18.5.3 Deep i
is a schematic diagram showing the wavefronts and water
R
interface in Figure 18.5.2. Shallow
water

FIGURE 18.5.2 Water waves in deeper water

refract towards the normal when they pass into
shallower water. Their speed in the shallower
water is less than in the deeper water.

FIGURE 18.5.3
Schematic of Boundary between media
refraction of waves.
Incident rays in Incident plane waves
medium 1 and
refracted rays in
medium 2 are drawn
at right angles to P C
the wavefronts. i l2
Wavelengths λ1 and l1
λ2 relate to medium 1 Incident ray R Q
and 2 respectively. aves
A ed plane w
Refract
i
90 2 i R
i 90 2 R
R Normal

Refracted ray

When light crosses the interface between two media it may slow down or speed up, depending on the
difference in the optical properties of the media. This difference is encapsulated in the relative difference
between the refractive indices. If the light slows down, then the ray that describes its direction of travel
bends towards the normal to the interface. If the light speeds up, then it bends away from the normal.
Hence, in Figure 18.5.3 in which light is shown bending towards the normal when it moves from medium 1
into medium 2, the light must be slowing down as it crosses the interface.
The geometry of Figure 18.5.3 can be used to show two useful results:
sin i λ1 sin i v1
= and =
sin r λ 2 sin r v 2
In ΔACP:
λ1
sin i =
AC
and in ΔACQ:
λ2
sin r =
AC
Thus:
sin i λ1/AC
=
sin r λ 2 /AC

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 Finally:
sin i λ1
=
sin r λ 2

This result enables us to show the ratio of speeds. The waves enter and leave the boundary at the same
rate because the frequency of the waves does not change. From the equation v = ƒλ, we can easily show
that:
f λ1 v1
=
f λ 2 v2
or:
λ1 v1
=
λ 2 v2
So:
sin i v1
=
sin r v 2
This expression shows that waves slow down in a medium in which the wavelength decreases and
the refraction is towards the normal. The speed decrease is not a cause of the refraction. Neither is the
decrease in wavelength a cause of the speed change. The speed decreases because of the interaction of
the waves with the medium. For electromagnetic radiation, this means that the different materials have
different electrical and magnetic properties. It is the interaction of light with these properties of the
materials that causes the change of speed.
absolute refractive
index
Absolute refractive index a measure of the
refrangibility of a
medium placed in a
The absolute refractive index is a measure of the refrangibility of a medium placed in a vacuum and vacuum and subjected
to an incident ray
subjected to an incident ray of light. Each absolute refractive index is experimentally determined. of light
Refractive index is one of the ways by which materials can be identified. Notice that we often shorten
‘absolute refractive index’ to ‘refractive index’, when it is clear what we mean (see Table 18.5.1).

TABLE 18.5.1 Refractive indices of some common materials

MATERIAL Vacuum Air Water Crown glass Flint glass Diamond

REFRACTIVE INDEX 1.0000 1.0003 1.33 1.52 1.65 2.42

Air has almost the same refractive qualities as a vacuum. In fact, the two media do not differ until the
fourth decimal place. Rounded to two decimal places, the two media are effectively the same, which is
why air is usually used as a good approximation to a vacuum in cases where very high levels of accuracy
are not required.
relative refractive
Relative refractive index index
the comparative
difference in
The relative refractive index is the comparative difference in refrangibility between two media with refrangibility between
two media with
different absolute refractive indices. From Table 18.5.1, we see that water is 1.33 times, and diamond is different absolute
2.42 times, more refractive than air. If a diamond is placed in water, its refrangibility is reduced – it is only refractive indices

1.33 = 1.82 times as refractive as it is in air: (ndiamond rel water = 1.82). This is still highly refractive compared
2.42

with various types of glass.

If a piece of sand, nsand = 1.46, is placed in oleic acid of a similar colour, noleic acid = 1.46, it cannot be
distinguished optically from the oleic acid because their refractive indices are the same:
1.46
nsand rel oleic acid = = 1.00
1.46

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 a Normal The relative difference in refractive index between two media does not have to be
very much for the effect to be noticed. Hot air has a slightly lower refractive index than
i
cold air, of the order of 0.1%, yet this difference is why we can see a shimmering heat
Air
haze above a fire or near the road surface on a hot day. We shall see that quite small
Glass
differences in the refractive indices of different types of glass enables light to travel
R Straight-through ray very efficiently down optical fibres.

