ENEL501/ENEL515

Electrical Engineering
Principles/Electrical
Principles A
Lab Manual
Updated: 2020
 Safety In The Electrical Lab

GOLDEN RULES
1. Do not connect supplies until the circuit has been checked by a
supervisor.
2. If in doubt ask.
3. Never remove covers or guards.
4. Do not hesitate to disconnect supplies at the first signs of
danger.

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 LABORATORY PROCEDURES
1. Aims of the lab course
By the end of the lab course the student should be able to:

a,Assess their own ability to safely perform a given operation within an

electrical laboratory.

b,Gather the information needed in order to carry out a given test.

c,Set up equipment correctly.

d,Record data clearly and completely.

e,Assess the validity of given results.

f, Design further procedures for advancing their knowledge of a given topic.

2. Laboratory Work Methods

The experiments in this book are broken up into three sections. The first is
concerned with outlining the theory behind the experiment in question. The
second is a short non recorded verbal pre-test. The third is a description of
the lab itself. The purpose of the pretest is to ensure that the theory sheet
has been read before students come to the lab.

The lab should be performed and the results/observations recorded in a log

book. The log book should be written up as the lab proceeds. Any
calculations and graphs should also be written up in the lab. The Lecturer
will then assess and discuss the work done. If the work is satisfactory the
log book will be signed off. Logs not signed off will detract from the
practical mark gained.

The log will be handed in at the end of the each cycle of 6 labs. Also due at
that time is a formal report based upon one of the 6 log reports.

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LAB 1 Theory
Basic Units and Electrical Components
To work in an electrical lab you must be able to use the basic electrical equipment and deal
with the basic units.

Voltage (The Volt)

Current (The Ampere)
Resistance (The Ohm)
Power (The Watt)

Voltage is the change in energy per unit charge as a charge passes through a circuit from one
point to the other. Volts = Joules/Coulomb. The Units of voltage are volts (V). 1V = 1J/C.
Voltage between two points is shown in the figure below:

Current is a measure of how many charges passing a point per second. The units of current
are amperes (A). 1A = 1 C/s. To measure ampere we must break into the circuit and insert the
ammeter. Figure below shows how to measure current:

A A

A
Correct link Incorrect link
Attention: it is incorrect to link ammeter cross the battery (power supply) or resistors.
This may burn the ammeter, because the ammeter is equivalent to a cable in a circuit,
which can short the circuit.
Resistance is a measure of how much voltage is required todrive one amp about a circuit. It
follows the Ohms Law (R = V/I). Ohms are measured with an ohmmeter with all other
supplies disconnected which is shown in the figure below:

There are other useful units in electrical lab:

Quantity Unit
Length Meter, m
Mass Kilogram, kg
Time Second, s

Here are the multiples and sub-multiples for the units:

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten

Mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
none none 1 100
centi c 1/100 10-2
milli m 1/1,000 10-3
micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6
nano n 1/1,000,000,000 10-9
pico p 1/1,000,000,000,000 10-12

The electrical components are resistors, capacitors and inductors. In this lab, resistors and
capacitors are introduced.

A circuit device made to have a specific value of resistance between its ends is called a
resistor. The industrial resistors have marks to present their resistance values. These marks
are presented by different colours (black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray
and white).
With these colourful marks, a resistance value can be read from the resistor without using an
ohmmeter. The figure and table above shows the reading approach. The first colour mark (C1)
indicates the first digital number. The second colour mark (C2) displays the second digital
number. The third colour mark (C3) displays the third digital number. The fourth colour mark
(C4) shows power of ten which is multiplied. The last colour mark (C5) presents the tolerance
of the resistor. The last mark is normally brown (±1%) colour. The calculation of the five
marks is:
𝑅𝑅 = ( C 1 × 100 + C 2 × 10 + 𝐶𝐶 3) × 𝐶𝐶 4 ± 𝐶𝐶 5

In the figure above, the example resistance is:

(4 × 100 + 7 × 10 + 0) × 101 ± 0.01 = 4.7(𝑘𝑘 Ω) ± 1%

A capacitor can store power temporarily in a circuit. The capacitance value indicates the ability
of the power storage. The unit of the capacitance is Farad (F). In industry there are 2 main
types: electrolytic capacitors and ceramic/plastic dielectric capacitors. The electrolytic
capacitors are available in many packages. They are polarised capacitors. The capacitance value
is shown directly on the “plastic skin”. The figure below shows some electrolytic capacitors.
The ceramic capacitors are fixed value capacitors and they are non-polarised. The capacitance
which is presented on a ceramic capacitor includes two formats. One is the normal format.
This format can be read directly. The second is the digital traditional format. This format
needs calculation. The figure below shows an example of ceramic capacitor and the reading
of capacitance with traditional format.

