Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

1. Compare precipitation hardening and the hardening of steel by quenching and tempering with
regard to:
(a) The total heat treatment procedure
(b) The microstructures that develop
(c) How the mechanical properties change during the several heat treatment stages

Solution

(a) With regard to the total heat treatment procedure, the steps for the hardening of steel are:
(1) Austenitize above the upper critical temperature.
(2) Quench to a relatively low temperature.
(3) Temper at a temperature below the eutectoid.
(4) Cool to room temperature.
With regard to precipitation hardening, the steps are:
(1) Solution heat treat by heating into the solid solution phase region.
(2) Quench to a relatively low temperature.
(3) Precipitation harden by heating to a temperature that is within the solid two-phase region.
(4) Cool to room temperature.
(b) For the hardening of steel, the microstructures that form at the various stages in part (a) are:
(1) Austenite
(2) Martensite
(3) Tempered martensite
(4) Tempered martensite
For precipitation hardening, the microstructures that form at the various stages in part (a) are:
(1) Single phase
(2) Single phase--supersaturated
(3) Small plate-like particles of a new phase within a matrix of the original phase.
(4) Same as (3)
(c) For the hardening of steel, the mechanical characteristics for the various steps in part (a) are:
(1) Not important
(2) The steel becomes hard and brittle upon quenching.
(3) During tempering, the alloy softens slightly and becomes more ductile.
(4) No significant changes upon cooling to or maintaining at room temperature.
For precipitation hardening, the mechanical characteristics for the various steps in part (a) are:
(1) Not important
(2) The alloy is relatively soft.
(3) The alloy hardens with increasing time (initially), and becomes more brittle; it may soften
with overaging.
(4) The alloy may continue to harden or overage at room temperature.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

2. Consider 1.0 kg of austenite containing 1.15 wt% C, cooled to below 727°C (1341°F).
(a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
(b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and cementite form?
(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the proeutectoid phase form?
(d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting microstructure.

Solution
(a) The proeutectoid phase will be Fe3C since 1.15 wt% C is greater than the eutectoid composition
(0.76 wt% C).

(b) For this portion of the problem, we are asked to determine how much total ferrite and cementite
form. Application of the appropriate lever rule expression yields

which, when multiplied by the total mass of the alloy (1.0 kg), gives 0.83 kg of total ferrite.
Similarly, for total cementite,

And the mass of total cementite that forms is (0.17)(1.0 kg) = 0.17 kg.

(c) Now we are asked to calculate how much pearlite and the proeutectoid phase (cementite) form.
Applying Equation 9.22, in which = 1.15 wt% C

which corresponds to a mass of 0.93 kg. Likewise, from Equation 9.23

which is equivalent to 0.07 kg of the total 1.0 kg mass.

(d) Schematically, the microstructure would appear as:

Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

3. Using the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition,
specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of microconstituents present and approximate
percentages of each) of a small specimen that has been subjected to the following time–temperature
treatments. In each case assume that the specimen begins at 760°C (1400°F) and that it has been held
at this temperature long enough to have achieved a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.

(a) Cool rapidly to 700°C (1290°F), hold for 104 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is the TTT diagram upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling and holding at 700°C for 104 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
coarse pearlite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 50% transforms to martensite.
Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 50% coarse pearlite and 50% martensite.

(b) Reheat the specimen in part (a) to 700°C (1290°F) for 20 h.

Solution
Heating to 700°C for 20 h the specimen in part (a) will transform both coarse pearlite and
martensite to spheroidite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

(c) Rapidly cool to 600°C (1110°F), hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 450°C (840°F), hold for 10 s, then quench
to room temperature.