Refraction towards and away from the normal

b Normal
Relative refractive indices can be greater than or less than 1.00. If the relative refractive
i index is greater than 1.00, then the refracted ray deviates from the straight-through
Glass ray towards the normal. Figure 18.5.4(a) shows a ray refracting towards the normal as
Air
it travels from air to glass. The relative refractive index is:
R
1.33
nglass rel air = = 1.33
Straight-through ray 1.00
If the relative refractive index is less than 1.00, then the refracted ray deviates away
FIGURE 18.5.4 (a) Refraction at the from the normal.
air–glass boundary is towards the
normal, (b) but away from the normal If the rays are reversed and travel from glass to air (Figure 18.5.4(b)), the relative
when the rays are reversed (glass–air). refractive index becomes less than 1.00, and refraction away from the normal occurs:
1.00
nair rel glass = = 0.75
1.33

Snell’s law for waves

In defining refrangibility in terms of relative refractive indices, we have used the general form of Snell’s
law:
sin i n2
=
sin r n1
Combining this with the expression of Snell’s law for waves, we can summarise Snell’s law as follows:
sin i λ i v n
= = i = R = constant
sin r λ R v R ni
KEY FORMULA

Snell’s law for waves

sin i λ i v n
= = i = R = constant
sin r λ R v R ni
Where:
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
λi = wavelength of the incident wave
λR = wavelength of the refracted wave
vi = velocity of the incident wave
vR = velocity of the refracted wave
ni = refractive index of the medium in which the incident wave is travelling
nR = refractive index of the medium in which the refracted wave is travelling
constant = relative refractive index of the two media

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 WORKED EXAMPLE 18.5.2

Light of wavelength 550  nm travels in water (nw = 1.33) before it strikes the interface with flint glass
(ng = 1.65) at an angle of 36° to the normal.
a What is the wavelength of the light in flint glass?
b What is the angle of refraction in the glass?
c Draw a diagram of the scenario.
d If the light has a velocity of 1.81 × 108  m  s–1 when it is in the flint glass, with what velocity must it
have been travelling in water?
ANSWERS

a State the equation: b State the equation:

λi nR sin i nR
= =
λR ni sin r ni
Rearrange for the unknown value:
Rearrange for the unknown value:
n × sin i
λ i × ni sin r = i
λR = nR
nR
Insert known values:
Insert the known values:
1.33 × sin 36°
550 × 10 −9 m × 1.33 sin r =
λR = 1.65
1.65
Calculate:
Calculate the answer:
sin r = 0.477
λ R = 4.433 × 10 −7 m
Rearrange:
Give the answer in the correct format and
r = sin–1 (0.477)
with the correct number of significant
figures: Calculate the answer:
r = 28.28°
λR = 440  nm
Give the answer with the correct number
of significant figures:
r = 28°

c d State the equation:

Normal
v i nR
Water n w  1.33 =
v R ni
i  36 Rearrange for the unknown value:
Boundary
n ×v
R  28 Flint glass ng  1.65
vi = R R
ni
Insert the known values:
1.65 × 1.81 × 10 8 m s−1
vi =
1.33
Calculate the answer:
vi = 2.245 488 72 × 108  m  s–1
Give the answer in the correct format and
with the correct number of significant figures:
vi = 2.25 × 108  m  s–1

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 Total internal reflection
At every boundary between media, reflection always occurs. Mostly, so does refraction. However, for
refraction away from the normal, there is an angle of incidence for which no refraction occurs. At angles
critical angle of incidence greater than this critical angle (ic), the ray is totally reflected back into the medium in
angle of incidence for
which the angle of which it was travelling when it reached the boundary. At the critical angle of incidence, the refracted
refraction is 90° (total angle is 90°.
internal reflection
occurs); beyond the Thus:
critical angle, reflection sin i n2
but no refraction =
occurs sin r n1
but, at the critical angle, i = ic and r = 90°.
So:
sin ic n2
KEY FORMULA

The critical angle =

sin90° n1
n 
ic = sin −1  2  or:
 n1  sin ic n2
=
Where: 1 n1
ic = critical angle
The critical angle can be calculated for any two substances as long as
n2 = refractive index of the second their relative refractive index is also less than one (i.e. n2 < n1). If the angle of
medium incidence exceeds this critical angle, total internal reflection will occur and no
n1 = refractive index of the first medium light will be refracted.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.5.3