More information on capacitors is shown in the figure below:

LAB 1 PRE-TEST

1. Give a summary of Ohms law. Including formula and explain each variable in the formula.

Answer: R = V/I
R is the resistance
V is the voltage of the circuit
I is the current of the circuit

2. A resistor is marked with colour order of blue, gray, black and gold.
Write down the information of this resistor that you have.

Answer: 68Ω @ ± 5%

3. A capacitor is marked with the information of 2G486H.

Write down the information of this capacitor that you have.

Answer: 48µF @ ± 3%, 400V

LAB 1 PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

OBJECT
To familiar with reading the information of resistors and capacitors. Learn how to measure
voltage, current and resistance in a circuit.

APPARATUS
Resistors, capacitors, TG320 signal generator, cables, multi-meter.

PROCEDURE
1. Get several resistors and capacitors from the tutor. Read their information and calculate the
resistance and capacitance and write in the table below.

Resistors Resistance Resistance Capacitors Capacitance Capacitance

No (read) (measure) No (read) (measure)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
Learn how to use the multi-meter and measure the same resistors and capacitors. Write down your
measurements on the table above. (If the table is not long enough, make a table yourself.)
2. Using alligator clip cables connect resistors and capacitors to the generator as below.
Use the multi-meter to measure the voltage across and the current through the circuit.
Change the component values and measure again.
Do not use resistor values below 100Ω and capacitor values above 10mF to prevent damage
to the signal generator.
Generator settings: Sine Wave 10.0V p-p.
Do two tests on each component one @ 10kHz and the other @1kHz.
Compare the effect of the different frequencies with R and C.

Attention:
(1) Do not forget to switch multi-meter before you do the measurement. Especially, after
you've measured current, switch to volts first, then measure the voltage of your circuit.
(2) Remember turn off the power supply, or generator (or disconnect battery) before
changing your circuit, even if just changing a multi-meter setting.
Lab 2 Theory
The Digital Oscilloscope
The digital oscilloscope has taken the place of the old Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).

However, the term CRO is often used even when referring to a digital device. The
oscilloscope is a device that allows engineers to literally see the signals in an electrical
circuit. This is extremely useful and the oscilloscope is the most widely used of all electrical
test instruments.

On the horizontal (X) axis the distance shown is proportional to time. On the vertical (Y)
axis the distance shown is proportional to voltage. The scope measures these two things
only that is time and voltage.

The speed at which the display moves from left to right is controlled by the time base knob.
The time base has a very wide range from 50 seconds per cm to 5nSeconds per cm.

The voltage range is also very wide but that depends on the probe (connector) that is used to
feed the signal into the scope. If the probe feeds straight into the scope this is times one, and
the range of the scope is 2mV per cm to 5V per cm.

Most scopes can display two channels against time at once. Sometimes but only rarely one
channel may be plotted against the other (This is called the XY mode) In this case the time
base is turned off

The term TRIGGER is used to describe the circuit that causes the trace to start from the same
place each time it travels across the screen. This means the trace is still and therefore allows
measurements to be made. The trace will not start to move until the trigger level voltage has
been reached. The trace always follows the same path across the screen and so the display
appears still. The trigger voltage is usually set by the scope itself. This is called INTERNAL
trigger. It is possible to get the trigger voltage from an EXTERNAL source or the
synchronise the trigger with the mains LINE supply.

The following pages are copied from the manual of the digital oscilloscope that will be used
in Lab 1. Study these pages and attempt to answer the questions in the pre test.

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Vertical Controls

All models, -channel shown

Position Positions a waveform vertically.

Menu. Displays the Vertical menu selections and toggles the display of the
channel waveform on and off.

Scale Selects vertical scale factors.

Math. Displays waveform math operations menu and toggles the

display of the math waveform on and off

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Lab 2 Pre-test
Q1.What does the scope measure on the horizontal axis?

Q2. What does the scope measure on the vertical axis?

Q3. What does the word "Trigger" mean with regard to a scope?

Q4. On the example waveform what is the frequency?

Q5. On the example waveform what is the peak to peak input voltage?

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LAB 2 DESCRIPTION

CRO
OBJECTIVE
The become familiar with the operation of the CRO in the measurement of voltage, time
and phase.

APPARTAUS
CRO. Signal Generator. Resistance box. Multimeter.

PROCEDURE

CALIBRATION
Connect the calibration contact to channel one. Set up the mode control so that only
channel 1 is displayed. Set the trigger source to channel 1 and the trigger mode to
internal. The trigger mode may be auto or normal. Adjust the trigger level until the
calibration wave form is observed. Write down the calibration waveform Peak to Peak
voltage, period and frequency. Is the calibration of the scope correct?