Solution
Below is the TTT diagram upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling to and holding at 600°C for 4 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
pearlite (medium). During the rapid cooling to 450°C no transformations occur. At 450°C we start timing
again at zero time; while holding at 450°C for 10 s, approximately 50 percent of the remaining unreacted
50% (or 25% of the original specimen) will transform to bainite. And upon cooling to room temperature,
the remaining 25% of the original specimen transforms to martensite. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of about 50% pearlite (medium), 25% bainite, and 25% martensite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

(d) Cool rapidly to 400°C (750°F), hold for 2 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is the TTT diagram upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling to and holding at 400°C for 2 s, no of the transformation begin lines have been crossed, and
therefore, the specimen is 100% austenite. Upon cooling rapidly to room temperature, all of the
specimen transforms to martensite, such that the final microstructure is 100% martensite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

(e) Cool rapidly to 400°C (750°F), hold for 20 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is the TTT diagram upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling and holding at 400°C for 20 s, approximately 40% of the specimen has transformed to
bainite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 60% transforms to martensite. Hence, the
final microstructure consists of about 40% bainite and 60% martensite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

(f) Cool rapidly to 400°C (750°F), hold for 200 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is the TTT diagram upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling and holding at 400°C for 200 s, the entire specimen has transformed to bainite. Therefore,
during the cooling to room temperature no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of 100% bainite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

(g) Rapidly cool to 575°C (1065°F), hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 350°C (660°F), hold for 100 s, then
quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is the TTT diagram upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling and holding at 575°C for 20 s, the entire specimen has transformed to fine pearlite.
Therefore, during the second heat treatment at 350°C no additional transformations will occur. Hence,
the final microstructure consists of 100% fine pearlite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

(h) Rapidly cool to 250°C (480°F), hold for 100 s, then quench to room temperature in water. Reheat to
315°C (600°F) for 1 h and slowly cool to room temperature.

Solution
Below is the TTT diagram upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling and holding at 250°C for 100 s, no transformations will have occurred—at this
point, the entire specimen is still austenite. Upon rapidly cooling to room temperature in water, the
specimen will completely transform to martensite. The second heat treatment (at 315°C for 1 h)—not
shown on the above plot—will transform the material to tempered martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure is 100% tempered martensite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

4. Figure below shows the continuous cooling transformation diagram for a 1.13 wt% C iron-carbon
alloy. Make a copy of this figure and then sketch and label continuous cooling curves to yield the
following microstructures:
(a) Fine pearlite and proeutectoid cementite
(b) Martensite
(c) Martensite and proeutectoid cementite
(d) Coarse pearlite and proeutectoid cementite
(e) Martensite, fine pearlite, and proeutectoid cementite

Solution
Below is shown a continuous cooling transformation diagram for a 1.13 wt% C iron-carbon alloy, with
continuous cooling paths that will produce (a) fine pearlite and proeutectoid cementite; (b) martensite;
(c) martensite and proeutectoid cementite; (d) coarse pearlite and proeutectoid cementite; and (e)
martensite, fine pearlite, and proeutectoid cementite.
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

5. Schematic room-temperature microstructures for four iron–carbon alloys are as follows. Rank these
microstructures (by letter) from the hardest to the softest.

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Solution
The correct answer is C > D > B > A. Specimen C will be the hardest because it has the highest carbon
content inasmuch as proeutectoid Fe3C is present; also, the pearlite is fine pearlite. Specimens B and D
have approximately the same carbon content since the proportions of proeutectoid ferrite in both are
about the same. However, carbon contents for B and D are lower than for specimen C because of the
presence of proeutectoid ferrite. Specimen D is harder than B because its pearlite is fine, whereas B's is
coarse. Finally, specimen A is the softest since it is composed entirely of α-ferrite and, thus, has the
lowest carbon content.

6. [Bonus design question] Below is a list of metals and alloys:

Plain carbon steel Magnesium

Brass Zinc

Gray cast iron Tool steel

Platinum Aluminum

Stainless steel Tungsten

Titanium alloy
Select from this list the one metal or alloy that is best suited for each of the following applications, and
cite at least one reason for your choice:

(a) The block of an internal combustion engine

(b) Condensing heat exchanger for steam

(c) Jet engine turbofan blades

(d) Drill bit

(e) Cryogenic (i.e., very low temperature) container

(f) As a pyrotechnic (i.e., in flares and fireworks)

(g) High-temperature furnace elements to be used in oxidizing atmospheres

Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

Solution

(a) Gray cast iron would be the best choice for an engine block because it is relatively easy to
cast, is wear resistant, has good vibration damping characteristics, and is relatively inexpensive.

