Module-03 Lasers and Optical Fibers Notes BPHYE102
Module-03 Lasers and Optical Fibers Notes BPHYE102
Module-03
Lasers and Optical fibers
Lasers: Characteristics of LASER, Interaction of radiation with matter, Expression for Energy
Density and its significance. Requisites of a Laser System. Conditions for Laser action. Principle,
Construction and Working of Carbon Dioxide Laser. Application of Lasers in Defense (Laser range
finder) and Laser Printing. Numerical, Problems.
08 Hours
LASERS
Excited state
E2
E2
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1
E
Ground state
E1 1
Let E1 and E2 be two energy levels in energy level scheme of an atom in which E1 corresponds
to lower energy state or ground state and E2 represents higher energy state or excited state. Let a
photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1 incident on atom. The atom absorbs it and made a transition to
the excited state. This process is called as induced absorption and is represented as
atom + photon → atom*
atom* indicates that atom is in excited state.
Excited state E2 E2
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1
Ground state
E1 E1
Atom in the excited state Atom emitting a photon spontaneously
before the emission of a photon by de-exciting to ground state
Consider an atom in the excited state. When it is coming back to the lowest energy state
the atom voluntarily emits a photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1. Since the atom emits photon
voluntarily without the aid of any external agent, it is called as spontaneous emission and this
process is represented as,
atom* → atom + photon
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1 Stimulating photon
Stimulating
photon
E1 E1
Atom in the excited state and another Atom emitting a photon by the
photon coming near the excited atom influence of another photon.
for stimulating the atom to emit a
photon.
Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon having an energy ΔE precisely equal
to E2 - E1, interact with the atom by passing in its vicinity. Under such stimulation, the atom
emits a photon and transits to the lower energy state. The two photons travel in exactly the
same direction and with exactly same energy. The electromagnetic waves associated with the
two photons will have identical phase and thus they are coherent. The process can be
represented as
Einstein Coefficients
➢ Einstein explored the basic mechanisms involved in the interaction between radiation
and matter.
➢ Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability
of absorption or emission of a light by an atom or molecule.
➢ The Einstein 'A' coefficient is related to the rate of spontaneous emission of light and
'B' coefficients are related to the absorption and stimulated emission of light.
Derive the expression for the energy density of radiation at thermal equilibrium in terms
ofEinstein’s coefficient. 8M or 10M (Jan 2020, Sep 2020)
Expression for energy density of radiation under equilibrium condition in terms of
Einstein coefficients
➢ Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms such that (E2>E1).
➢ N1 and N2 be the number of atoms with energy E1 and E2 per unit volume of the system
which are called as number density of atoms in the state 1 and 2 respectively.
➢ Let the radiations with continuous spectrum of frequencies be incident upon the system.
Uν be the energy density of radiations of frequency 'ν'.
➢ Then Uν dν will be the energy density of radiations whose frequencies lie in the range
ν and ν+dν.
Induced absorption
In this process an atom in the ground state can go to the higher energy state by absorbing
E2 − E1
a radiation of frequency 'ν' such that = ,
h
The number of such absorptions per unit volume is called "rate of absorption". The rate of
absorption depends upon the number density of lower energy state N1 and the energy density
Uν.
∴ Rate of absorption α N1Uν
Spontaneous emission
In this process an atom in the higher energy state undergoes a transition to the lower
energy state voluntarily by emitting a photon.
Since it is a voluntary transition, it is independent of the energy density of any frequency in the
incident radiation. The number of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit volume is
called "rate of spontaneous emission" which is proportional to only the number density in the
higher energy state, i.e. N2.
∴ Rate of spontaneous emission α N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 (2)
where, A21 → Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission
E2 − E1
In this process the system requires an external photon of suitable frequency =
h
to stimulate the atom for the corresponding downward transition and thereby cause emission
of stimulated photon.
The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of stimulated
emission.