MEASUREMENT OF GENERATOR OUTPUT

Connect the signal generator output to channel one. Set up the generator to give a 2Vpk
to pk signal with a frequency of 1 kHz. Use the CRO to check that the output is at the
required level. Connect channel 2 to the same generator terminals. Adjust mode setting
to chop and the Y! And Y2 amplifiers so that the two similar signals may be observed on
the top and bottom half of the screen. Pull the INVERT control and note the effect upon
the channel 2

MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT
The CRO may not be used to determine the value of a current directly. Instead it may be
used to measure the voltage across a known resistance value and then Ohm's law may be
used to determine the current value. Connect the circuit below.

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How does the ammeter reading compare with V1 divided by lk. Can the phase of Y2 be
explained. What is the resistance of the multimeter on the AC mA range. It is important
to note that the ground on the two channels Yl and Y2 is common. Only one point in any
circuit may be grounded. Incorrect grounding is the most common source of error when
the CRO is used by inexperienced operators.

MEASUREMENT OF PHASE.
With the above circuit still in place connect Y2 to the same place as Yl. Turn the time
base control to XY. Record and explain what is on the screen. Return the Y2 connection
back to its original position. Replace the ammeter with the capacitor. Measure the phase
between Y1 and Y2 using the XY time base position and the waveforms seen when the
time base is set at 0.2 mS/div.

EFFECT OF SIG GEN OUTPUT RESISTANCE.

Remove the capacitor and replace it with a short circuit. So that the sig gen is connected
to the resistance box only. Remove Y2. Switch to channel 1 mode. Increase the value of
the resistance setting in 1k steps to 10 and measure Yl in each case. The results
may be explained by remembering that the signal generator has an internal resistance
which is made deliberately high to protect the signal generator. A signal generator may
be shorted with no ill effects. This of course does not apply to higher powered supplies.
In any circuit using the Signal generator it is important to remember that it has a finite
output resistance which may range from 50 to 60 the latter value being the more
common.

RESULTS
Plot the value of Yl against R. What was the output resistance of the signal generator
used in this experiment.

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LAB 3 CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRIC

THEORY

No capacitor is perfect. There is always some power loss in the dielectric. This loss may
be represented in a capacitor by a resistor, either in series or in parallel. The Schering
bridge is a circuit which may be used to derive the equivalent circuit 'of a capacitor, that is
it's capacitance value and its equivalent series resistance. The values of C and R may vary
with frequency and voltage level so the values of F and V at which the measurements were
made should always be stated.

The bridge is said to be BALANCED when the voltage across D is zero. Balance is
achieved by varying C1 and P.
C1 is a variable capacitor, P is a variable resistor. Cx is the capacitor under test. Rx is the
equivalent series resistance of the capacitor under test. Q is a fixed resistor and C is a
standard capacitor. D is a sensitive detector ( a sensitive voltmeter)
At balance: Rx = Q C1 Cx = CP
C Q

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LAB 3 PRE-TEST
1. Two capacitor plates are separated by air and have a capacitance of luF. What is
the capacitance when a slice of Polystyrene is pushed between the plates.

2. Two luF capacitors are connected in series and then in parallel. Calculate the total
capacitance in each case.

3. In a Shering bridge the following values apply at balance: Cl = 0.01 uF, Q = 22
P = 505 , C = 0.22 uF. Calculate Cx and Rx

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LAB 3 CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS

DESCRIPTION
OBJECT
To use a Schering bridge to measure the capacitance and equivalent series resistance of a
selection of capacitors and to observe the effect of frequency upon these measurements.

APPARATUS
Two resistance boxes ( Q and P), switchable capacitor substituion box (C1),
1 standard capacitor (C), selection of capacitors of various values of between 0.047
and 0.47 uF, Oscilloscope, Multimeter and Signal Generator.

CIRCUIT
The circuit is that as shown is that as shown in the theory sheet. The supply E comes from
the signal generator and the detector D is the oscilloscope. The multimeter may also be
used as the detector.

PROCEDURE
Wire up the circuit with one of the various capacitors used as a Cx. Note that Rx is
physically a property of the capacitor Cx. The supply voltage should be as high as possible
and the frequency should be 1 kHz. It will be difficult to obtain an exact balance so an
approximate balance seen by a dip in voltage is the target.
Take care to avoid earth loops. The sig gen must NOT be earthed on either terminal!
Calculate Cx and Rx. Repeat process for 10 kHz and 100 kHz.
Try the other capacitors of various dielectric that have been provided. Record the type used
for each test.

RESULTS
Plot C and R against frequency for each capacitor.

CONCLUSIONS
Compare the quality of each capacitor. Calculate Tanδ for each capacitor. Tan is a
standard short hand for the quality of a capacitor. The ideal value is zero.
Tan = 2fCxRx. In an ideal capacitor current would lead voltage by 90°.
 is 90 minus the actual angle by which current leads voltage.

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