Calculate the critical angle for light that is travelling in flint glass if the light is incident on a boundary
with crown glass.
ANSWER

Apply the equation:

n 
ic = sin −1  2 
 n1 
Insert known values:
 1.33 
ic = sin −1  
 1.65 
Calculate the answer:
ic = 53.713°
Give the answer to the correct number of significant figures:
ic = 53.7°

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 Fibre optic cables

FIGURE 18.5.5
A single optical fibre contains a light
An optical fibre is
ray by multiple total internal reflections. made from core and
cladding glass, and
carries light around
corners by total
internal reflection.

Solid glass fibre

Normals (not a tube) internal
angles of incidence
i  c

optical fibre
transparent light guide
making use of total
internal reflection at
An optical fibre is made of a glass core that has a refractive index slightly higher than that of the a boundary between
surrounding glass cladding. materials of similar
refractive index
In this way, light that spreads to the boundary is mostly constrained to travel down the core by total
core
internal reflection. The energy loss per reflection is about 500 times less than for a highly polished mirror inner glass of optical
surface. Optical fibres are highly flexible so that the light can be readily carried around corners. Every fibre

bend causes an increase in energy loss, but this is still much better than for ordinary mirror surfaces. cladding
outer glass of an
optical fibre

Dispersion chromatic
dispersion
occurs because
Different colours of light refract by different amounts. This effect is called chromatic dispersion. Red light different colours refract
by different amounts
refracts least, blue light refracts most: nred < nblue. Rainbows are a result of colour dispersion. Colours in the same medium;
disperse in every drop and the raindrops produce different colours at slightly different angles. colours spread

Raindrop All drops with this angle This drop sends

White light from the Sun Internal between the rays form the only red light
R reflection red band in the rainbow. to the observer.
V
Red e
g
Different drops
Oran
Refraction R R Yello
w in different
n
Gree positions send
Blu e
Indig
o
t
each colour to
Viole
the observer.
Red
R
t

This drop sends

le
o
Vi

V only violet light

to the observer.

Red
d
Re e Violet
g
an w All drops with this angle
Or ello en
Y re e
G Blu
igo t
between the rays form the
Ind iole violet band in the rainbow.
V

FIGURE 18.5.6 A rainbow is formed by the addition of the dispersed light coming from all the raindrops.

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 TABLE 18.5.2 Refractive indices for different-coloured light in two types of glass

COLOUR CROWN GLASS FLINT GLASS

Red 1.514 1.638

Yellow 1.520 1.650

Blue 1.527 1.664

Violet 1.533 1.675

Solving problems: ray diagrams and refraction through lenses

Ray diagrams can be useful when solving problems involving the refraction of light through a lens. These
problems can involve magnification, position, orientation and the nature of the formed image. This is an
important skill to many scientists whose experiments rely on the precise manipulation and focusing of
converging
(convex) lens light. It is equally important to opticians who use it to restore clear vision to many.
lens thicker in the
middle than at the end
Lenses
diverging
(concave) lens Lenses are shaped, transparent objects. They may be convex, like the lens in the eye, or concave. A
lens that is thicker at converging (convex) lens is thicker at the centre than at the edges. Diverging (concave) lenses are thicker
the edges than in the
middle at the edges than at the centre. Lenses can produce real or virtual images by refraction.

FIGURE 18.5.7
Types of converging Converging lenses (thicker in the centre)
and diverging lenses

Bi-convex Plano-convex Converging

meniscus

Diverging lenses (thinner in the centre)

Bi-concave Plano- Diverging

concave meniscus

Key optical features of lenses

Figure 18.5.8 shows how rays of light are refracted in converging (convex) and diverging (concave) lenses.

FIGURE 18.5.8
Rays that are parallel
to the principal axis
F F
refract to a real focus (F)
in a converging lens,
and in line with a
Converging lens Principal axis
virtual focus in a Diverging lens
diverging lens.

