2022 scheme-Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-05 Semiconductor & devices BPHYE102/202

Module-05

Semiconductors and Devices:

Semiconductors and Devices: Fermi level in Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor, Expression
for concentration of electrons in conduction band & holes concentration in valance band (only
mention the expression), Relation between Fermi energy & Energy gap in intrinsic
semiconductors(derivation), Law of mass action, Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
(derivation), Hall effect, Expression for Hall coefficient (derivation) and its application.
Photodiode and Power responsivity, Construction and working of Semiconducting Laser, Four
probe method to determine resistivity, Phototransistor, Numerical problems.

08 Hours

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors are the class of materials, who’s conducting characteristics lies in between that of
conductors and insulators hence the name Semiconductors
e.g.: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) etc.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
The semiconductors which are chemically pure are called as intrinsic semiconductors.
e.g.: Si, Ge etc.
At absolute zero temperature an intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator. Its
conductivity is low and can be varied by varying the temperature only. As temperature increases
the electrons get more thermal energy and some electrons may break away from the bond,
becoming free electrons contributing to the conduction i.e. some electrons move from valence
band to the conduction band and thereby creating vacancy in the valence band is called hole and it
has an effective charge +e.
Electrons and holes play an important role in electrical conduction in semiconductors. In an
intrinsic semiconductor the number of free electrons Ne and the number of holes Nh are always
equal (i.e. Ne=Nh=ni) where ni is called as intrinsic carrier concentration. Apart from the process
of generation of free electrons and holes a simultaneous recombination of electrons and holes
occurs. At equilibrium the rate of generation is equal to rate of recombination of charge carriers.

Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

For a semiconductor, the energy gap is much lesser than
that for insulator. The energy gap is the energy difference
between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of
the valance band. It is denoted as Eg(forbidden gap). as
shown in the figure.

By convention, the energy at the top of the valance band is

taken as zero for reference.
In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi energy level lies in between CB and VB that is in
the middle of forbidden gap as shown.

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Extrinsic Semiconductor
The doped semiconductors which consist of suitable amount of chemical impurities in it are
called as extrinsic semiconductors. The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is
known as Doping and the impurities added are called as Dopants or Doping agents.
Here conductivity can be easily and accurately controlled simply by controlling the amount
of dopant. Therefore the materials can be manufactured to required specifications of conductivity.
Extrinsic semiconductors significantly have greater conductivities as compared to intrinsic
semiconductors.
There are two types in extrinsic semiconductor

i) n-type semiconductor
It is an extrinsic semiconductor which is obtained by adding pentavalent impurities to a
semiconductor like phosphorus, antimony etc. Here electrons are majority charge carriers and the
holes are minority charge carriers i. e. (Ne>>Nh).

ii) p-type semiconductor

p-type semiconductor is obtained by adding trivalent impurities to a semiconductor like
boron, aluminum, indium, gallium etc. Here the holes are majority charge carriers and the
electrons are minority charge carriers i.e. (Nh>>Ne).
In an extrinsic semiconductor the number of free electrons and holes are unequal. The
conductivity is mainly due to majority charge carriers and it mainly depends on concentration of
impurity atoms.

Carrier concentration:
The number of charge carriers per unit volume of the material is called as carrier concentration.

Expression for electron concentration (Ne) in an intrinsic semiconductor:

The number of electrons in the conduction band per unit volume of the material is called electron
concentration.
E 

( )
4 2 3 − F 
 N h = 3  mh* k T 2
e  kT 
h

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Expression for hole concentration (Nh) in an intrinsic semiconductor:

The number of holes in the valence band per unit volume of the material is called hole
concentration.

E 

( )
4 2 3 − F 
 N h = 3  mh* k T 2
e  kT 
h

NOTE
Fermi velocity (vF)
The velocity of the electrons which occupy the Fermi level (EF) is called as Fermi velocity.
1 2
We have, EF = mvF
2
2 EF
vF =
m

Fermi temperature (TF)

It is the temperature at which the average thermal velocity of the free electron in a solid
becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0 K. But the thermal energy possessed by electrons is given
by the product kT.
i.e. when T = TF, kTF = EF0 is to be satisfied, but for all practical purposes, we know that EF0 ≈EF

Thus, kTF = EF
EF
TF =
k
The Fermi temperature is only a theoretical concept, since at ordinary temperatures; it is not
possible for the electrons to receive thermal energy in a magnitude of EF.