(b) Stainless steel would be the best choice for a heat exchanger to condense steam because it is
corrosion resistant to the steam and condensate.

(c) Titanium alloys are the best choice for high-speed aircraft jet engine turbofan blades because
they are light weight, strong, and easily fabricated very resistant to corrosion. However, one drawback is
their cost.

(d) A tool steel would be the best choice for a drill bit because it is very hard and retains its
hardness at high temperatures and is wear resistant, and, thus, will retain a sharp cutting edge.

(e) For a cryogenic (low-temperature) container, an aluminum alloy would be the best choice;
aluminum alloys have an FCC crystal structure, and therefore, are ductile at very low temperatures.

(f) As a pyrotechnic in flares and fireworks, magnesium is the best choice because it ignites
easily and burns readily in air with a very bright flame.

(g) Platinum is the best choice for high-temperature furnace elements to be used in oxidizing
atmospheres because it is very ductile, has a relatively very high melting temperature, and is highly
resistant to oxidation.

7. (a) List the four classifications of steels.

(b) For each, briefly describe the properties and typical applications.

Solution

Low Carbon Steels

Properties: nonresponsive to heat treatments; relatively soft and weak; machinable and weldable.

Typical applications: automobile bodies, structural shapes, pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin
cans.

Medium Carbon Steels

Properties: heat treatable, relatively large combinations of mechanical characteristics.

Typical applications: railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and machine parts.

High Carbon Steels

Properties: hard, strong, and relatively brittle.

Typical applications: chisels, hammers, knives, and hacksaw blades.

High Alloy Steels (Stainless and Tool)

Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

Properties: hard and wear resistant; resistant to corrosion in a large variety of environments.

Typical applications: cutting tools, drills, cutlery, food processing, and surgical tools.

8. Compare white and nodular cast irons with respect to

(a) composition and heat treatment

(b) microstructure

(c) mechanical characteristics.

Solution

(a) With regard to composition and heat treatment:

White iron--2.5 to 4.0 wt% C and less than 1.0 wt% Si. No heat treatment; however, cooling is
rapid during solidification.

Nodular cast iron--2.5 to 4.0 wt% C, 1.0 to 3.0 wt% Si, and a small amount of Mg or Ce. A heat
treatment at about 700°C may be necessary to produce a ferritic matrix.

(b) With regard to microstructure:

White iron--There are regions of cementite interspersed within pearlite.

Nodular cast iron--Nodules of graphite are embedded in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.

(c) With respect to mechanical characteristics:

White iron--Extremely hard and brittle.

Nodular cast iron--Moderate strength and ductility.

9. Is it possible to produce malleable cast iron in pieces having large cross-sectional dimensions? Why or
why not?

Solution

It is not possible to produce malleable iron in pieces having large cross-sectional dimensions. White cast
iron is the precursor of malleable iron, and a rapid cooling rate is necessary for the formation of white iron,
which may not be accomplished at interior regions of thick cross-sections.

10. Why must rivets of a 2017 aluminum alloy be refrigerated before they are used?

Solution
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

Rivets of a 2017 aluminum alloy must be refrigerated before they are used because, after being solution
heat treated, they precipitation harden at room temperature. Once precipitation hardened, they are too
strong and brittle to be driven.

11. What is the chief difference between heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable alloys?

Solution

The chief difference between heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable alloys is that heat-treatable alloys
may be strengthened by a heat treatment wherein a precipitate phase is formed (precipitation hardening)
or a martensitic transformation occurs. Non-heat-treatable alloys are not amenable to strengthening by
such treatments.

12. Give the distinctive features, limitations, and applications of the following alloy groups: titanium
alloys, refractory metals, superalloys, and noble metals.

Solution

Titanium Alloys

Distinctive features: relatively low density, high melting temperatures, and high strengths are possible.

