ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF TEACHERS’ EDUCATION

COURSE NAME: INCLUSIVENESS

COURSE CODE: SNIE-1012
Cr Hr: 2

“Being disabled should not mean being disqualified

from having access to every aspect of life.”
– Emma Thompson
 Chapter 1: Understanding Disabilities
and Vulnerabilities
1.1 Definitions of Basic Terms (Impairment, Disability
and Handicap)

1. Impairment: refers to any loss or

abnormality of physiological, psychological
or anatomical structure or function
 It is an absence of or significant difference
in person‗s body structure or function or
mental functioning e.g., Loss of limbs or
loss of vision
2. Disability: is a restriction or lack (resulting from
an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in
the manner or within the range considered normal
for a human being (e.g- Difficulty walking or
reading).
3. Handicap: refers to a disadvantage for an
individual that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a
role that is normal.
 It is a physical or attitudinal constraint that is
imposed upon a person, regardless of whether
that person has a disability. e.g., Lack of wheel
chair/Ramp or eyeglasses)
In short
 Impairment refers to the person‗s lose in body structure or function,
or mental functioning;
 examples of impairments include loss of a limb, loss of vision or
memory loss.
 Disability refers to activity limitation, such as difficulty seeing,
hearing, walking, or problem solving.
 Handicap refers to Participation restrictions in normal daily
activities, such as working, engaging in social and recreational
activities, and obtaining health care and preventive services.
The full inclusion of people with impairments in society can be
inhibited by:
1. Attitudinal (societal barriers, such as stigma)
2. Physical barriers (environmental barriers, such as absence
of stairs), and
3. Policy barriers (systemic barriers)  If these problems/
barriers addressed, impairment may not lead to disability
• We have to be very sensitive to words we use in regard to
disability.
Use ―a child with disability, not ―a disabled child
 1.2. Causes of disability
Disability can be caused by the following factors.
Genetic Causes:- Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance can
cause intellectual disability in children.
In some countries, Down syndrome is the most common genetic
condition. Sometimes, diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays
can cause a genetic disorder.
Environmental
 Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can cause a deficiency
 The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic
chemicals and illnesses, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and
syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause intellectual disability to the
child
 Unfortunate life events such as drowning, automobile accidents, falls
and so on can result in disabilities.
Unknown Causes:-
 The human body is a phenomenal thing.
 Scientists have still not figured out what and how some things in
the body, cells, brain, and genes come about.
 Humans have still not found all the answers to all the defects in
the human body
Inaccessible environments:-
 Sometimes society makes it difficult for people with some
impairment to function freely.
 Lack of education, support services, health opportunities for
people with impairment can cause additional disability to people
with disabilities and even people with no disability.
 1.3. SOME TYPES OF DISABILITIES
These are children who have at least one of the
following conditions:
1. Visual impairment,
2. Hearing impairment
3. Learning disabilities
4. Speech and Language Impairments
5. Autism
6. Emotional & Behavioral disorder
7. Intellectual differences
8. Physical disability
9. Vulnerability
1. Visual Impairment
The WHO definitions of Visual impairment is based on visual
acuity scores.
 Visual acuity is the ability to see or distinguish small objects
at a distance.
 Visual acuity is measured using Snellen chart, a clinical
measure in which they test distance, usually 6 meters/20
feet/ is recorded as the numerator.
• The term blind is used to describe children who rely
predominantly on tactile methods in their learning
( e.g., Braille; Perkins).
 A person with low vision is one who has difficulty
accomplishing visual tasks, but who can enhance his/her
ability to accomplish these tasks with the use of visual aids
and environmental modifications.
 People with low vision may have a visual impairment that
affects only central vision—the area directly in front of the
eyes—or peripheral vision—the area to either side of and
slightly behind the eyes.
2. Hearing impairment
 It is the most prevalent sensory deficit in the human
population (1 in 800 children born with a serious HI and
more than 60 percent of people aged over 70 suffer from HI.
 Different definitions are used in different countries for
different purpose.
 From legal perspective, HI is a generic term indicating a
continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound.
2.1. Hard of hearing: refers to difficulty hearing but (usually
with hearing aids) can use hearing as a primary modality of
acquisition of language and in communication with others.
2.2. Deaf: refers those who have difficulty understanding
speech, even with hearing aids but can communicate in
sign language.
From causative factors perspective, HI can be divided
into two categories:
 Sensori-neural Hearing loss: may arise from genetic
disorders, diseases and other events during
pregnancy, from the act of birth itself.
 Conductive hearing loss: is the single commonest
cause of hearing loss, where fluid invades the air
space in the middle ear. The fluid prevents the
efficient conduction of sound through the chain of
bones in the middle ear.
Hearing loss is measured using audiometer and expressed
in terms of decibels (dB), the unit used to measure intensity
of sound. The larger the number of decibels needed, the
more severe the hearing loss.
 Children with a mild to moderate hearing loss are those
for whom the oral/aural approach is usually
recommended and is most successful.
 This involves training in listening with amplification so
that the best use is made of residual hearing together
with lip reading.
 The profoundly deaf however communicate through Sign
language
Degree of loss (dB) Level of hearing loss
Description of the problem
 25-40 dB Mild hearing loss has difficulty responding to
conversational speech especially with background noise
 40-70 dB Moderate loss -Has difficulty with all
conversational speech. -Perception is better with
amplification and use of visual clues like lip reading.
 70-95 dB severe loss Difficulty with perceiving amplified
speech without the aid of lip reading
 95 dB & above Profound loss -Can respond to some
amplified speech, but little information of sign language
is a socially accepted mode of communication among
the deaf, which has its own grammatical structure.
3. Learning Disability (LD) refers to a disorder in one or
more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written
and mathematics.
 LD manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical
calculations.
 LD should not be confused with learning problems
which are primarily the result of sensory, or motor
disorder; of intellectual disability; of emotional
disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or economic
disadvantages