Arrive at the Relation between Fermi energy and Energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor:
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes/ unit volume in valance band is equal to
the number of electrons/ unit volume in conduction band.
 Ne = Nh
 EF − E g  E 
  − F 
4 2
( ) 4 2
( )
3 3
 3  me* k T 2
e  kT 
= 3  mh* k T 2
e  kT 
h h
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 EF − E g  E 
  − F 
(m ) ( )
3 3
*
e
2
e  kT 
= m *
h
2
e  kT 

 EF − E g   EF 
3
     m*  2
e  kT 
e  kT 
=  *h 
 me 
 2 EF − E g  3
   m*  2
 
=  *h 
kT
e
 me 
Under practical considerations, me*= mh*,
 2 EF − E g 
 
e  
=1
kT

Take natural log on both the sides. Then,

2 EF − E g
= ln(1)
kT
2 EF − E g = 0

Eg
 EF =
2

Law of mass action:

Statement – “For a given semiconductor material either intrinsic or extrinsic, the product of the
charge carrier concentration remains constant at any given temperature, even if the doping is
varied”.
We have electron concentration & hole concentration are given by

The above equation shows the product of and does not depend on EF, but remains constant at a
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given temperature.

This is called as law of mass action for semiconductor & is applicable for both extrinsic & intrinsic
semiconductors.

For an intrinsic semiconductor, we have

where ni is intrinsic carrier density.

Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor. 8M (Jan /Feb

2021)
OR
Describe Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor and hence obtain the expression for Fermi
energy interms of energy gap of intrinsic semiconductor. 8M (MQP-2 2018-19, Jan 2020)

Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of a semiconductor.

Consider a semiconductor of area of cross-section A through which a current I is flowing
and v be the velocity of electrons whose flow constitutes the electric current. Then the volume
swept by the electrons per second is Av. If Ne is the number of electrons per unit volume and e is
the magnitude of electric charge on the electron, then the charge flow per second i.e. current I is
given by, I = NeeAv
(1)
I
We know that current density is, J=
A
N e eAv
=
A
J = Neev (2)

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v
The electron mobility is given by, e = E – electric field
E
v = e E (3)

Substituting eqn. (3) in (1) J = ( Neee ) E (4)

But from Ohm’s law we know that, J = eE (5)

Where,  e - The conductivity due to electrons in the semiconductor material

Comparing (4) and (5)  e = Neee

(6)
Similarly if we solve for conductivity due to holes, we will get an expression,
 h = Nheh (7)

We know that the total conductivity of a semiconductor is due to flow of electrons and holes
 = e +h
 = Neee + Nheh

 = e ( N e e + N h  h )
(8)

For an intrinsic semiconductor

We know that in an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes is always equal to number
of electrons i.e. Ne = Nh

Or Ne = Nh = ni

Thus equation (8) can be written as,  = e ( ni e + ni h )

 = ni e ( e + h )

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What is Hall Effect? Obtain the expression for Hall voltage in terms of Hall co-
efficient. 6Mor 10M (MQP-1 2018-19, July 2019, Jan 2019, Sep 2020)
OR
Derive an expression for Hall voltage and Hall co-efficient. (8M Jan /Feb 2021)

Hall Effect
When magnetic field is applied perpendicular to direction of current in a conductor, a potential
difference develops along on axis perpendicular to both current and magnetic field. This effect is
known as Hall Effect and the potential difference developed is known as Hall Voltage

Hall Effect Theory: Probe

Y

++++++++++++++++++++++++
+++++
n- type material
w d I
I

-- - - - -- -- -- -- -- -- --Probe
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -
- --
X
B
Z Probe

Consider a rectangular slab of an n-type semiconductor material in which a current I is flowing in

the positive X-direction, magnetic field B is applied along Z-axis and Hall voltage develops along
Y-axis.