Limitation: because of chemical reactivity with other materials at elevated temperatures, these alloys are
expensive to refine.

Applications: aircraft structures, space vehicles, and in chemical and petroleum industries.

Refractory Metals

Distinctive features: extremely high melting temperatures; large elastic moduli, hardnesses, and strengths.

Limitation: some experience rapid oxidation at elevated temperatures.

Applications: extrusion dies, structural parts in space vehicles, incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes,
and welding electrodes.

Superalloys

Distinctive features: able to withstand high temperatures and oxidizing atmospheres for long time periods.

Applications: aircraft turbines, nuclear reactors, and petrochemical equipment.

Noble Metals

Distinctive features: highly resistant to oxidation, especially at elevated temperatures; soft and ductile.

Limitation: expensive.

Applications: jewelry, dental restoration materials, coins, catalysts, and thermocouples.

Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

13. For some glass fiber-epoxy matrix combination, the critical fiber length to fiber diameter ratio is 50.
If the tensile strength of the glass fiber is 3.45 GPa, determine the fiber-matrix bond strength.

Solution

14. A continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composite is to be produced consisting of 30 vol% aramid
fibers and 70 vol% of a polycarbonate matrix; mechanical characteristics of these two materials are
as follows:

Modulus of Elasticity [GPa] Tensile Strength [MPa]

Aramid fiber 131 3600

Polycarbonate 2.4 65

Also, the stress on the polycarbonate matrix when the aramid fibers fail is 45 MPa.

For this composite, compute the following:

(a) the longitudinal tensile strength, and

(b) the longitudinal modulus of elasticity

Solution

(a) The longitudinal tensile strength is:

(b) The longitudinal elastic modulus is:

Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

15. For a continuous and oriented fiber-reinforced composite, the moduli of elasticity in the longitudinal
and transverse directions are 19.7 and 3.66 GPa, respectively. If the volume fraction of fibers is 0.25,
determine the moduli of elasticity of fiber and matrix phases.

Solution

And

Solving these two expressions simultaneously for Em and Ef leads to

16. A continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composite having a cross-sectional area of 1130 mm2 is
subjected to an external tensile load. If the stresses sustained by the fiber and matrix phases are 156
MPa and 2.75 MPa, respectively, the force sustained by the fiber phase is 74,000 N and the total
longitudinal strain is 1.25 × 10-3, determine the following:

(a) The force sustained by the matrix phase

(b) The modulus of elasticity of the composite material in the longitudinal direction

(c) The moduli of elasticity for fiber and matrix phases

Solution

(a) It is first necessary to compute the volume fraction of the matrix phase, Vm and Vf. Realizing Vf = Af/Ac:

Solving for Vf
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

And

Now,

From which

(b)

(c)

this is an isostrain state, so ϵm = ϵc = 1.25 × 10-3. Thus

The elastic modulus for the fiber phase may be computed in an analogous manner:

17. It is desired to produce an aligned carbon fiber-epoxy matrix composite having a longitudinal tensile
strength of 750 MPa. Calculate the volume fraction of fibers necessary if the average fiber diameter
and length are 1.2 × 10-2 mm and 1 mm, respectively; the fiber fracture strength is 5000 MPa; the
fiber-matrix bond strength is 25 MPa; and the matrix stress at fiber failure is 10 MPa.

Solution
Sample Problem Set #2 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

It is first necessary to compute the value of the critical fiber length to determine which equation should
be used for this composite:

Since l < lc (1.0 mm < 1.20 mm), then this is a discontinuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composite, so
we use:

Solving this expression for Vf leads to Vf = 0.357.

Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

1. Estimate the theoretical fracture strength of a brittle material if it is known that fracture occurs by
the propagation of an elliptically shaped surface crack of length 0.25 mm and having a tip radius of
curvature of 1.2 × 10-3 mm when a stress of 1200 MPa is applied.