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 Figure 18.5.9 shows the geometry of a convex lens system.
The principal axis, or axis, is a line that passes through the centre of the lens at right angles to the principal axis
line through both
plane in which the lens stands (the lens axis). The optical centre is the point at which these two axes focus and centre and
cross. The focal point, or focus nearest the object is at the focal length, f. There is also another focal point perpendicular to the
axis of a curved lens
placed symmetrically on the opposite side of the lens. The focal point is so named because it is the point
optical centre
to which light that is parallel to the axis of a lens is focused. centre of curvature of
a lens
focal point
FIGURE 18.5.9 the point to which
Lens Geometry of the light which is parallel
axis convex lens image- to the axis of a lens is
forming system focused
showing lens axis,
focal length
Principal principal axis, optical
distance from lens to
axis centre and two foci
L focal point

F Principal F Principal
Optical
focus focus
centre
f
f
Focal length

Paraxial assumptions
In order to use ray diagrams to solve problems involving refraction and image formation in lenses, it is
necessary to make the following paraxial assumptions.
1 The rays striking the lens are not too far away from the principal axis.
2 The lens is small and thin so that it can be replaced in the diagram with a straight line. (However, we
always draw a small lens around the centre to remind us of what we are doing.)
3 When a ray strikes the straight line that represents a lens, it refracts as though the line were the lens
or curved mirror.

Convex lens refraction

The convex (converging) lens refracts parallel incoming rays towards the principal axis. The rays converge
and cross at the focal point on the opposite side of the lens to the source of the light. The converging lens
forms a real image on the opposite side of the lens to the object. A real image is one for which the light is
actually coming from the point it appears to be coming from. A screen placed at this point will have an
image on it, and a photodetector placed at this point will detect light.
Of the millions of rays striking a lens, three are useful to help trace the rays R1
to the image in a convex lens. R F2 Image
3
◗◗ A ray parallel to the axis refracts through the lens and passes through the Object F1
R2
principal focus on the other side (R1 in Figure 18.5.10).
◗◗ A ray through the focus nearer the object refracts at the lens and travels
f f f f
parallel to the axis (R2 in Figure 18.5.10).
◗◗ A ray directed through the centre of the lens travels to the image unrefracted FIGURE 18.5.10 Ray diagram for a converging
(R3 in Figure 18.5.10). (convex) lens showing the three useful rays for
finding the image

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 If drawn correctly, these rays will intersect on the opposite side of the lens. This is where the image
will be formed. If the initial object’s height and distance from the lens is drawn to scale, the height of the
image and its distance from the lens can then be calculated by using the same scale.
The image can then be described in terms of its:
◗◗ size
◗◗ distance from the lens
height of image hi
◗◗ magnification (using the formula M = = )
height of object ho
◗◗ nature (virtual or real)
◗◗ orientation (upright or inverted).

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.5.4

An object 3.0  cm high is placed 16.0  cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10.0  cm. Use an
accurately drawn ray tracing diagram to find:
a the position of the image.
b the nature of the image.
c the size of the image.
d the magnification of the image.
ANSWERS

FIGURE 18.5.11
Ray-tracing diagram
showing a real,
inverted image O 3 cm
formed by a concave F F
lens I 5 cm
10 cm
16 cm
26.7 cm

a Draw the axes correctly, label the foci and mark in the object correctly. Use a consistent scale.
Draw two useful rays to and from the mirror.
Locate the image correctly. It must be located correctly, both horizontally and vertically.
From the accurately drawn ray diagram, the image is 26.7  cm from the lens on the opposite side from
the object.
b From the accurately drawn ray diagram, the image is real but inverted.
c From the accurately drawn diagram, the size is 5  cm.
d Apply the equation:
h
M= i
ho
Insert values taken from the accurately drawn diagram:
−5 cm
M=
3 cm
Calculate the answer with the correct number of significant digits:
M = 1.7

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 Concave lens refraction
The concave (diverging) lens refracts light so that the parallel rays diverge, and do not cross each other
on the far side of the lens from the source. However, if we trace the rays backwards from the right-hand
side of the lens we see that they appear to originate from the focal point on the same side of the lens as
the object. A diverging lens forms a virtual image, which is an image formed at a position where the light
rays do not actually converge. A photodetector placed at this point will not detect light, nor will a screen
show an image here. This is similar to the way a plane mirror forms a virtual image. The image still exists,
and can be seen and photographed. It is just not due to light coming from the image position; rather the
light making the image is being collected by the lens to form a real image in the camera.
Three rays are useful in a concave lens ray diagram:
R1
◗◗ A ray parallel to the axis refracts through the lens and diverges at
R2
an angle that looks as if it comes from the principal focus on the R3
F1
same side as the object (R1 in Figure 18.5.12).
Object Image O F2
◗◗ A ray that is directed towards the focus on the other side of the
lens passes through and continues parallel to the axis once it
reaches the lens (R2 in Figure 18.5.12).
f f f f
◗◗ A ray directed through the centre of the lens (R3 in Figure 18.5.12)
FIGURE 18.5.12 Ray diagram for a diverging (concave) lens
passes through unaffected. showing the three useful rays for finding the image
If drawn correctly, these rays will look like they originate from a
point on the same side of the lens as the object and will once again give an indication of the size, distance
from the lens, magnification, nature and orientation of the image formed.