∴ Rate of stimulated emission α N2Uν
Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uν (3)
where, B21 → Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.
At thermal equilibrium,
Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 5
2022 scheme- Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 Laser & Optical fiber BPHYE102/202
A21 N2
U =
(B12 N1 −B21 N2 )
A21 N2
i.e. U= B[ ]
B21 ( 12 N1 −N2 )
B21
A21 1
U = [ ] → (4)
B21 (B12 N1 ) −1
B21 N2
E −E
−( 2 1 )
By Boltzmann’s law, N2= N1 e KT = N1 e-h/KT
By Planck’s law, U = 8h3
3
1
→ (6)
h
c
e
k T
− 1
Comparing equation (5) & (6)
A21 B12
= 8πh3/c3 & =1 i.e. B12 = B21
B21 B21
The probability of induced absorption is equal to the stimulated emission.
Therefore A12is written as A and B12, B21 written as B.
A 1
Equation (5) becomes U =
B k T
h
e
−1
This is the expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein coefficients.
There are three important requisites of a laser system and they are as follows,
A laser cavity is a closed cavity which is filled with an active medium along with two mirrors. It
provides the feedback necessary to tap certain amount of laser energy from the active medium.
The feedback action is achieved through the mirrors attached to the cavity. The photons
under goes multiple reflections from the mirrors and during this time the photons stimulates
more and more atoms to emit photons with identical nature.
In order to avoid destructive interference of the photon of the laser beam, the distance
‘L’ between the mirrors should be such that the cavity should support an integral number of
half wave length i.e., L = n (λ/2).
In real physical system, the population inversion conditions do not exist under normal
Mention the three modes of vibration in CO2 molecule. Explain the construction and working
of CO2 laser with the help of energy level diagram. 8M (MQP-1 2018-19, July 2019, Jan 2019)
OR
Explain the construction and working of CO2 laser with the help of energy level diagram. 8M
(Sep 2020)
A carbn dioxide molecule has two oxygen atoms between which there is a carbon atom. It has 3
different modes of vibration.
1. Symmetric stretching mode : In this mode, carbon atom is stationary and the oxygen
atoms oscillate to and fro along the molecular axis. This state is referred as (100) state.
2. Asymmetric stretching mode: In this mode, both the oxygen atoms moves in one direction
while the carbon atom moves in opposite direction along the molecular axis. This state is
referred as (001) state.
3. Bending mode: In this mode, the carbon atom and oxygen atoms moves perpendicular to
molecular axis in the opposite direction. This state is referred to as (010)state.
CO2 LASER:
It was devised by C.K.N Patel in 1924. CO2 laser is molecular gas laser which operates in the IR
region involving a set of vibrational – rotational transitions. It is a four level laser producing both
continuous and pulsed laser.
Construction:
Working:
➢ When An electric field is applied electrons rendered free from atoms, collide with N2 &
CO2 molecules in their path towards positive electrodes due to which N2 atoms are excited
to the higher energy level v1 .
➢ Likewise it happens to the CO2 molecule. This is collision of first kind
▪ e1 + N2 → e2 + N2*
▪ e1 + CO2 → e2 + Co2*
➢ Where, e1 and e2 are the energies of electrons before and after collisions.
➢ Let the ground state, (010) state, (020) state,(100) state and (001) are represented as
E1,E2,E3,E4 and E5 levels respectively
➢ Because of matching energy levels, v = 1 state of N2 is equal to (001) state of CO2 , N2
molecule in the metastable state collide with the CO2 in the ground state and transfer of
energy takes place from N2 to CO2 . As a result of which CO2 molecule moved to (001) state
where as the N2 molecule moved to ground state. This is the collision of second kind.
➢ Because of the resonant transfer of energy, the population inversion is achieved in (001)
state with respect to (100) and (020)
➢ The transition from E5 to E4 levels gives wavelength of 10.6μm (in far IR region)
➢ The transitions from E5 to E3 level gives wavelength of 9.6 μm (in far IR region)
➢ Following these transitions the CO2 molecules in E4 and E3 collide with the ground state
CO2 molecules (because of the matching energy levels) and arrive at E2 state.