Solution:
1 1
𝑎𝑎 2 0.25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚 = 2𝜎𝜎0 � � = 2(1200𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) � −3
� = 3.5 × 104 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 35𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝜌𝜌𝑡𝑡 1.2 × 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

2. A polystyrene component must not fail when a tensile stress of 1.25 MPa is applied. Determine the
maximum allowable surface crack length if the surface energy of polystyrene is 0.50 J/m2. Assume a
modulus of elasticity of 3.0 GPa.

Solution

The maximum allowable surface crack length for polystyrene may be determined using:

2𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 2(3 × 109 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )(0.5 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚)

𝑎𝑎 = = = 6.1 × 10−4 𝑚𝑚 = 0.61𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐2 𝜋𝜋(1.25 × 106 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )2

3. A specimen of a 4340 steel alloy having a plane strain fracture toughness of 45 MPa-m1/2 is exposed
to a stress of 1000 MPa. Will this specimen experience fracture if it is known that the largest surface
crack is 0.75 mm long? Why or why not? Assume that the parameter Y has a value of 1.0.

Solution

Therefore, fracture will most likely occur because this specimen will tolerate a stress of 927 MPa before
fracture, which is less than the applied stress of 1000 MPa.

4. A thin plate of a ceramic material with E = 225 GPa is loaded in tension, developing a stress of 450
MPa. Is the specimen likely to fail if the most severe flaw present is an internal crack oriented
perpendicular to the load axis that has a total length 0.25 mm and a crack tip radius of curvature equal
to 1 µm?

Solution

By comparing the local stress at the crack tip to the theoretical strength of the material we can determine
whether or not fracture is likely. The theoretical strength is given by
225𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≈ = 71.6𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 71.6 × 103 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝜋𝜋
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

The local stress is given by

𝑎𝑎 250𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 �1 + 2� � = (450𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) �1 + 2� � = 14.67𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝜌𝜌 1𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

In this case, the maximum local stress (14.67 GPa) is substantially lower than the theoretical strength
(71.6 GPa) so it is very unlikely that fracture will occur.

5. Some aircraft component is fabricated from an aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture
toughness of 35 MPa-m1/2. It has been determined that fracture results at a stress of 250 MPa when
the maximum (or critical) internal crack length is 2.0 mm. For this same component and alloy, will
fracture occur at a stress level of 325 MPa when the maximum internal crack length is 1.0 mm? Why
or why not?

Solution

It first becomes necessary to solve for the parameter Y:

Now we will solve for the product for the other set of conditions, so as to ascertain whether or
not this value is greater than the KIc for the alloy. Thus,

Therefore, fracture will not occur since this value is less than the KIc of the material,

6. Calculate the maximum internal crack length allowable for a 7075-T651 aluminum alloy (KIC=24 MPa-
m1/2) component that is loaded to a stress one half of its yield strength. Assume that the value of Y is
1.35.

Solution:
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

7. Following is tabulated data that were gathered from a series of Charpy impact tests on a ductile cast
iron.

Temperature (°C) Impact Energy (J)

–25 124

–50 123

–75 115

–85 100

–100 73

–110 52

–125 26

–150 9

–175 6

(a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.

(b) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as that temperature corresponding to

the average of the maximum and minimum impact energies.

(c) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as that temperature at which the impact
energy is 80 J.

Solution

(a) The plot of impact energy versus temperature is shown below.

(b) The average of the maximum and minimum impact energies from the data is
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

As indicated on the plot by the one set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
according to this criterion is about –105°C.

(c) Also, as noted on the plot by the other set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature for an impact energy of 80 J is about –95°C.

8. A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 50 MPa and the stress amplitude was
225 MPa.

(a) Compute the maximum and minimum stress levels.

(b) Compute the stress ratio.

(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range.

Solution

(a)
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚 = = 50𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ⇒ 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 100𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
2
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = = 450𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ⇒ 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 500𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
2
Simultaneously solving these two expressions leads to

(b) The stress ratio R is determined as follows:

(c) The magnitude of the stress range is determined using:

9. A cylindrical Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy bar is subjected to compression-tension stress cycling along
its axis; results of these tests are shown in the figure below. If the bar diameter is 17.0 mm, calculate
the maximum allowable load amplitude (in N) to ensure that fatigue failure will not occur at 107 cycles.
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

Assume a factor of safety of 3.5, data in the figure were taken for reversed axial tension-compression
tests, and that S is stress amplitude.