MANDATORY PRACTICAL APPLICATION 18.5.1

Snell’s law
Refraction can occur when a light ray travels from one medium into another. The effect depends on the
angle of incidence and the relative difference in the optical properties of the media.

AIM
To determine the refractive indices of different materials

MATERIALS

•• semicircular glass block

•• semicircular plastic or glass dish
•• ruler
•• protractor
•• pencil
•• black, fine point marker
•• graph paper

PROCEDURE

1 Draw a line to divide the graph paper.

2 On the semicircular glass block, draw a vertical line at the centre of the curved edge.
(This is your object.)

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 3 Place the straight edge of the semicircular glass block along the line on the graph paper.
4 Trace the outline of the block.
5 Mark the point where the vertical black line meets the graph paper.

FIGURE 18.5.13
Arrangement for
finding the refractive
index of different
materials
Semicircular glass block

i
Air

6 Look towards the straight edge and observe the position of the black line.
7 Use the ruler to draw the sight line towards the object.
8 Repeat this for five different viewing angles.
9 Remove the glass block.
10 For each observation:
a Draw lines from the object position to the point where the sight line touches the block.
b Construct the normal at the glass block.

RESULTS

1 Record the following data in a properly constructed data table.

a Raw data:
i angle of incidence, i
ii angle of refraction, r
b Derived data:
i
i ii sin  i iii sin  r
r
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Plot the following graphs:

i
a versus i   b sin  r versus sin  i
r
DISCUSSION
i
1 Is the ratioconstant for all values of i  ?
r
2 Explain how you can derive the refractive index of glass from the graph of sin  R versus sin  i.
3 How was the reversibility of light used in this experiment to find the refractive index of glass?
4 Provide an estimate of the uncertainty in the value of the refractive index.
5 Repeat this experimental procedure and analysis with a variety of liquids in the semicircular dish.

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 SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Draw a diagram of light refraction to illustrate the:
18.5 a angle of incidence.
b angle of refraction.
c normal.
2 State Snell’s law.
3 Define ‘absolute refractive index’. Why is it necessary to use a specific wavelength of light in the definition?
UNDERSTANDING
4 An absolute refractive index is really an example of a relative refractive index. Explain.
5 Draw and label an optical fibre to show the core, cladding and total internal reflection at the
core–cladding boundary.
6 Explain the key differences between convex and concave lenses.
APPLYING
7 A ray of light of wavelength 981  nm travels in air at a speed of 3.00 × 108  m  s−1. It meets a transparent
medium of refractive index 1.39 at an angle of 25°.
a Calculate the frequency of the light in:
i air.
ii the transparent medium.
b Calculate the speed of the light in the transparent medium.
c What is the angle of refraction as the light passes into the transparent medium?
8 An object 5.0  cm tall is placed 20  cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10  cm. Use an accurate
drawing to determine the distance of the image from the mirror.
ANALYSING
9 Red laser light is incident at the core from air and travels in an optical fibre.
a What is the critical angle at the core–cladding boundary?
b What is the maximum angle of refraction at the air–core boundary to ensure all the red light is
transmitted down the fibre?
For red light: ncore = 1.495, ncladding = 1.480
10 An object is placed 20.0  cm in front of a converging lens, and an inverted image three times the size of
the object is obtained.
Show this situation with a geometric scale drawing and determine the focal distance.

18.6 Diffraction
Intensity
Diffraction occurs when a narrow beam of light passes through a narrow gap,
and spreads out into the space beyond. Diffraction is regarded as a wave effect;
thus light diffraction through a single gap is explained by analogy with wave
phenomena – the wave model – with which we are familiar.
Distance
When light is incident on a narrow gap, it forms a distinctive diffraction 2x
pattern (Figure 18.6.1) that shows ‘structure’. It has a large central bright spot,
and less intense bright patches on each side. Between the bright patches are FIGURE 18.6.1 Intensity vs distance from the
centre for a single-slit diffraction pattern
dark patches.