Under the influence of magnetic field, the electrons experience the Lorentz force FL given by
𝐹𝐿 = −𝐵𝑒𝑣 − − − − − (1)

Hall voltage across the upper and lower surfaces of the semiconductor material establishes an
electric field EH, called the Hall field exerts an upward force FH on the electrons given by
𝐹𝐻 = −𝑒 𝐸𝐻 − − − − − − − (2)

Under equilibrium conditions, force on charge carriers due to magnetic field will be balanced by
the force on them due to Hall field
 𝐹𝐿 = 𝐹𝐻
-𝐵𝑒𝑣 = −𝑒𝐸𝐻

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 𝐵𝑣 = 𝐸𝐻 − − − − − − − − − − (3)

𝑉𝐻
𝐸 = 𝑑

Where d is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the slab, then

𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑑 = 𝐵 𝑣 𝑑 − − − − − − − − − (4)

Let ω be the thickness of the material along Z direction.

⸫The area of cross section normal to the direction of I is 𝜔𝑑.
𝐼
⸫ 𝐽 = 𝜔𝑑

But we know that, 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 ------------ (5)

Where, n is the charge concentration of electron and ρ is the charge density.

Therefore,
𝐼
𝜌𝑣 =
𝜔𝑑
or
𝐼
𝑣= … … … … … (6)
𝜌𝜔𝑑

Substituting for v from equation 6, equation 4 becomes

𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 =
𝜌𝜔

Or

𝐵𝐼
𝜌=
𝑉𝐻 𝜔

Thus by measuring𝑉𝐻 , 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔, and by knowing B, the charge density ρ can be determined.

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Hall co-efficient RH:

1
The quantity is the reciprocal of charge density and is defined as the Hall co-efficient RH
ne
depend upon the current density J and applied field B.

𝐸𝐻 𝛼 𝐽𝐵

𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝐵

Where, 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒
𝐽𝐵
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐸𝐻
𝑣𝐵 𝑣𝐵 1
𝑅𝐻 = = =
𝑛𝑒𝐵𝑣 𝜌𝐵𝑣 𝜌

Knowing the Hall coefficient, the concentration of charge carriers can be determined using the
relation
1
RH =
ne
Thus, Hall coefficient can be used to determine ρ is known.

Expression for hall voltage in terms of hall coefficient.

𝐵𝐼 1 𝐵𝐼 1
𝑉𝐻 = 𝜌𝜔 = 𝜌 [ 𝜔 ] and 𝑅𝐻 = 𝜌

Hence,
𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 [ ]
𝜔

By determining the hall coefficient, one can find out,

i) Whether Semiconductor is n-type or p-type
ii) Density of charge carriers
iii) Mobilities of charge carrier

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Photo diode:
A photodiode is a type of diode that converts light energy into electrical energy. It is essentially a
light sensor that generates an electric current when light falls on it. It is also known as a light
detector, light sensor, or photo sensor. The phenomenon through which the light energy is
converted into electrical energy is called the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell or solar panel consists
of an array of photodiodes also called photovoltaic cells that convert solar energy into electrical
current.

It is a semiconductor device made from a PN junction. A P-type semiconductor and an N-type

semiconductor material is joined together with an additional Intrinsic layer between them. It is
designed to operate in reverse bias conditions i.e. the P side of the photodiode is connected to the
negative while the N side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.

Construction of Photodiode:

The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-type. In this design, the
formation of P-type material can be done from the diffusion of the P-type substrate which is lightly
doped. So, the P+ ions layer can be formed because of the diffusion method. On the substrate of N-
type, the N-type epitaxial layer can be grown.

Photodiode Construction
The development of a P+ diffusion layer can be done over the heavily doped N-type epitaxial layer.
The contacts are designed with metals to make two terminals like anode and cathode. The front
region of the diode can be separated into two types like active & non-active surfaces.

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The designing of the non-active surface can be done with silicon dioxide (SiO2). On an active
surface, the light rays can strike over it whereas, on a non-active surface, the light rays cannot
strike. & the active surface can be covered through the material of anti-reflection so that the energy
of light cannot lose and the highest of it can be changed into the current.

Working of Photodiode:

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it
makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner photoelectric
effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from
the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.

Photodiode Working Principle

Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and
a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of
light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the
device.

Applications of Photodiodes:

1. It is used for detection of both visible as well as invisible light rays.

2. Photodiodes are used for the communication system for encoding & demodulation purpose.
3. It is also used for digital and logic circuits which require fast switching and high-speed
operation.
4. These diodes also find application in character recognition techniques and IR remote control
circuits.
5. Photodiodes include optical disc drives, digital cameras and optical switches etc.
6. Photodiodes are considered as one of the significant optoelectronics devices which is
extensively used in the optical fibre communication system.
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Photo-diode responsivity or Power responsivity:

The responsivity of silicon photodiode is a measure of sensitivity to light. It is defined as ratio of
photocurrent (Ip) to incident light power P at given wavelength.
Responsivity,
Rλ = Ip/P

Where,

• Rλ= Responsivity
• IP = Output Photo Current
• P = Incident Optical Power

In other words, it is measure of the effectiveness of conversion of light power into electric current.
It varies with the wavelength of incident light, applied reverse bias and temperature.

Example of Photodiode Responsivity calculator:

INPUTS : Ip = 70 mA, P = 500 mWatt
OUTPUTS: Responsivity = 0.14 A/W

Explain the terms: i) Stimulated emission ii) Spontaneous emission. Explain explain the
construction andworking of Semiconductor laser. 8M (Jan 2020)

Describe the principle, construction and working of Semiconductor diode laser.

Principle:
When a forward bias is applied to the diode, the holes are injected into the p – side of the junction
and electrons are injected to the n – side. The recombination of holes and electrons within the
junction region (i.e., the transition of electrons from conduction to valance band) results in release
of energy in the form of photons. The rate of emission increases with the increase of current in the
diode. The population inversion is achieved between the electron levels and hole levels when the
current exceeds a threshold value.

Construction:
GaAs laser diode is a single crystal of GaAs and consists of heavily doped n and p region. The n –
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region is formed by doping with tellurium and the p – region is formed by doping with zinc. The
doping concentration is of the order of 1017 to1019 dopant atoms/cm3. Each side of the diode is of
the order of 1mm. the width of p – n junction layer varies from 1µm to 100µm.

A pair of parallel planes of the crystal is cleaved at right angles to the p – n layer and it
plays the role of reflecting mirrors. The other two faces are roughened to prevent the lasing action
in that direction. The top and bottom faces of the diode are provided with electrodes to apply
forward bias voltage with the help of a voltage source.

Working:
When a suitable forward bias voltage is applied to the diode, electrons from the n – region
and holes from p – region flow across the junction in sufficient numbers and create a population
inversion in the active region.
Junction region
p – type n – type
EC
EF n

EC

ℎ𝜈
EV
EF p
EV

Fig.9. Energy band diagram of a forward biased laser

EF n and EF p are the Fermi levels in the n – type region and p – type region respectively. Under the

normal condition, the concentration of electrons in the energy level at the bottom of the conduction
band is lesser than that in the energy levels at the top of the valence band. When the current
flowing through the forward biased diode is low, the recombination leads to only spontaneous
emissions. As the current is increased, a threshold for lasing is attained at which time an active

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region is formulated near the junction where the population inversion is achieved. Thus, the
forward bias plays the role of pumping agent in semiconductor laser. At this stage, a photon
released by a spontaneous emission triggers stimulated emissions over a large number of
recombination leading to the built up of laser radiation of high power. The decrease of population
in the higher energy levels is restored by the electrons supplied by the current flowing in the diode
and hence the population condition is unaffected.
At room temperature, GaAs laser emits monochromatic radiation of wavelength 8870Å in
IR region. The energy gap of GaAs is 1.4eV.
hc
∴ λ= = 8870Å
Eg
Advantages:
1. Semiconductor lasers are simple, compact and least expensive of all the lasers available.
2. They require less power and little auxiliary equipment.
Disadvantages:
1. They give more divergent beam.
2. Less monochromatic and highly temperature sensitive.
3. Poor coherence and poor stability.

Applications:
1. The semiconductor diode lasers are used in optical communications since they provide light
beams of wavelengths which have low absorption loss in the optical fibers.
2. They are used as reading devices for CD players.
3. They are used in space communications.

Four probe method to determine resistivity:

Aim: To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method.

Apparatus: The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-200°C,
constant current generator , oven power supply and digital panel meter(measuring voltage and
current).Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the
measurement of resistivity of semiconductors.
This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin wafer, such as a thin
semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is millimeter in size and having a
thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged linearly in a straight line at equal distance S from

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each other. A constant current is passed through the two probes and the potential drop V across the
middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the sample so that
behavior of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

Fig:1 Fig:2

The figure shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and supply current (A)
to the surface of the crystal.