➢ The molecules in the E2 state collide with He and water vapour molecules, so that come
down to the ground state.
➢ The cycle of operation gives both continuous and pulsed laser.
Application of lasers
➢ A high-power pulsed laser (Nd-YAG) beam is directed towards the enemy target from the
transmitter. The beam bounces back from the surface of the target as a reflection. A part of
the reflected beam is received as a signal by the receiver. The unwanted noise signal will be
filtered by the optical filter and pure signal is amplified by the photomultiplier in the
receiver. The range finders high speed clock measures the exact time of incident and
reflection of the pulse and then convert it in to distance.
➢ This will acquire only position of enemy without personal details. The laser range-finders
are best hand-held equipment for modern infantry in defence sector.
➢ In recent years all military battle tankers are equipped with laser range-finder interface with
computer for exact information of enemy in a digital readout form.
➢ The distance obtained from this range-finder will have less than 1% error as compare to
actual distance of enemy. This can also be used for continuous tracking and ranging of
missiles as well as aircrafts from ground or air.
2. Laser Printing
Laser printers were invented at XEROX in 1969 by researcher Gary Starkweather. Laser
Printers are digital printing devices that are used to create high quality text and graphics on
plain printer. A diode laser is used in the process of printing in LASER Printer.
Construction
Working:
1. A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged rotating
photosensitive drum coated with selenium.
2. Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from the areas which are exposed to light and
the area gets positively charged.
3. Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum’s charged areas, which have
been exposed to light.
4. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the link
to the paper.
Advantages
3. The cost per page toner cartridges is lower than other printers.
Disadvantages
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers.
Optical Fibers
Principle
The propagation of light in an optical fibre from one end to the other end is based on
the principle of Total internal reflection (TIR). They are used in optical communication.
When a light enters one end of the fibre, it undergoes successive total internal
reflections from side walls and travels down the length of the fiber along zigzag path.
Construction
➢ A practical optical fibre is cylindrical in shape and has three regions.
➢ The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region called as core which is
usually made up of glass or plastic.
➢ The outer part which is a concentric cylinder surrounding the core is called as cladding
and is also made up of similar material but of lesser refractive index.
➢ The outermost region is called a Sheath or Protective buffer coating, nothing but the
plastic coating providing a physical and environmental protection for the fibre. Number
of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.
➢ When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
➢ As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also
increases. For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle” (θc), the
refracted ray grazes the surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal
to 90°.
➢ If the angle of incidence is further increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray is
reflected back to the same medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
➢ In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
back.
In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy. The entire energy is
returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal reflection.
Propagation mechanism
➢ The cladding in an optical fibre always has a lower refractive index than that of the core.
➢ The light signal which enters into the core and strikes the interface of the core and
cladding with an angle greater than the critical angle will undergo total internal
reflection.
➢ Thus the light signal undergoes multiple reflections within the core and propagates
through the fibre.
➢ Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, there is no absorption of light energyat
the reflecting surface.
➢ Therefore the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the
core during the propagation.
➢ After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical
fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber
because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.
90-θ1
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of
incidence(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an
angle of incidence equal to the critical angle.
➢ From figure it is clear that any ray which enters into the core with an angle more than
θ0, will have to be incident at an angle less than the critical angle at the core-cladding
interface.
➢ Therefore the ray does not undergo total internal reflection and the ray will be lost. Thus
for any ray to propagate through the fiber it must enter with an angle less than θ0. This
maximum angle is called as ‘Acceptance angle’ and the conical surface described by
the ray when rotated about the axis of the fiber is called ‘Acceptance cone’.
➢ Thus acceptance angle is defined as “The maximum angle that a light ray can take
relative to the axis of the fiber to propagate through the fiber ”.