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 In the wave model, the angular spread of the bright central patch, θ, is explained in terms of the
wavelength of the light, λ, and the slit width (w):
λ
θ∝
w
Diffraction effects become noticeable when wavelength and slit width are comparable. This means
λ
that when > 1 ⇒ λ > w, the light simply spreads into most of the area, and the central maximum is
w
quite wide (large θ).
Diffraction effects are more pronounced when the ratio is large:
λ
1
w

FIGURE 18.6.2 Diffraction of water waves – a model for light diffraction. Waves spread into the region beyond the gap. The spread of the central
maximum decreases as the wavelength becomes similar to, or smaller than the gap width.

Intensity Young’s double-slit experiment

When a narrow beam of light strikes two slits, the slits produce diffraction patterns, which
then overlap. A pattern of bright and dark patches is noticeable on a screen some distance
Distance away. Unlike a single slit, the central maximum, while still the brightest, is less wide.
Dx The double-slit phenomenon can be explained as a wave interference effect.
The light from the original source spreads out as waves into the region behind the slits.
FIGURE 18.6.3 Intensity vs
distance from centre for a double- Each wavefront that strikes the double slit is sampled by the slits. The slits act effectively
slit interference pattern. Δx is the as new sources of circular waves. A plane wave crest becomes a circular crest at each slit.
distance between dark bands.
A plane wave trough becomes a circular
trough at each slit. Because the waves
from these new sources come from the
same original wavefront, they overlap. Waves that are in
Edward Kinsman

phase have peaks and troughs occurring at the same time.

Getty Images/

Hence a peak is incident on, and leaves from, each slit

simultaneously. The troughs coming behind these peaks
do the same, and so on. This happens for all wavefronts,
even if they were emitted from the original source in a FIGURE 18.6.4 A laser beam produces an
interference pattern when passed through a
random way. This leads to the formation of an interference double-slit arrangement.
pattern on a screen that does not change with time.

INQUIRING
FURTHER
T homas Young was a true child prodigy who made significant advancements in our understanding of light from a physical
and biological view point. Investigate his life and examine how his discoveries have resulted in significant technological
and medical improvements.

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 LL AB
FIGURE 18.6.5

SY

US
Superposition and interference Waves from a source
LI N K
where beams overlap producing waves
randomly are incident The double-slit
Double Light waves Screen on a double-slit experiment is
slit diffracted arrangement. Each considered to
First bright band wavefront is sampled be the defining
by S1
simultaneously at evidence of
First dark band both slits, leading to something
the formation of a having wave-
Lamp or S1 consistent pattern of like properties.
single Central bright band maxima and minima. We will revisit
slit S2 the experiment
when we discuss
First dark band matter waves
in Chapter 12 of
Nelson QScience
First bright band Physics Units 3 & 4.
Light waves
diffracted by S2

A wave train may be considered as a series of positive crests and First bright band at P
negative troughs. If two crests or two troughs overlap, they increase Waves arrive in step P
+ =
the amplitude. This is called constructive interference. Destructive First dark band
interference occurs when a crest and a trough overlap. + =
S1
Central bright band
d + =
Constructive interference Q
C
S2 S2Q = l
Everywhere along the perpendicular line between the slits, crests
and troughs that have been produced from the same wavefront will
FIGURE 18.6.6 Path differences lead to maxima and
overlap. This gives rise to the central maximum. Other maxima occur minima. The formation of the first bright band is shown.
as a result of constructive overlap between crests and troughs that
have been emitted earlier at one slit relative to the other slit. When the path difference between these
waves is a whole number of wavelengths, there will be constructive interference.
For constructive interference, path difference = nλ, where n = 1, 2, 3, …

Destructive interference
In between these maxima there are minima, also called nodes or nodal points, where crests produced
earlier at one slit overlap with troughs produced later. In these cases, the path difference is an odd
number of half wavelengths.
For destructive interference, path difference = ( 2 n − 1) λ2 , where n = 1, 2, 3, …

SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Draw a diagram to show the intensity of light on a screen when:
18.6 a light diffracts through a single slit.
b light interferes after travelling through a double-slit arrangement.
2 Write down the path difference relationship and the sequence of values for n for:
a constructive interference. b destructive interference.
UNDERSTANDING
3 Explain what happens to the diffraction effect when the width of the obstruction becomes greater.
APPLYING
4 If the path difference to the second dark band away from the central maximum of a Young’s double-slit
experiment is 750  nm, what is the wavelength associated with the source of light used?