Theory:
At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and
inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.
𝑳
R= 𝝆 (1)
𝑨
Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.

A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor

and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of decreasing
electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.

According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands,
valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field it is electrons in
the valence band that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical conductivity of
semiconductors. In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction
band minimum and valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at
0K, when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction band remains unoccupied. So
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conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As temperature increases, the occupancy
of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.

Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method

1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying electrodes
most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on conductivity is negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a straight
line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be small
compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical and
small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-conducting. A
conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has
been plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in
contact with insulator.

Fig: 2 show the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are adequately far
from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical to a slice. For this case of a slice of
thickness w and the resistivity is computed as
0 0
= = in  m
W  5.89
G  (2)
S

The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is greater than the
distance between the probes, V
0 =  2S
I (3)

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

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Applications
1. Remote sensing areas
2. Resistance thermometers
3. Induction hardening process
4. Accurate geometry factor estimation
5. Characterization of fuel cells bipolar plates

Phototransistor:
What is Phototransistor?
A phototransistor is a light-controlled switch that switches a circuit and amplifies the current when
exposed to light. It is a three-layer semiconductor device whose light-sensitive base is exposed. The
light striking the base converts into a base current that amplifies the current between the emitter
and collector proportional to the intensity of light. They are used for sensing light pulses of high
speed and small magnitude. It is similar to BJT except for the exposed base instead of a terminal.

In an NPN phototransistor, the emitter terminal has an arrow pointing outward while PNP has an
emitter pointing inward.

Types of Phototransistors
Phototransistors can be classified into bipolar junction transistor BJT and field effect transistor FET
phototransistor.

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BJT Phototransistor
BJT phototransistor is a more commonly used phototransistor. Therefore we have explained it
above. It is available in both NPN and PNP designs. The light source controls the collector current.
Its disadvantage is that it allows leakage current in dark conditions. However, it can conduct a large
current because the current flow is due to both majority and minority charge carriers ( since the
name bipolar). It cannot perform at high frequency but allow a large current with high gain.

FET Phototransistor
FET phototransistor is a field effect transistor having no junction and a channel that is sensitive to
light. The channel can be either N-channel or P-channel. It has two terminals named source and
drain. Construction-wise, drain and source are the same, they can be interchanged. The drain is
positive with respect to the source. The incident light controls the drain current. It has a high
switching speed allowing it for high-frequency applications. But it allows low current and low gain.
Construction of Photo Transistor:

When compared to normal transistor, in photo transistor the base and collector area is large. The
base area is increased to increase the amount of current generated. Because more the light falls
more the current is generated. Earlier it was made up of single semiconductor material like silicon
or germanium. Recently photo transistors are made up of Gallium and Arsenic to obtain higher
efficiency. Finally photo transistor is placed inside a metallic case and a lens is kept at the top of
the case to absorb the incident radiation.

Working of Photo Transistor:

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 19

2022 scheme-Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-05 Semiconductor & devices BPHYE102/202

From the above circuit we can know that base is not connected to any external bias and only light is
incident on the base terminal. Collector terminal is connected to the positive side of external supply
and output is taken from the emitter terminal.

When no light is incident on the base terminal only some leakage current flows and it is called as
dark current. When light is incident on the lens at the base collector junction, base current is
generated which is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

Applications
A phototransistor is used for its high sensitivity and large current carrying capacity. Here are some
applications of the phototransistor.

Light sensing: They are widely used to detect light and measure the intensity of light.
Automatic light control: it can automatically control the light in street or on the highway. it senses
the sunrise and sunset and switches On or Off the connected lights on the circuit.
Object counter: it senses an object when it passes between it and a constant light source. It
triggers the connected circuit when the object interrupts the incident light.
Opto-coupler: it electrically isolates two circuits and optically connects them using light pulses to
protect low voltage circuits from high voltage circuits.
Punch card reader: it is widely used in punch card readers.
Shutter control: it controls the opening of the camera shutter based on the intensity of the light
falling on its lens.
Alarms: it is used in burglar alarms by detecting the presence of a person passing through it. Fire
alarm and smoke alarm also uses phototransistor.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru 20