➢ Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is called as “Numerical aperture”.
Define Numerical Aperture and with a neat diagram derive an expression for numerical
aperture and arrive at the condition for propagation of a signal in an optical fiber.
6M or 8M (Jan 2019, Jan 2020, Sep 2020)
Expression for Numerical aperture and condition for propagation
90-θ1
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of
incidence(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an
angle of incidence equal to the critical angle. Let n0, n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the
surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively. Now, applying Snell’s law at the point of
entry of the ray i.e., at A,
sin0 n1
=
sin1 n0
n1
sin = sin.................... (1)
0 1
n0
n1
From expression (1) sin0 = 1−cos2 1
n0
n1 n2
sin0 = 1− 2
n0 n
n1
sin0 = 1
2
2
n0 n
n2 − n2
sin0 = 1 2
n0
sin0 =
i.e., N.A. = 1 2
if i 0
if sini sin0
or sini 1 2
N.A.= n1 2
Increase in the value of Δ enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot
be increased very much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
V- number
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V-number.
If the surrounding medium is air, then V-number = d
1 2
V=
𝑉2
For V ≫1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes ≅
2
Discuss the different types of optical fibers with suitable diagrams. Define V-number. 7M
(MQP-22018-19)
OR
Discuss the different types of optical fibers with suitable diagrams. 6M (Sep 2020)
OR
Define V-number and fractional index change. With suitable diagrams, explain the different
Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 18
2022 scheme- Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 Laser & Optical fiber BPHYE102/202
Based on the refractive index profile and mode of propagation, There are three types of
optical fibers,
➢ Single mode fibers have a core material of uniform refractive index value.
➢ Cladding material also has a uniform refractive index but of lesser value than that of
core.
➢ Thus its refractive index profile takes a shape of a step. The diameter of the core is
about 8-10 µm and the diameter of the cladding is about 60-70 µm.
➢ Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in above figure.
➢ Single mode fibers are the extensively used ones ant they are less expensive. They need
LASERs as the source of light.
o A step index multimode fiber is very much similar to the single mode fiber
except that its core is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a core diameter 50 to
200 µm and a cladding about 100 to 250µm outer diameter.
o Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a
largerplane region for the core.
o Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a number of modes of wave
propagation.
o The step index multimode fiber can accept either a LASER or an LED as
source oflight.
o It is the least expensive of all and its typical application is in data links which has
lowerbandwidth requirements.
o
(iii) Graded index multimode fiber
What is attenuation in an optical fiber? Explain the attenuation mechanism. 6M (Jan 2019)
OR
Explain the attenuation in an optical fiber? Discuss any three factors are contributing to
the fiber loss. 8M (Jan /Feb 2021)
OR
What is attenuation in an optical fiber? Obtain the expression for attenuation coefficient.
8M(MQP-1 2018-19)
Signal attenuation in optical fibers
➢ Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates
through a fiber also called as the fibre loss.
➢ There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place.
Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
(i) Absorption losses
➢ Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt
and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
➢ During signal propagation photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms and the
electrons are excited to higher energy levels.
➢ Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light
energy.
➢ The re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength, hence it is
referred as loss of energy.
➢ The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions which enters into the fiber at the
time of fabrication causes significant absorption loss.
➢ The absorption of photons by fiber itself assuming that there are no impurities andin-
homogeneities in it is called as intrinsic absorption.
➢ Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium
having a scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of light.
➢ Similarly when a light signal travels in the fibre, the photons may be scattered due to
the sharp changes in refractive index values inside the core over distances and also due
to the structural impurities present in the fibre material.
Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 21
2022 scheme- Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 Laser & Optical fiber BPHYE102/202
• Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature
provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius
of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the
condition of total internal reflection. This causes loss of optical power.
• Microscopic bending: Microscopic bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in
the linearity of the fibre axis. They occur due to non-uniformities in the
manufacturing and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. They cause irregular
reflections and some of them leak through the fibre. The defect due to non uniformity
(micro-bending) can be overcome by introducing optical fiber inside a good
strengthen polyurethane jacket.