Solution:

The fatigue strength at 107 cycles for this titanium alloy is about 490 MPa. For a cylindrical specimen
having an original diameter of d0, the stress may be computed using:
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 4𝐹𝐹
𝜎𝜎 = = 2 =
𝐴𝐴0 𝑑𝑑0 𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑02
𝜋𝜋 � �
2
When we divide σ by the factor of safety, the above equation takes the form

Solving the above equation for F leads to

Now taking σ to be the fatigue strength (i.e., 490 MPa = 490 × 106 N/m2) we have:

(490 × 106 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )𝜋𝜋(17 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚)2

𝐹𝐹 = = 31800 𝑁𝑁
4(3.5)
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

10. The fatigue data for a brass alloy is given in the figure below. Assume that a shaft of this alloy is to be
used for a coupling that is attached to an electric motor operating at 1500 rpm. Give the maximum
stress amplitude possible for each of the following lifetimes of the coupling: (a) 1 year, (b) 1 month,
(c) 1 day, and (d) 2 hours.

Solution

For each lifetime, first compute the number of cycles, and then read the corresponding fatigue strength
from the above plot.

(a) Fatigue lifetime = (1 yr)(365 days/yr)(24 h/day)(60 min/h)(1500 cycles/min) = 7.9 × 108 cycles. The
stress amplitude corresponding to this lifetime is about 130 MPa.

(b) Fatigue lifetime = (30 days)(24 h/day)(60 min/h)(1500 cycles/min) = 6.5 × 107 cycles. The stress
amplitude corresponding to this lifetime is about 145 MPa.

(c) Fatigue lifetime = (24 h)(60 min/h)(1500 cycles/min) = 2.2 × 106 cycles. The stress amplitude
corresponding to this lifetime is about 195 MPa.

(d) Fatigue lifetime = (2 h)(60 min/h)(1500 cycles/min) = 1.8 × 105 cycles. The stress amplitude
corresponding to this lifetime is about 315 MPa.
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

11. Briefly explain the difference between fatigue striations and beachmarks both in terms of (a) size
and (b) origin.

Solution:

(a) With regard to size, beachmarks are normally of macroscopic dimensions and may be observed with
the naked eye; fatigue striations are of microscopic size and it is necessary to observe them using
electron microscopy.

(b) With regard to origin, beachmarks result from interruptions in the stress cycles; each fatigue striation
is corresponds to the advance of a fatigue crack during a single load cycle.

12. List four measures that may be taken to increase the resistance to fatigue of a metal alloy.

Solution:

Four measures that may be taken to increase the fatigue resistance of a metal alloy are:

(1) Polish the surface to remove stress amplification sites.

(2) Reduce the number of internal defects (pores, etc.) by means of altering processing and fabrication
techniques.

(3) Modify the design to eliminate notches and sudden contour changes.

(4) Harden the outer surface of the structure by case hardening (carburizing, nitriding) or shot peening.

13. Give the approximate temperature at which creep deformation becomes an important consideration
for each of the following metals: nickel, copper, iron, tungsten, lead, and aluminum.

Solution

Creep becomes important at about 0.4Tm, Tm being the absolute melting temperature of the metal.