 There often appears to be a gap between the individual‗s
potential and actual achievement.
 It is some times called ―hidden disability.
 A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; It is a lifelong
challenge.
Types of Learning Disability
3.1. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD): Individuals
with APD do not recognize subtle differences
between sounds in words.
3.2. Language Processing Disorder: It is a specific
type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) While
an APD affects the interpretation of all sounds
coming into the brain, LPD relates only to the
processing of language
3.3. Dyslexia: is a specific learning disability that affects reading
and related language-based processing skills
3.4. Dysgraphia: is a specific learning disability that affects a
person‗s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.
3.5. Dyscalculia: is a specific learning disability that affects a
person‗s ability to understand numbers and learn math.
Individuals with this type of LD may also have poor
comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with
memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling
time, or have trouble with counting
3.6. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities: Difficulty interpreting
nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body language
3.7. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit: is a disorder that
affects the understanding of information that a person sees,
or the ability to draw or copy
4.Speech and Language Impairments
This Disability category can be divided into two
groups: speech disorder and language disorder.
A. Speech Disorder: There are three basic types
of speech disorders: articulation disorders,
fluency disorders, and voice disorders
a. Articulation Disorders: include such problems
as:
Omission: (bo for boat)
Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
Distortions: (shlip for sip)
Addition
b. Fluency Disorders: are difficulties with the rhythm and
timing of speech characterized by hesitations,
repetitions, or prolongations of sounds, words, or
phrases.
 Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel
sound.
 Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech
c. Voice disorders : are problems with the quality or use of
one's voice resulting from disorders in the larynx
characterized by abnormal production and/or absences
of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or
duration.
B. Language disorder: There are five basic areas of
language disorders:
a. Phonological disorders: abnormal organization of the
phonological system, or a significant deficit in speech
production or perception.
b. Morphological disorders: difficulties with morphological
inflections on nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signal
different kinds of meanings.
c. Semantic disorders poor vocabulary dev‗t,
inappropriate use of word meanings, and/or inability to
comprehend word meanings
d. Syntactic deficit: difficulty in acquiring the rules that
govern word order and others aspects of grammar
(e.g., subject-verb agreement)
e. Pragmatic difficulties: are characterized as problems
in understanding and using language in different
social contexts
5. Autism Autism refers to a developmental disability significantly
affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction
of a child. It is a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by
lack of sociability, impaired communication and repetitive obsessive
behavior such as politeness, turn- taking.

Linked to Profound Learning Disability (PLDs) are further impairments

in the production of speech. Among these are
(i) personal pronouns reversal
(ii) the misuse of such preposition and
(iii) the prevalence, in speech, of echolalia formal repetition of other‘s
utterances
6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
A condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked
degree that adversely affects educational performance:
 An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual,
sensory, or health factors;
 An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal
relationships with peers and teachers;
 Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal
circumstances;
 A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression;
or
 A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears
associated with personal or school problems.
Classification of behavioral and emotional disorders
Different professionals have developed a classification system, which shows
some promise for educational practice. These include:
A. Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and
act out.
• The disorder is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums)
versus covert (with lying, stealing, and/or drug use).
B. Socialized aggression: individuals join subculture group of peers who
are openly disrespectful to their peers, teachers, and parents.
• Common are delinquency and dropping out of school. Early symptoms
include stealing, running away from home, habitual lying, cruelty to
animals, and fire setting.
C. Attention problems- These individuals may have attention deficit, are
easily destructible and have poor concentration. They are frequently
impulsive and may not think the consequence of their actions.
D. Anxiety/Withdrawn- These individuals are
self-conscious, reserved, and unsure of
themselves. They typically have low self-
esteem and withdraw from immediate
activities. They are also anxious and
frequently depressed.
E. Psychotic behavior: These individuals
show more bizarre behavior. They may
hallucinate, deal in a fantasy world and may
even talk in gibberish.
Causes of behavioral and emotional
disorders
 Biological factors- genetic disorders, brain damage, and
malnutrition, allergies, temperament and damage to the
central nervous system.
 Family factors- include family interactions, child abuse,
neglect, and poor disciplinary practices
 Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural
negative practices, for example watching violence and
sexually oriented movies and TV programs.
 Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in
impoverished areas, and schooling practices that are
unresponsive to individual needs
Kauffman (1993) conclude that EBD fall into
two broad classifications:
 Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled
disorder, include such problems disobedience,
disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums,
irresponsibility, jealous, anger, attention seeking etc…
 Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled
disorders, include such problems anxiety, immaturity,
shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy
(inferiority), guilt, depression and worries a great deal
7. Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by
significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in
adaptive behavior.
 Intellectual functioning: refers to general mental capacity,
such as learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on
 One way to measure intellectual functioning is an IQ test. 
An IQ test score of 75 an below indicates a limitation in
intellectual functioning.
 Adaptive behavior: involves conceptual, social, and practical
skills that are learned and performed by people in their
everyday lives.
 Conceptual skills- language and literacy;
money, time, and number concepts; and self-
direction
 Social skills- interpersonal skills, social
responsibility, self-esteem, social problem
solving, and the ability to follow direction.
 Practical skills- activities of daily living,
occupational skills, healthcare, travel, safety,
use of money, use of the telephone.
An individual who show a deficiency in one/more
of these adaptive skills is taken as having
Intellectual disability.
The academic learning of intellectually disabled children and their
adaptive skill at home, school, and community environments is as
follows
 General Cognition: Their apparent slowness in learning may be
related to the delayed rate of intellectual development
 Learning and Memory: The learning and memory capabilities of
people with intellectual disabilities are significantly below average in
comparison to peers without disabilities.
 Attention: Children with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty
distinguishing and attending to relevant questions in both learning
and social situations (Saunders, 2001).
 Adaptive Skills: A child with intellectual disabilities may have
difficulty in both learning and applying skills for a number of
reasons, including a higher level of distractibility, inattentiveness,
failure to read social cues, and impulsive behavior
 Speech and Language: People with intellectual disabilities may have
delayed speech, language comprehension and formulation
difficulties.
 Motivation: People with intellectual disabilities are often described
as lacking motivation, or outer-directed behavior.
 Academic Achievement: The cognitive difficulties of children with
mild to moderate intellectual disabilities lead to persistent problems
in academic achievement
 Physical characteristics: Children with intellectual disabilities with
differing biological etiologies, may exhibit coexisting problems, such
as physical, motor, orthopedic, visual and auditory impairments and
health problems
8. Physical disability is a condition that
interferes with the individual‗s ability to use his
or her body.
 It includes orthopedic impairments, which
refers to conditions of muscular or skeletal
system and sometimes to physical disabling
conditions of the nervous system.
Classification and Characteristics: Based
on the impact of physical disability on mobility
and motor skills, it is divided into three:
A. Mild physical disability:- Individuals have
minor problems and walk without aids.
B. Moderate physical disability:- individuals can walk
with braces and crutches and may have difficulty
with fine-motor skills and speech production.
C. Severe physical disability:-individuals who are
wheel-chair dependent and may need special help
to achieve regular development.
Physical disability can also be broadly classified in to
two groups:
 The neurological system (the brain, spinal cord
& nerve) related problems.
 Musculo-skeletal system (the muscles, bones
and joints) are deficient due to various causes.
I. Neurological system:-with a neurological condition like
cerebral palsy or a traumatic brain injury, the brain either sends
the wrong instructions or interprets feedback incorrectly.
Epilepsy: is disorder that occurs when the brain cells are
not working properly and is often called a seizure disorder
Spinal bifida: damage to the spinal cord leads to paralysis
and loss of sensation in the affected areas of the body .
II. Musculoskeletal system:- It includes the muscles
and their supporting framework and the skeleton.

A. Muscular dystrophy:- is an inherited condition accruing

mainly in males, in which the muscles weaken and deteriorate
B. Arthritis:-is an inflammation of the joints. Symptoms include
swollen and stiff joints, fever, and pain in the joints during
acute periods
C. Amputation:- a small number of children have missing limbs
because of congenital abnormalities or injury or disease
(malignant bone tumors in the limbs)
D. Polio:- is viral disease that invade the brain and cause
severe paralysis of the total body system.
E. Club foot:- is a major orthopedic problem affecting about
9,000 infants each year. This term is used to describe various
ankle or foot deformities, i.e
F. Cleft lip and cleft palate:- are openings in the lip or roof of the
mouth, respectively, that fail to close before birth, the cause is
unknown.
• Most cleft problems can be repaired through surgery.
G. Health Impairments:-Any disease that interferes with learning
can make students eligible for special services. These
disease caused problems are as follow:
1. Heart disease
2. Diabetes:
3. Allergy
4. HIV/ AIDS
5. Corona Virus, etc.
9. Vulnerability
An individual is said to be vulnerable when
he/she is at risk of being harmed. In principle,
everyone is vulnerable to some adverse event
or circumstance, but some people are more
vulnerable than others. Vulnerability can be
generally defined as a complex phenomenon
that refers to the following dimensions:
 Economic difficulties/poverty
 Social exclusion
 Lack of social support from social networks 
Stigmatization
 Health problems
 Being a victim of crime
1.9.1.CAUSES OF VULNERABILITY
• Vulnerability may be causes by
 rapid population growth,
 poverty and hunger,
 poor health,
 low levels of education,
 gender inequality,
 fragile and hazardous location,
 lack of access to resources and services, including
knowledge and technological means,
 disintegration of social patterns (social vulnerability).
 lack of access to information and knowledge,
 lack of public awareness,
 limited access to political power and representation
(political vulnerability), (Aysan,1993).
1.9.2. WHO ARE MORE VULNERABLE?
A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who
are living in rural areas are vulnerable for many backward
traditional practices.
B. Children: Significant number of children are vulnerable and
at risk for development
C. Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority
background. Particularly, ethnic (cultural and linguistic
minority), religious minority.
D. Poverty: People are vulnerable for many undesirable
phenomena due to poverty.
E. Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable
for many kind of risks. This includes abuses, poverty,
illiteracy, health problems, psychological and social problems
 Age: Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds
evils
1.9.2. WHO ARE MORE VULNERABLE(CONT’D)
G. Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of
illiteracy and lack quality educational opportunities are
vulnerable for absence all kinds of developments
H. Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people
living with HIV/AIDS are much vulnerable for
psychosocial problems, poverty and health
I. Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are
vulnerable for socio emotional developments due to lack of
psychological support
 CHAPTER-TWO
THE CONCEPT OF INCLUSION

2.1. Definition of Inclusion

 Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding
to the diversity of needs of all persons through increasing
participation in learning, employment, services, cultures and
communities, and reducing exclusion at all social contexts.
 Inclusive education refers to an ongoing process aimed at
offering quality education/services for all while respecting
diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics
and learning expectations of the students and communities
and eliminating all forms of discrimination (UNESCO, 2008).
 It involves changes and modifications in content,
approaches, structures and strategies, with a common
vision which covers all children of appropriate age range
(UNESCO 2005).
 The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons
should learn, work and live together wherever possible,
regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have.
 Inclusive education extends beyond special needs arising
from disabilities, and includes consideration of other sources
of disadvantage and marginalization such as gender,
poverty, language, ethnicity, and geographic isolation.
 UNESCO (2005) has provided four major
inclusion principles:
1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-
ending search to find better ways of responding to
diversity.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and
removal of barriers that hinders the development of
persons with disabilities.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and
achievement of all persons.
4. Inclusion gives emphasis to those who may be at risk
of marginalization, exclusion or underachievement.
2.2. Rationales for inclusion
A. Educational Foundations
 Children do better academically, psychologically & socially in
inclusive settings.
 A more efficient use of education resources.
 Decreases dropouts and repetitions
 Teachers competency( knowledge, skills, collaboration,
satisfaction etc.
B. Social Foundation
 Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and
breeds prejudice.
 All individuals need an education that will help them develop
relationships and prepare them for life in the wider
community.
 Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build
friendship, respect and understanding.
C. Legal Foundations
 All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
 Human being shouldn‗t be devalued or discriminated
against by being excluded or sent away because of their
disability.
 There are no legitimate reasons to separate children
from their education
D. Economic Foundation
 Inclusive education has economic benefit both for
individual and for society.
 Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the
creation of special schools across the country.
 Children with disabilities go to local schools
 Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout
 Children with disabilities live with their family use
community infrastructure
E. Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
 Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity
 Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation
 Promotion of sustainable development
2.3. Benefits of Inclusion
A. Benefits for Students with Special Needs Education
 In inclusive settings people will develop:
 Appropriate models of behavior
 Improved friendships with the social environment
 Increased social initiations, interactions, relationships and networks
 Gain peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
 Increased achievement of individualized educational program (IEP) goals
 Greater access to general curriculum
 Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization in their learning
B. Benefits for persons without Special Needs
Education Students without special educational
needs (SEN) will:
 Have a variety of opportunities for interacting with
their age peers who experience SEN in inclusive
school settings.
 Serve as peer tutors during instructional activities
 Play the role of a special ‗buddy‗ during lunch, in
the bus or playground.
 Gain knowledge of a good deal about tolerance,
individual difference, and human exceptionality.
 Learn that students with SEN have many positive
characteristics and abilities.
C. Benefits for Teachers and Parents/Family
I. Benefits for Teachers
 They have more opportunities to learn new ways to teach
different kinds of students.
 They gain new knowledge, such as the different ways children
learn and can be taught.
 They develop more positive attitudes and approaches towards
different people with diverse needs.
II. Benefits for Parents/Family
 Learn more about how their children are being educated in
schools with their peers in an inclusive environment
 Become personally involved and feel a greater sense of
accomplishment in helping their children to learn.
 Feel valued and consider themselves as equal partners in
providing quality learning opportunities for children.
 Helps break down barriers and prejudice that prevail in the
society towards persons with disability.
 Communities become more accepting of difference, and
everyone benefits from a friendlier, open environment that
values and appreciates differences in human beings.
2.4. Inclusive Environment
 An inclusive environment is one in which members
feel respected by and connected to one another.
 It is an environment that welcomes all people,
regardless of their disability and other
vulnerabilities.
 An inclusive service environment is respectful,
supportive, and equalizing.
 An inclusive environment has the following major
characteristics:
o it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent
possible to all people with special needs
o it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with
disabilities
o provides accommodations willingly and proactively
Though many countries seem committed to inclusion
their rhetoric, and even in their legislation and policies,
practices often fall short. The major barriers include:
Problems related with societal values and beliefs-
particularly the community and policy makers negative
attitude towards students with disability and
vulnerabilities.
 Economic factors- this is mainly related with poverty
of family, community and society at large
 Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility in their
cooperation
 Conservative traditions among the community
members about inclusion
 Lack of knowledge and skills among teachers
regarding inclusive education
 Rigid curricula, teaching method and
examination systems that do not consider
students with dives needs and ability
differences.
 Fragile democratic institutions that could not
promote inclusion
 Inadequate resources and inaccessibility of
social and physical environments
 Globalization and free market policy that
make students engage in fierce competition,
individualism rather than cooperation
 Using inclusive models that may be imported
from other countries.
 CHAPTER THREE
CHAPTER THREE
IDENTIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATED SERVICES
IFFERENTIATED SERVICES
3.1 Impact of Disability and Vulnerability on daily
life
1. The Nature of the Disability: Disability can be
acquired (as result of an accident, or acquired disease)
or congenital (present at birth).
 If the disability is acquired, it is more likely to cause a
negative reaction than a congenital disability.
 Congenital disabilities are disabilities that have
always been present, thus requiring less of an
adjustment than an acquired disability.
2. The Individual‗s Personality - the individual personality can
be typically positive or negative, dependent or independent,
goal-oriented or laissez-faire.
 Someone with a positive outlook is more likely to embrace a
disability than someone with a negative outlook.
3. The Meaning of the Disability to the Individual: If the disabled
is more likely to feel defined by his/her disability and thus it will
have a negative impact.
4. The Individual‗s Current Life Circumstances –
 The individual‗s independence or dependence on others
(parents).
 The economic status of the individual or the individual's
caregivers, the individual's education level.
5. The Individual's Support System - The individual‗s support
from family, a significant other, friends, or social groups.
If so, he/she will have an easier time coping with a disability
• 3.2 Economic Factors and Disability
 people with few economic assets are more likely to
acquire pathologies that may be disabling
 Economic resources can limit the options and abilities of
someone who requires personal assistance services or
certain physical accommodations
 Economic factors also can affect disability by creating
incentives to define oneself as disabled.
 3.3 Political Factors and Disability
 If the political system is well enforced, it will profoundly
improve the prospects of people with disabling
conditions for achieving a much fuller participation in
society
3.4 Psychological Factors of Disability
 One's psychological environment, including personal
resources, personality traits, and cognition.
 These constructs affect both the expression of disability
and an individual's ability to adapt to and react to it.
 3.5 The Family and Disability
 The family can be either an enabling or a disabling factor for
a person with a disabling condition.
3.6 Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities.
 All People with disabilities do not share the same experience
even of the same impairment.
 Analyzing human beings, Maslow has identified five
categories of needs, with different priority levels.They are order
as follows :
-survival (physiological),
-safety,
-social needs,
-esteem needs, and
-self-actualization (fulfillment).
 Maslow‘s model is also valid for persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities
• Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities have socio-emotional,
psychological, physical and social environmental and economic
needs in general.
• The following list shows basic needs of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities to ensure equality:
 Full access to the environment (towns, countryside & buildings)
 an accessible transport system
 technical aids and equipment
 accessible/adapted housing
 personal assistance and support
 inclusive education and training
 an adequate income
 equal opportunities for employment
 appropriate and accessible information
 advocacy (towards self-advocacy)
 counseling
 appropriate and accessible health care
3.6.1. Social Needs of Persons with Disabilities and
Vulnerabilities
 Social protection plays a key role in realizing the rights of
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities of all ages:
providing them with an adequate standard of living, a basic
level of income security; thus reducing levels of poverty and
vulnerability.
3.6.2. Gender and disability
 The importance of work and the daily activities required
of living in the country are paramount in considering
gender. Work, particularly paid work, is important for
many of the female contributors.
 Being excluded from work because of others‗ protective
or controlling views is particularly difficult for some
women.
3.6.3. Identity and disability
 Identity marked by disability is complex and multilayered.
 Disability as part of an individual‗s identity is seen by some
as a struggle.
 This is often two fold: internally to individuals and their sense
of self and, too often, in the way they are perceived and
constructed by those around them.
3.6.4. Belongingness and Disability
 Persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups have
struggled to come to terms with a body and mind which
seem unfamiliar to them.
 They have to make adjustments or accommodations both for
themselves and in terms of their relationships with others.
3.7. The Health Care Needs of Persons with Disabilities
and Vulnerabilities
 People with disabilities report seeking more health care than
people without disabilities and have greater unmet needs.
3.7.1. Barriers to Health Care for Persons with Disabilities
and Vulnerable Groups
A. Prohibitive costs: Affordability of health services and
transportation are two main reasons why people with
disabilities do not receive needed health care in low-
income countries.
B. Limited availability of services: The lack of appropriate
services for people with disabilities is a significant barrier to
health care.
C. Physical barriers: Uneven access to buildings (hospitals,
health centers), inaccessible medical equipment, narrow
doorways, internal steps, inadequate bathroom facilities, etc.
D. Inadequate skills and knowledge of health workers
3.8. Addressing for Inclusive Barriers to Health Care
a. Policy and legislation
b. Financing
c. Service delivery
d. Human resources: Integrate disability inclusion education into
undergraduate and continuing education for all health-care
professionals.
3.9. Disability, vulnerability and the Environment
 The prevailing understanding about the cause of disability
has undergone profound change worldwide.
 Previous models viewed pathology and disability
interchangeably and that excluded consideration of the
environment.
 They have been replaced by models in which disability is
seen to result from the interaction between the
characteristics of individuals with disabilities and the
characteristics of their environment.
 Cultural norms affect the way that the physical and social
environments of the individual are constituted.
 Disability is not inherent in an individual but is, rather, a
relational concept a function of the interaction of the
person with the social and physical environments.
 The physical and social environments comprise factors
external to the individual, including family, institutions,
community, geography, and the political climate.
 There are three types of attributes of the physical
environment that need to be in place to support human
performance:
-Object availability
-Accessibility
-Availability of sensory stimulation (such as visual,
tactile, or auditory cues, serves as a signal to promote
responses).
3.10. Creating Welcoming (Inclusive) Environment
External environmental modifications can take many forms:
 Assistive devices,
 alterations of a physical structure,
 object modification, and
 task modification.
 Rehabilitation must place emphasis on addressing the
environmental needs of people with disabling conditions
Examples of Environmental Modification
1. Mobility aids
 Hand Orthosis
 Prosthetic limb
 Wheelchair (manual and/or motorized)
 Canes
 Crutches
 Braces
2. Communication aids
 Voice-activated computer
 Closed or real-time captioning
 Computer-assisted note taker
 Print enlarger
 Books on tape
 Sign language or oral interpreters
 Braille writer
 Cochlear implant
3. Accessible structural elements
 Ramps, Elevators
 Wide doors
 Safety bars
 Enhanced lighting
4. Accessible features
 Built up handles
 Voice-activated computer
 Automobile hand controls
5. Job accommodations
 Simplification of task
 Flexible work hours
 Rest breaks
 Splitting job into parts
6. Differential use of personnel
 Personal care assistants
 Note takers
 Secretaries Editors
 Sign language interpreters
3.12. Impact of the Social and Psychological Environments on
the Enabling-Disabling
 The social environment is conceptualized to include
cultural, political, and economic factors.
 The psychological environment is the intrapersonal
environment.
 Culture includes both material culture (things and the
rules for producing them) and nonmaterial culture
(norms or rules, values, symbols, language, ideational
systems such as science or religion, and arts such as
dance, crafts, and humor).
3.13. Disability Inclusive Intervention and
Rehabilitation Services
 Including people with disabilities in everyday activities and
encouraging them to have roles similar to peoples who do
not have a disability is disability inclusion.
3.14. Strategies to Disability inclusive intervention and
rehabilitation
1. Prevention
 Prevention of conditions associated with disability and
vulnerability is a development issue.
 Attention to environmental factors – including nutrition,
preventable diseases, safe water and sanitation, safety on
roads and in workplaces – can greatly reduce the
incidence of health conditions leading to disability.
1. Primary prevention – actions to avoid or remove the
cause of a health problem in an individual or a population
before it arises. It includes health promotion and specific
protection (for example, HIV education).
2. Secondary prevention (early intervention) – actions to
detect a health and disabling conditions at an early stage
in an individual or a population, facilitating cure, or
reducing or preventing spread, or reducing or preventing
its long-term effects. (e.g., Supporting women with
intellectual disability to access breast cancer screening)
3. Tertiary prevention (rehabilitation) – actions to
reduce the impact of an already established disease
by restoring function and reducing disease related
complications. (e.g., Rehabilitation for children with
musculoskeletal impairment).
Implementing the Twin-track Approach
 Track 1: Mainstreaming disability as a cross-cutting issue
within all key programs and services (education, health,
relief and social services, etc) to ensure these programs and
services are inclusive.
 This is done by: gathering information on the diverse needs
of persons with disabilities during the assessment stage.
 Track 2: Supporting the specific needs of
vulnerable groups with disabilities to ensure
they have equal opportunities to participate
in society.
 This is done by strengthening referral to
both internal and external pathways and
ensuring that sector programs to provide
rehabilitation.
Implement Disability Inclusive Project/ Program
 Concerned with realizing equity, quality services and
protecting human rights, all sectorial strategies,
program, projects and services must be disability-
inclusive.
 The following tips will help to overcome the
challenges as a key considerations for including
persons with disabilities in all program and projects:
A. Education and vocational training
B. Health – vulnerable groups and persons with
disabilities(PWD) have the same health-care needs as all
other peoples
C. Relief and social services – the two-way link between
poverty and disability means that vulnerable group and
peoples with disabilities and their families need
D. Infrastructure and camp improvement, shelter,
water and sanitation and environmental health
– universal design concepts must be considered
E. Livelihoods, employment and microfinance
F. Protection – marginalized groups and people with disabilities
may face risks & vulnerabilities to experiencing violence,
exploitation, abuse, neglect and violation of rights & thus
need protection
G. Humanitarian and emergency response – the
disproportionate effect of emergency and humanitarian
situations on vulnerable groups and PWDs should be
reflected in the design & implementation of the humanitarian
projects.
3.15. Components of Rehabilitation Interventions
 Rehabilitation is a process designed to optimize function and
improve the quality of life of those with disabilities.
 It involves multiple participants, and it can take on many forms:
1. Multiple Discipline Professionals: Rehabilitation intervention usually
involve multiple disciplines and includes such professionals::
 Physicians
 Occupational Therapists
 Physical Therapists
 Speech and Language Therapist
 Audiologists
 Rehabilitation Nurses
 Social Workers
 Rehabilitation Counselors
 Experts in Orthotics and Prosthetics, etc.
3.16. Persons with the Disability and their Family:
 The person with the disability and his or her family members are
partners in this team process.
3.17. Community Based Rehabilitation
 It was originally designed for developing countries where
disability estimates were very high and the countries were
under severe economic constraints.
 It is defined as ―a strategy within general community
development for rehabilitation, equalization of opportunities
and social inclusion of all children and adults with
disabilities‖(WHO, ILO, UNICEF & UNESCO, 2004).
 This definition advocates a broad approach for developing
programs that involves the following elements:
A. The participation of people with disabilities and their
representatives at all stages of the development of the
program
B. The formulation and implementation of national policies to
support the equal participation of people with disabilities
C. The establishment of a system for program management
D. The multi-sectoral collaboration of governmental and
nongovernmental sectors to support communities as they
assume responsibility for the inclusion of their members
who experience disabilities.
E. CBR focuses on strengthening the capacity of peoples
with disabilities, and their families.
F. CBR focuses on challenging negative views and barriers in
society to enable equal rights and opportunities.
3.18. Major Objectives of Community Based Rehabilitation:
 to ensure that people with disabilities are empowered to
maximize their physical and mental abilities, have access to
regular services and opportunities and become active,
contributing members of their communities and their societies
CHAPTER 4: PROMOTING INCLUSIVE CULTURE
4.1. definition: an inclusive culture involves the full and
successful integration of diverse people into a workplace or
industry.
They encompass both formal and informal policies and
practices, and involve several core values: -
 Representation: The presence of people with disabilities
across a range of employee roles and leadership positions
 Receptivity: Respect for differences in working styles and
flexibility in tailoring positions to the strengths and abilities
of employees and –
 Fairness: Equitable access to all resources, opportunities,
networks and decision making processes
4.2. DIMENSIONS OF INCLUSIVE CULTURE
 There are three dimensions/ elements of an inclusive culture:
1. Universal Design
2. Recruitment, Training and Advancement Opportunities
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy &
Practice
1. Universal Design:-refers to the construction of structures, spaces,
services, communications and resources that are organically accessible
to a range of people with and without disabilities, without further need
for modification or accommodation.
This may include:
 Routinely providing manuals, materials and forms to all employees in a
variety of digital formats that are as readily accessible to people who use
adaptive computer technologies as to other employees.
 Building workspaces accessible to people who use wheelchairs or other
assistive devices, as well as to all other employees.
 Providing employees with a variety of flexible schedule and work options.
4.2. DIMENSIONS OF INCLUSIVE CULTURE(CONT’D)
 2. Recruitment, Training, & Advancement Opportunities
 A. Recruitment: Effective recruitment of people with disabilities
involves two components:
 1. Accessible outreach and hiring practices- outreach and hiring
resources generally should be equally accessible to workers with
and without disabilities
 2. Targeted recruitment of workers with disabilities- targeted
recruitment enables employers to reach and interview qualified
people with disabilities.
Training: Training plays a dual role in the creation of inclusive
workplace culture.
 First, it involves the degree to which people with disabilities have
equitable access to training sites, events, and materials.
 Second it relates to the training of middle management, and
human resources staff, to work effectively with all people,
including those with disabilities.
4.2. DIMENSIONS OF INCLUSIVE CULTURE(CONT’D)
C. Advancement: Research demonstrates that in order to have
equitable opportunities for promotion and professional
development, like most employees, workers with disabilities
typically require access to mentoring.
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy
& Practice
 Policy plays a critical role in generating meaningful inclusion
of people with disabilities. In addition to recruitment,
training and advancement, workplace policies need to
carefully plan for the provision of reasonable
accommodations.
4.3. Benefits of an inclusive organization
These are some of the benefits of an Inclusive
organization that needs to be considered: -
 Higher Job Satisfaction

 Lower Turnover.

 Higher Productivity

 Higher Employee Morale

 Improved Creativity and Innovation

 Improved Problem-Solving

 Increased Organizational Flexibility.

4.4. Inclusive community

What is an inclusive community? An inclusive community:

 Does everything that it can to respect all its citizens, gives
them full access to resources, and promotes equal treatment
and opportunity.
 Works to eliminate all forms of discrimination.

 Engages all its citizens in decision-making processes that

affect their lives.
 Values diversity and

 Responds quickly to racist and other discriminating

incidents.
4.4.1. Characteristics of an Inclusive Community
Inclusive communities do have the following set of characteristics:
 Integrative and cooperative: inclusive communities bring
people together and are places where people and organizations
work together.
 Interactive: inclusive communities have accessible community
spaces and open public places as well as groups and organizations
that support social interaction and community activity, including
celebrating community life.
 Invested: inclusive communities are places where both the public
and private sectors commit resources for the social and economic
health and well-being of the whole community.
 Diverse: inclusive communities welcome and incorporate diverse
people and cultures into the structures, processes and functions of
daily community life.
 Equitable: inclusive communities make sure that everyone has
the means to live in decent conditions (i.e. income supports,
employment, good housing) and the opportunity to develop one‘s
capacities and to participate actively in community life.
 4.4.1. Characteristics of an Inclusive Community(cont’d)
 Accessible and Sensitive: inclusive communities have an
array of readily available and accessible supports and
services for the social, health, and developmental needs of
their populations and provide such supports in culturally
sensitive and appropriate ways
 Participatory: inclusive communities encourage and
support the involvement of all their members in the planning
and decision-making that affects community conditions and
development, including having an effective voice with senior
levels of government
 Safe: inclusive communities ensure both individual and
broad community safety and security so that no one feels at
risk in their homes or moving around the neighborhood and
city.
4.5. HOW INCLUSIVE CULTURE ESTABLISH?
There are five stages in establishing inclusive culture:
1. Consider what you want to achieve and what the benefits
will be.
2. Undertake an inclusion review of your workplace
3. Decide where work is needed and create an action plan
4. Communicate the plan with staff and put the plan into
action.
5. Review, monitor and evaluate the plan’s impact and use
what you find to plan future action
4.6. TEN CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INCLUSIVE ORGANIZATION
 It accepts diversity and inclusion as a way of life
 It evaluates individual and group performance on the basis of
observable and measurable behaviors and competencies.
 It operates under transparent policies and procedures.

 It is consistent in its interactions with everyone

 It creates and maintains a learning culture.

 It has a comprehensive and easily accessible system of

conflict resolution at all levels
 It recognizes that it is part of the community that it serves.

 It lives its mission and core values.

 It values earned privilege over unearned privilege.

 It accepts and embraces change.

 4.7. INCLUSIVE VALUES
 Appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness,
participation, community, and sustainability are examples of
inclusive values that are fundamental for successful inclusive
education.
 Indigenous inclusive values and practices Indigenous ways of
knowing were often discounted and discredited as non-
scientific because they were rooted in the story of the people,
their language, culture, art, mythology and spirituality.
 It was important to recognize the right of indigenous peoples
to land, resources and sacred sites.
 Incorporating Indigenous ways of learning into educational
practices has potential to benefit both Indigenous and non-
Indigenous learners.
4.8. Inclusive Practices
 Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that
recognizes the diversity of students, enabling all students
to access course content, fully participate in learning
activities and demonstrate their knowledge and strengths
at assessment
 Inclusive practice is about the attitudes, approaches,
strategies, and talents to ensure that people are not
excluded or isolated.
 It means supporting diversity by accepting welcoming
people‘s differences, promoting equality by equal
opportunities for all.
Inclusive practices in education are based on six principles:
1. Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities;
2. all learners„ different learning styles and
achievements are equally valued, respected and
celebrated by society;
3. all learners are enabled to fulfill their potential by taking into
account individual requirements and needs;
4. support is guaranteed and fully resourced across the whole
learning experience;
5. all learners need friendship and support from people of their
own age; and
6. all children and young people are educated together as
equals in their local communities.
 Inclusive teaching strategies: refer to any number of teaching
approaches that address the needs of students with a variety of
backgrounds, learning modalities, and abilities.
 These strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning
environment in which students feel equally valued.
Benefits of Inclusive practices: The benefits of inclusive practices
are numerous for both students with and without disabilities. include:
 Friendships; increased social initiations, relationships and
networks;
 peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills;
 increased achievement of Individual Educational Plan goals;
greater access to general curriculum;
 enhanced skill acquisition and generalization;
 increased inclusion in future environments;
 greater opportunities for interactions;
 higher expectations;
 increased school staff collaboration;
 increased parent participation;
 and families are more integrated into community.
 CHAPTER 5
INCLUSION FOR PEACE, DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT
5.1. definition of Inclusive education
Inclusive education is at the heart of any strategy for peace- building,
democracy and development.
 It is through inclusive educational that values, skills and knowledge
which form the basis of respect for human rights and democratic
principles can be developed.
 It is through Inclusive education that the rejection of violence, and a
spirit of tolerance, understanding and mutual appreciation among
individuals, groups and nations can be enhanced.
5.2. Inclusion for Peace
 Peace is defined as creating mutual understanding, positive
relationship between individuals and groups. These groups may
include culturally, linguistically, economically and biologically
heterogeneous groups.
• Peace make the mind quiet and calm prevents anxieties, worries, stress
and fears, and awakens inner strength and confidence, develop freedom,
happiness, love, joy, justice and gratitude
Inclusive education is a foundation for inclusiveness in all
aspects of life. It creates equality and equity among divers
population.
 Diversity refers to in terms of language, religion,
socioeconomic status, culture and psychology.
 It is important to realize inclusive education to create a
society that is peaceful, democratize and developed.
Hence inclusive education is crucial for:
 Fostering education that promotes the values, attitudes and
behavior inherent in a culture of peace, including conflict
prevention and resolution, dialogue, consensusbuilding and
active non-violence;
 Promoting sustainable economic and social development by
targeting the eradication of poverty and social inequalities;
 Promoting respect for the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights at all levels;
 Promoting gender equality in economic, social and political
decision-making;
 Fostering democratic participation and citizenship and
supporting processes that promote and sustain
democracy;
 Advancing understanding, respect for cultural diversity,
and human solidarity by promoting a dialogue among
societies;
 Supporting participatory communication and the free flow
and sharing of information and knowledge in the
promotion of a culture of peace;
 Promoting international peace and security through action
such as the promotion of general and complete
disarmament
Sources of Conflict
 Spiritual sources of conflict
 Result of original ancestor‘s separation from God and negative
influence from evil spiritual forces
Individual sources of conflict
 Disunity within the individual and confusion of values
 Family sources of conflict
 Family dysfunctions affect succeeding generations.
 National/international sources of conflict
 National policies affect future generations and can lead to
conflict within or between nations.
How to Resolve Conflict
1.Agree on a mutually acceptable time and place to discuss the conflict
2.State the problem as you see it and list your concerns
3.Let the other person have his/her say
4.Listen and ask questions
5.Stick to one conflict at a time — to the issue at hand
6. Seek common ground
7. Seek for win-win approaches.
Sustaining Peace :Building of peace requires taking the
following steps:
 Fostering inclusion, ensuring access to justice,
strengthening the social fabric and delivering good
governance
 Reaffirm a commitment to human rights, the foundation
for human dignity and just societies.
 Foster social resilience by strengthening inclusion and
addressing inequality
 Think local and act global: recommit to multilateralism as a
safeguard for the most vulnerable
 National implementation alone will not suffice to achieve
the SDGs:
 Protect and support civil society in fostering sustainable
peace
Inclusion for Democracy
 Democracy is a great philosophy of inclusion that born and
grown in inclusive schools.
 It means the rule of the people, by the people, for the people;
and where ―people is to mean all human being, regardless
of the diversities.
 Democratic schools are an educational ideal in which
democracy is both a goal and a method of instruction.
 It brings democratic values to education and can include
self-determination within a community of equals, as well as
such values as justice, respect and trust of diversities.
 Schools are the ideal place to promote democracy. One of
the most important tasks of schools should be helping
students to realize the values of democracy.
. The democratic values include is to enhance
protected right, independent quality life for all, freedom,
pursuit of happiness, justice, the common good, truth,
respect and tolerance for diversity and partisanship.
 Democracy is one of the principles of inclusiveness in
the process of building inclusive society that begun in
schools.
 Inclusive education is based on the following
democratic principles:
 Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities;
 all persons with disabilities are different in their needs,
potentials, learning and working styles; their
achievements according to their potentials should be
equally valued, respected and celebrated by society; and
 all learners should be enabled to fulfill their potential by
taking into account individual requirements and needs.
Inclusion for Development
 Development is a positive growth or change in economical, social
and political aspects of a country.
 Any kind of development should be inclusive.
 Some scholars define inclusive development as a process that
occurs when social and material benefits are equitably distributed
across divides in society.
 Inclusive development also has an ―integral focus on the
achievement of equity and the rights of citizenship (Hickey, 2013).
 Inclusive development consists of ensuring that all marginalized
and excluded groups are stakeholders in development processes
regardless of their gender, ethnicity, age, religion, disability or
poverty.
 If there is no inclusiveness in all walks of life, development cannot
be sustainable.
 Inclusive and sustainable development is crucial to reduce poverty
in all its dimensions so that all members of the society are
benefitted.
 The goals of inclusiveness is to prevent social exclusion and creating
more social inclusion that aim at including all members of society in the
growth process.
 Social inclusion is an integral part of inclusive development
 Social inclusion enhances capabilities, broadens social ties of respect
and recognition, and at the collective level, enhances social bonds,
cohesion, integration and solidarity) among human race(UNDP, 2015).
Respecting divers needs, culture, values, demands and ideas
 These include race, ethnicity, age, ability, language, nationality,
socioeconomic status, gender, religion, or sexual orientation.
 Acceptance and respect, accommodation of beliefs, and ethnic, cultural
differences, gender equality, physical and mental disabilities, generation
gaps, and language and communication.
 Diversity may happen in the Workplace
Ethnicity (language and cultural differences)
Age and Generation differences
Gender and Gender Identity
Religious and Spiritual Beliefs
Disability and Ability
Socioeconomic Status and Background
Valuing Diversity: Recognizes differences between
people and acknowledges that these differences are a valued
asset. Multicultural education is an important component of
valuing diversity. It respects diversity while teaching all children
and youth to become effective and participating members of a
democracy.

 Marginalized group of people
 People may be marginalized on the basis of the social, gender,
cultural, ethnic, economic, social order, beliefs and other factors.
 Marginal groups can always be identified by members of dominant
society, and will face irrevocable discrimination.
 Marginalized groups exist nearly everywhere.
 They are people who, for whatever reason, are denied involvement
in mainstream economic, political, cultural and social activities.
Creating friendly environments for marginalized people
1. Tolerate for the differences opinions and attitudes
2. Seek out marginalized voices and perspectives and provide support
3. Confront your own racist thought and try to be inclusive of all the
differences
4. Use your privilege to support marginalized people‘s movements
5. Give your time and money, if possible for the success of inclusive
development
6. Be proactive about inclusion in your daily life
7. Avoid segregation
8. Do the work that help to promote inclusiveness
“I can’t change the direction of the wind,
but I can adjust my sails to always reach
my destination.”
–Jimmy Dean