Attenuation co-efficient
➢ The main reasons for the loss in light intensity over the length of the cable is due to
light absorption , scattering and due to bending losses.
10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝐵
𝑖𝑒, 𝛼 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚
Attenuation of light signal as it propagates along a fiber is an important consideration in the design
of an optical communication system, since it plays a major role in determining the maximum
transmission distance between a transmitter and a receiver or in-line amplifier.
The longer the fiber is and the farther the light has to travel, the more the optical signal is
attenuated. Consequently, attenuation is measured and reported in decibels per kilometer (dB/Km)
also known as attenuation rate or attenuation coefficient.
Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 22
2022 scheme- Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 Laser & Optical fiber BPHYE102/202
Attenuation varies depending upon the fiber type and the operating wavelength.
➢ Figure below shows three optical windows which offer minimum signal attenuation and
also relationship between attenuation and wavelength.
➢ The first optical window is defined from 800-900nm, where the minimum signal loss is
4dB/km. In early 1970’s this window was used for operation of optical sources and
detectors.
➢ By reducing the concentration of hydroxyl ions and metallic impurities in the fiber material,
in 1980’s manufacturers were able to fabricate optical fibers with very low loss in the 1100-
1600nm region. This spectral band is called long wavelength region.
➢ The second optical window is centered at 1310nm also called O-band, which offers
0.5dB/km.
➢ The third optical window is centered at 1550nm also called C-band, which gives the loss of
0.2dB/km.
➢ Hence while designing optical systems for long distance applications the 1550nm
wavelength is preferred because loss offered at this wavelength is minimum than any other
wavelength.
With the help of block diagram, explain point to point communication using optical fiber.
Mention the advantages of optical fiber communications. 10M or (MQP-2 2018-19, Jan /Feb
2021)
Fiber optic communication:
Optical fiber communication can be used over longer-distance for data transfer at high speed.
An example for an optical fiber communication system is point to point communication system.
➢ The system involves three major steps both at the transmitter end and at the receiving
end.
➢ At the transmitting end the information such as voice, picture or any digital data is fedto
an electrical transmitter which converts the data into analog electrical signals.
➢ These analog signals are supplied to a coder unit which converts the signals into binary
electrical signals or digital signals.
➢ An optical transmitter converts this digital data into optical signals (light signals) and
supplies to an optical fiber.
➢ The optical fiber carries the signal and transmits to the receiving end. At the receiving
end the light signals are converted back into binary electrical signals by an optical
receiver or photo detector.
➢ This binary information is fed to a decoder to convert back into analog signals and form
analog signals we can receive the information with the help of an electrical receiver.
On the basis of operating principle, Optical Fiber sensors are classified into
1. Intensity based Displacement Sensor.
2. Temperature Sensor based on Phase Modulation.
Principle:
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving target. The reflected
light from the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to intensity of the reflected light
from the target, displacement of the target is measured.
Description:
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle of
receiving fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the figure.
The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to the moving target can be
adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the sensor.
Working:
Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made to fall on the
moving target. The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the receiving fiber and
Other applications
The optical fibers have some medical applications, such as in endoscopic surgery. The
endoscopic instruments like gastro scope, bronchoscope etc., are developed based on fiber optic
technology. Gastro scope is an instrument used to examine the stomach and bronchoscope is used
to study the lungs.
➢ Optical fibers are cheaper, small in size, light weight, mechanically strong and signal
carrying capacity is high.
➢ They are immune to electromagnetic and RF interferences.
➢ The optical fibers have wider bandwidth so capable of carry more channels of information
than electrical cables.
➢ It is compatible with electronic systems and tapping of signal is not possible.
➢ They have low loss per unit length (~2 dB/Km).
➢ It does not get affected by nuclear radiations, corrosion and moisture.
➢ No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal.