Electrical

Measurements
and
Instrumentation
Purpose of the
subject

• This course on measurement

and instrumentation is
intended to make the
engineers familiar about the
art of modern
instrumentation and
measurement system
Significance of
Measurement
“When you can measure, what you
are speaking about and express it in
numbers, you know something
about it; when you cannot express in
it numbers in knowledge is of
meagre and unsatisfactory kind” –
Lord Kelvin

• Through measurement a product

can be designed or a process be
operated with max. efficiency ,
minimum cost and with desired
degree of reliability and
maintainability
 • Introduction to Measuring Instruments:
Static characteristics of instruments-
Accuracy, Precision, Linearity, Sensitivity,
Dead time, Dead zone & Resolution. Types
of errors, Random error analysis, Probable
error or tolerance
UNIT I: • Introduction to Measuring Instruments:
Classification of measuring Instruments
operating forces in measuring instruments
& systems to provide Deflecting, Control
and Damping Torques.
Topics

Static characteristics

Error analysis

Classification of measuring Instruments

Deflecting, Control and Damping Torques

Measured Measurements done in a
laboratory or at other places
and True always involve errors. No
measurement is free from
Value errors.

The true value of the quantity

to be measured may be defined
as the average of an infinite
number of measured values
when the average deviation
due to various contribution
factors tends to zero
Range or span

• The minimum & maximum values

of a quantity for which an
instrument is designed to measure
is called its range or span.
 • It is the degree of closeness with which
an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity being
Accuracy measured.
• The Accuracy of the measurement
indicates the nearness to the actual/true
value of the quantity.
Static Error

• It is the deviation from the true value of the measured variable.

• It involves the comparison of an unknown quantity with an
accepted standard quality.
• The degree to which an instrument approaches its expected
value is expressed terms of error of measurement.
Absolute Error (ϵ) = measured value – True Value = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡

𝐴𝑚 −𝐴𝑡
%ϵ= *100
𝐴𝑡
• Static Correction = - ϵ
Precision

• It is the degree of closeness of reading with the previous reading. An

instrument is said to be precise when there is negligible difference
between successive readings.
Or
• If an instrument indicates the same value repeatedly when it is used
to measure the same quantity under same circumstances for any
number of times, then we can say that the instrument has high
precision.
Sensitivity
• The sensitivity denotes the smallest
change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds. It
is defined as the ratio of the
changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value
of the quantity to be measured.
Mathematically it is expressed as,

𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
 • The sensitivity of an instrument should be
high and therefore the instrument should
not have a range greatly exceeding the value
to be measured. However, some margin
should be kept for any accidental overloads.
• It may be noted that
Sensitivity I. A sensitive instrument can quickly detect
a small change in measurement.
II. Measuring instruments that have smaller
scale parts are more sensitive.
III. Sensitive instruments need not
necessarily be accurate.
 • It is desirable that the output reading of an
instrument is linearly proportional to the quantity
being measured.
Linearity • Linearity is the ratio of maximum deviation from
the linear characteristic as a % of full-scale output.
Linearity
Reproducibility

• It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be

repeatedly measured.
• It is the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time.
• The measurement is made on the same instrument, at the same
location, by the same observer and under the same measurement
conditions.
• It may be specified in terms of units for a given period.
• Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.
• No drift means that with a given input the measured values do not
vary with time.
Drift

• Drift may be classified into three categories:

a)zero drift:
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set,
or due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets
in.
b) span drift or sensitivity drift:
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward
scale, the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift.
C) Zonal drift:
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is
called zonal drift.
Drift
Drift

• There are many environmental factors which cause drift there may be
stray electric and magnetic fields, thermal emf’s, change in
temperature, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear and high
mechanical stresses developed in some parts of the instruments and
systems.
• Drift is undesirable quantity in the industrial instruments because it is
rarely apparent and cannot be easily compensated for thus it must be
carefully guarded against by continuously prevention inspection and
maintenance.
Repeatability
• Repeatability relates to the closeness of output readings for the same input
when there are changes in the method of measurement, observer,
measuring instrument location, conditions of use and time of measurement.
 • It is defined as the time required by the
measurement instrument to being to
respond to a change in the measurand.
Dead time • It is basically the time before the instrument
being to respond after the measurement
has been changed.
Dead Zone/ Dead
space/ Threshold

• dead zone is defined as the

largest change of input quantity
for which there is no output of
the instrument.
• It is basically range of input value
for which output is zero.
• Dead zone is also known as dead
band or Dead Space or neutral
zone.
Resolution or Discrimination

• It is the smallest quantity being measured which can be detected with

certainty by an instrument.
• If a nonzero input quantity is slowly increased, the output reading won’t
increase until some minimum change in the input takes place.
• The minimum change which causes the change in output is termed
resolution or discrimination.
• So, resolution defines the smallest measurable input change while the
threshold defines smallest measurable input.
• The resolution of an instrument influences how finely its output scale is
divided into subdivisions.
• A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions the full-scale
rating is 200 volts and 1/10th of a scale division can be estimated with a fair
degree of certainty determine resolution of the instrument in volt.
 Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is a phenomenon that illustrates
the different output effects when loading
and unloading.
• Many times, for the increasing values of
input an instrument, may indicate one set
of output values.
• For the decreasing values of the input, the
same instrument may indicate its different
set of output values.
• Hysteresis can also occur in instruments
that contain electrical windings formed
round an iron core, due to magnetic
hysteresis in the iron.
• When output values are plotted against
input the following kind of graph is
obtained.
 ➢Absolute or primary Instruments:
▪ These Instruments does not give direct
reading but give in terms of instrumental
physical constant. Equations to be solved to
get readings & measured value is more
accurate
▪ They don’t have a dial or pointer a pointer
moving.
▪ Working with absolute instruments for
Type of routine work is time consuming since every
Instruments time a measurement is made, it takes a lot of
time to compute the magnitude of the
quantity under measurement.
▪ Hence these are used in R&D laboratories.
Ex: Tangent galvanometer, absolute
electrometer
 ➢Secondary instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the
quantity being measured can only be measured
by observing the output indicated by the
instrument.
Ex: Ammeter, speedometer, X-Y plotter

Type of
Instruments
 Analog Instruments

• An analog device is one in which the output

or display is a continuous function of time
and bears a constant relation to its input.

Analog
Instruments

Null
Indicating Recording Integrating
detectors
Indicating
instruments

• Will give the instantaneous value

of quantity to be measured
• It uses a dial and a pointer
mechanism
Ex: All ordinary ammeter,
voltmeter etc.
Recording
instruments
• It continuously record the quantity
being measured over a specified
period.
• It uses a pen to record the quantity
to be measured on a sheet of paper.
Ex: Recording voltmeter, X-Y plotter,
EGC machine, Snickometer
Integrating
instruments
• These instruments adds the
measured value to existing value.
• These are used to measure the
total energy measured used in a
period of time
Ex: KVA meter, Amp-hour meter,
Energy meter
 Null detectors

• “Comparison method” include the

comparison of the quantity under
measurement with a pre-defined
standard quantity which gives
measurement.
Essential
system of Deflection Controlling Damping
System System System
Indicating
Instruments:
Deflecting Torque(Td):

• It is the torque which deflects the pointer on a calibrated scale

according to the electrical quantity passing through the instrument.
The deflecting torque causes the moving system and hence the
pointer attached to it to move from zero position to indicate on a
graduated scale the value of electrical quantity being measured.
• If only deflecting torque is present and if there is no stopper, then the
pointer rotate 360⁰ like in motor.
Controlling Torque(Tc):

• It is the torque which controls the movement of the pointer on a

particular scale according to the quantity of electricity passing through it
• What happens when controlling torque is not present?
If deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer would continue to
move indefinitely and would swing over to the maximum deflected
position irrespective of the magnitude of current (or voltage or power)
to be measured.
• In a meter first deflecting torque is produced then after this controlling
torque and start increasing until it balance with deflecting torque.
When controlling torque is equal & opposite to deflecting torque then
pointer will be stopped & indicates the final value
Tc = Td equilibrium state
Damping Torque:

• If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling

torques alone, then meter pointer starts like a motor with high speed
then controlling torque suddenly tighten the pointer makes
oscillations with respect to final value & takes more time to come to
zero speed.
• So reduce the oscillations of pointer its speed must be reduced.
• The damping torque purpose is only to reduce the speed of pointer
(not zero)
Key points:
Types of Deflecting torque

Magnetic
Effect

Heating
(or)
Hall Effect
Thermal
Deflecting Effect
Torque

Electromagnetic Electrostatic
Effect Effect
 Types of Controlling torque (Tc):
Spring control

• In the spring control method, a hair spring,

usually of phosphor-bronze, attached to the
moving system is used. With the deflection of
the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite
direction. This twist in the spring produces a
restoring torque which is directly proportional to
the angle of deflection of the moving system.
The pointer comes to a position of rest (or
equilibrium) when the deflecting torque (Td) and
controlling torque (Tc) are equal.
• Tc α θ
 Gravity
control
• Gravity control is obtained by
attaching a small weight to the
moving system in such a way
that it produces a restoring or
controlling torque when the
system is deflected.
• Tc α Sinθ
• Thus, controlling torque in a
gravity control system is
proportional to the sine of the
angle of deflection. The degree
of control is adjusted by
screwing the weight up or
down on the carrying system.
 Spring control Gravity Control
Advantages and Advantages Advantages
Disadvantages ❑ Linear scale as Tc α θ ❑ No aging effect and no
❑ We can use the temperature effect
of spring control instrument horizontally or ❑It is cheap
and gravity vertically ❑It is not subjected to
control Disadvantages includes fatigue or distortion,
❑Aging of springs with time.
❑Temperature effect
Disadvantages includes
❑Nonlinear relation as
Tc α Sinθ
❑Instrument always
must be placed
vertically