For Ni, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(1455 + 273) = 691 K or 418°C

For Cu, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(1085 + 273) = 543 K or 270°C

For Fe, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(1538 + 273) = 725 K or 450°C

For W, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(3410 + 273) = 1473 K or 1200°C

For Pb, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(327 + 273) = 240 K or −33°C

For Al, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(660 + 273) = 373 K or 100°C

14. The following creep data were taken on an aluminum alloy at 400°C and a constant stress of 25 MPa.
Plot the data as strain versus time, then determine the steady-state or minimum creep rate. Note:
The initial and instantaneous strain is not included.
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

Time (min) Strain Time (min) Strain

0 0.000 16 0.135

2 0.025 18 0.153

4 0.043 20 0.172

6 0.065 22 0.193

8 0.078 24 0.218

10 0.092 26 0.255

12 0.109 28 0.307

14 0.120 30 0.368

Solution

These creep data are plotted below

The steady-state creep rate is the slope of the linear region (i.e., the straight line that has been
superimposed on the curve) as:

15. For a cylindrical S-590 alloy specimen (Figure below) originally 10 mm in diameter and 500 mm long,
what tensile load is necessary to produce a total elongation of 145 mm after 2000 h at 730°C? Assume
that the sum of instantaneous and primary creep elongations is 8.6 mm.
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

Solution

It is first necessary to calculate the steady state creep rate so that we may utilize the figure in order to
determine the tensile stress. The steady state elongation, Δls, is just the difference between the total
elongation and the sum of the instantaneous and primary creep elongations; that is:

Now the steady state creep rate, 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠̇ is just

∆𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 136.4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Δ𝜖𝜖 𝑙𝑙0
𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠̇ = = = 500𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1.36 × 10−4 ℎ−1
Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡 2000ℎ
Employing the 730°C line in the figure, a steady state creep rate of 1.36 × 10-4 h-1 corresponds to a stress
of about 200 MPa [since log (1.36 × 10-4) = -3.866]. From this we may compute the tensile load using:
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

16. A cylindrical component constructed from an S-590 alloy (figure from previous question) is to be
exposed to a tensile load of 10,000 N. What minimum diameter is required for it to have a rupture
lifetime of at least 10 h at 730°C?

Solution

From the figure, at 730°C the stress corresponding to a rupture lifetime of 10 h is approximately 300 MPa.).
For a cylindrical specimen:
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 4𝐹𝐹
𝜎𝜎 = = 2 =
𝐴𝐴0 𝑑𝑑0 𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑02
𝜋𝜋 � �
2
Solving for d0 :

4𝐹𝐹 4(10000𝑁𝑁)
𝑑𝑑0 = � =� = 0.0065𝑚𝑚 = 6.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋(300 × 106 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )

17. (a) Estimate the activation energy for creep (Qc) for the S-590 alloy having the steady-state creep
behavior shown in the figure in question 15. Use data taken at a stress level of 300 MPa and
temperatures of 650°C and 730°C. Assume that the stress exponent n is independent of temperature.

(b) Estimate 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠̇ at 600°C (873 K) and 300 MPa.

Solution

(a) Since σ is a constant, dependance of creep strain rate on temperature can be written as:

where 𝐾𝐾2′ is now a constant. (Note: the exponent n has about the same value at these two temperatures)
Taking natural logarithms of the above expression:

For the case in which we have creep data at two temperatures (denoted as T1 and T2) and their
corresponding steady-state creep rates (𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠1̇ & 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠2̇ ), it is possible to set up two simultaneous equations of
the form as above, with two unknowns, namely 𝐾𝐾2′ and Qc. Solving for Qc yields:

Let us choose T1 as 650°C (923 K) and T2 as 730°C (1003 K); then from the figure, at σ = 300 MPa, 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠1̇ =
8.9 × 10−5 ℎ−1 and 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠2̇ = 1.3 × 10−2 ℎ−1 . Thus:
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

= 480,000 J/mol

(b) It is first necessary to determine the value of 𝐾𝐾2′ , using the first expression above:

Now it is possible to calculate 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠̇ at 600°C (873 K) and 300 MPa as follows:

= 2.47 × 10-6 h-1

18. For an 18-8 Mo stainless steel (see figure below), predict the time to rupture for a component that is
subjected to a stress of 80 MPa at 700°C (973 K).
Sample Problem Set #3 MECH 6561 Summer 2023

Solution

The value of the Larson-Miller parameter at 80 MPa is about 23.5 × 103, for T in K and tr in h. Therefore:

And, solving for tr

which leads to tr = 1.42 × 104 h = 1.6 yr.