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 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS
DETAIL QUESTIONS

1 Define the following terms.

a The ray model
b The wave model
c The particle model
d Photon
e Electromagnetic radiation
f Reflection
g Refraction
h Refrangibility
i Diffraction
2 State the law of reflection.
3 Explain why light cannot be modelled as a mechanical wave.

CATEGORY QUESTIONS

4 Explain what happens to a light wave travelling in air when it is incident on a transparent object. Give
your explanation in terms of wave velocity, frequency, wavelength, angle of incidence, angle of reflection
and angle of refraction.
5 Compare what happens to white light when it refracts through a transparent object with what happens
to a light wave of a single frequency refracting through the same object.
6 Explain how the refraction of light is used by the lens of the eye to focus images onto the retina.
7 Explain why light is said to obey the wave–particle duality.
8 Give an example of light behaving as a wave.
9 Give an example of light behaving as a particle.

ELABORATION QUESTIONS

10 What effect does the refraction of light have on the Sun when it is near the horizon?
11 How does the inability of the muscles of the eye to maintain the shape of the lens lead to the conditions
of short and long sightedness?
12 Explain what results you would expect to see in the double-slit experiment if light only obeyed the
particle model.
13 Do you think that diffraction and the effects of interference confirm that light is a wave?

EVIDENCE QUESTIONS

14 What evidence can you find that inadequate actions by eye muscles lead to short and long sightedness?
15 The theory of quantum physics also relies upon wave–particle duality to describe the physical
universe and to explain that matter sometimes exhibits wave-like properties. How does this affect your
understanding of the behaviour of light?

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 END-OF-CHAPTER EXAM

PHYSICS
Qz

End-of-chapter test

1 The absorption and emission of photons of light is a feature of the:

A ray model of light.

B wave model of light.

C particle model of light.

D corpuscular model of light.

2 Which of the following is an example of a non-luminous material?

A The computer screen

B The Sun

C The Moon

D A firefly

3 In the electromagnetic wave model, light is modelled as a:

A three-dimensional transverse wave.

B two-dimensional transverse wave.

C three-dimensional longitudinal wave.

D two-dimensional longitudinal wave.

4 Which of the following options would not impact on the intensity of a light wave measured at a distance
r from a point source of light?

A The power of the source

B The distance of the measuring point from the source

C The wavelength of light emitted from the source

D The size of the area in which the intensity is measured

5 The inability to see a clearly reflected image on the surface of an opaque object is due to:

A specular reflection.

B diffuse reflection.

C total internal reflection.

D regular reflection.

6 What is another name given to the fundamental vibrational mode of an object?

7 Is the reflection that you see in a plane mirror a real or a virtual image?

8 Explain the phenomenon of chromatic dispersion.

9 Describe what happens to the frequency, velocity and wavelength of a light wave when it undergoes
refraction away from the normal.

10 If the intensity of light is 400  W  m−2 at a certain distance from a point source of light, calculate its intensity
at a distance that is three times further from the source.

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 11 Calculate the amount of time it would take a sound wave travelling at 343  m s−1 to cover the distance
travelled by light in 0.01  s.

12 Light travelling in air (nair = 1.00) enters a glass block (nglass = 1.49) at an angle of incidence of 30°.

a What is the angle of refraction in the glass?

b The glass block is now immersed in oil (noil = 1.28). Does the angle of refraction get larger or smaller?
Support your answer with calculations.

13 If two light rays of 456 nm exit simultaneously from the slits in a double-slit experiment, calculate the
minimum path length difference that would be needed to form a dark spot on the screen.

14 Explain how rainbows are produced on days when there is moisture in the atmosphere.

15 Explain how an interference pattern is formed on a screen

set up behind a light source that is projected on a double-slit L
O
experiment.
K
16 Object O is placed in front of a plane mirror as shown in Mirror
Figure 18.7.1.

a Construct a ray model diagram to locate the positions of the

images of O as observed at L and K.

b From the point of view of an observer moving from L to K,

how does the image of O move? FIGURE 18.7.1

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