4
4
Types of Damping torque

Air
friction
Damping

Damping
torque
Eddy
Fluid
current
Damping
Damping
Air friction
Damping

• It uses either
aluminum piston or
vane, which is
attached to or
mounted on the
moving system and
moves in an air
chamber at one end.
Fluid
Damping

• In fluid friction damping, a

light vane (attached to the
moving system) is dipped
into a pot of damping oil.
The fluid produces the
necessary opposing (or
damping) force to the
vane. The vane should be
completely submerged in
the oil.
• The disadvantage of this
type of damping is that it
can only be used in the
vertical position.
 Eddy current
Damping

• Eddy-current damping uses a

conducting material which
moves in a magnetic field to cut
through the lines of force, thus
setting up eddy currents. Force
always exists between the eddy
current and magnetic field
which is always opposite to the
direction of motion.
• This is most efficient type of
damping and is largely used in
permanent magnet moving coil
instruments.
Comparison
between the ORDER OF EFFECTIVENESS ORDER OF PRIORY
damping
systems
Eddy current
Eddy current
damping
damping

Air friction
Fluid friction damping
damping

Air friction Fluid friction

damping damping

4
9
Error Analysis

Types of Random error

errors analysis

Probable error
or tolerance
Types of errors

• We can classify the measurement errors into the following

three types.
I. Gross Errors
II. Random Errors
III. Systematic Errors
 1. These are completely due to
human negligence i.e., wrong
range selection, forgotten zero
adjustment, improper zero
adjustment, loose connections,
misreading values, parallax
error, taking the values doing
Gross Errors wrong calculations, application
of an instrument in wrong
manner
2. Gross error are variable errors
and not common for all
observers.
Systematic errors
• There are three systematic errors which are
• Instrument error
• Environment error
• Observer error
• Instrumental errors are due to inherent short comings of instrument
(manufacturing defects), interaction errors (frictional error), type of
construction (PMMC,CRO), backlash, hysteresis, Aging effect (PM, spring),
loading errors
• Environmental errors are due to temperature, humidity, interference, pressure
(it can be avoided by shielding)
• Under controlled conditions, environmental errors are considered as constant
errors
• Systematic errors can be calculated from the details of the instrument and by
the calibration processor. Hence, these can be reduced by the static correction,
factors.
• systematic errors are common for all observers. Because of the systematic
error, the instruments may indicate more than the actual or less than the
actual value.
• Observer error i.e., shadow of the pointer can be avoided by mirror
 • These errors are due to
unidentified cause and due to
uncontrolled conditions
• Random errors are variable in
magnitude and nature the error
sign is +VE OR -VE
Random • To reduce the residual error
errors measure the same input many
number of times and take
average value to reduce the
residual error static analysis
techniques is used, that is
mathematical procedure.
 Mean Value
• Suppose an experiment were repeated many, say N, times to get,
x1,x2,x3,x4,…..xn
• N measurements of the same quantity, x. If the errors were random then the
errors in these results would differ in sign and magnitude. So, if the average
or mean value of our measurements were calculated,

• Whenever possible, repeat a measurement several times and average the

results. This average is the best estimate of the “true” value. The more
repetitions you make of a measurement, the better this estimate will be.
Deviation

• The standard deviation is a summary measure of the differences of

each observation from the mean.
 Limiting Errors(Guarantee Errors)
• The accuracy and precision of instrument depends upon its design,
the material used and the worker manship that goes into making
the instrument.
• Components are guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of
rated value.
• Thus, the manufacturer must specify the maximum deviation from
the “nominal value” of the particular quantity.
• So, the purchases can make a proper selection according his
requirement.
• The limits of these deviation from the specified values are defined
as “limiting errors” or “guarantee errors”.
• We can say that the manufacturer guarantees or promises that the
error in the item he is selling is no greater than the limit set.
Relative (Fractional) Limiting Error
• The relative (fractional) error is defined as the ratio of the error to the
specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity. Therefore.,

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
relative limiting error % ϵ = *100
𝐴𝑡
Problem-1

• A 0-150 V voltmeter has a limiting error of 1% of full-scale reading.

The voltage measured by the instrument is 75 V. Calculate the
limiting error in percentage.
Problem-2

• A wattmeter having a range of 1000 W has an error of 2% of true

value. Find the percentage limiting error when the true power is 100
W.
Problem-3 [Gate]

• For the same full scale rating value for measurement of 10 amperes
a) Meter A, accuracy class 0.1
b) Meter B, %LE = ± 0.4%
c) Meter C, % Accuracy = 95%
d) Meter D, %LE = ± 0.3%
Problem-4 [Gate]

• For the measurement of 5 A, choose

a) (0-20 A), 0.5 class
b) (0-10 A), ±1 %GAE
c) (0-50 A), 0.1 Accuracy Class
d) (0-15 A), ±5 %LE
Problem-5 [IES-2007]

• The limiting errors for a 4-dial resistor box are: units: ±0.2% Tens:
±0.1% hundreds: ±0.05% Thousands: ±0.02%. If the resistance value
is set as 4,325Ω calculate the limiting errors for the value. [IES-2007]