NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY

302 Environment and Ecology

CHAPTER 27

Environment

Sources New NCERT Class-VI Chap 5 (Major domains of the Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Chap 1 (Environment),
New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 15 (Life on Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 13 (Organisms and populations),
New NCERT Class-XII Chap 14 (Ecosystem)

Environment Components of Environment

Environment is derived from French word Environer/ There are two components of environment :
Environner meaning ‘neighbourhood’. Environment is Abiotic Environment It is also known as
our basic life support system. It provides the air we physico-chemical factors. It includes all the physical
breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat and the and chemical aspects of an ecosystem. It is
land where we live. non-living parts of the environment that have
The place, people, things and nature that surround any influence on living organism.
living organism is called environment. It is a Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature, sunlight,
combination of natural and human-made phenomena. atmospheric humidity, soil conditions, inorganic
substances (carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium,
Types of Environment phosphorus, potassium, etc.). All the factors are
The various types of environment are as follows : interrelated to each other.
Natural Environment The non-human-made Biotic Environment It is known as the world of
surroundings and conditions in which all living and living organisms. They are producers, consumers
non-living organisms exist on Earth are referred to as and decomposers. Biotic factors include the
the ‘natural environment’. Water (Hydrosphere), Air producers, the consumers (primary, secondary,
(Atmosphere), Land (Lithosphere), Living things tertiary) and the decomposers.
(Biosphere) comprises natural environment. The producers include all the green plants, which
manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.
Man-Made Environment The surroundings created by
humans to provide facilities for satisfying human
requirements are referred to as a Human-made or
Parts of Environment
Man-made environment. Man-made environment is The various parts of environment are as follows :
comprised of buildings, parks, bridges, road, industries,
monuments etc.
Biosphere
The Biosphere (Bios means life) is the narrow zone
Social or Cultural Environment Humans interact with
where we find land, water and air together, which
their surroundings and adapt them to suit their needs.
contains all forms of life.
Adapting to their circumstances was a natural process
for early humans. Community, Religion, Educational, All the living organisms including humans are
Economic and Political situation constitute Social or linked to each other and to the biosphere for
Cultural environment. survival.
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The organisms in the biosphere may broadly be — Southern Ocean It comprises the Southernmost waters
divided into the plant kingdom and the animal of the world ocean. It is also known as Antarctic
kingdom Ocean.
Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a — The Arctic Ocean is located within the Arctic Circle
global ecosystem, as a composite of all local and surrounds the North Pole. It is connected with the
ecosystems on Earth. The annual net primary Pacific Ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water
productivity of the whole biosphere is known as Bering strait.
approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of
organic matter. Atmosphere
The Earth is surrounded by a layer of gas called the
Lithosphere atmosphere. This thin blanket of air is an integral and
The solid portion of the Earth on which we live is important aspect of the planet. The density of the
called the Lithosphere (Lithos means Stone). atmosphere varies with height.
It comprises the rocks of the Earth’s crust and the It is maximum at the sea level and decreases rapidly as
thin layers of soil that contain nutrient elements we go up. The temperature also decreases as we go
which sustain organisms. upwards. The atmosphere exerts pressure on the Earth.
This varies from place to place.
The Earth’s surface is divided into two sections.
Some areas experience high pressure and some areas
The continents are the massive landmasses and the
low pressure. Air moves from high pressure to low
ocean basins are the vast bodies of water.
pressure. Moving air is known as wind.
Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests, The atmosphere is divided into five layers based on
grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and composition, temperature and other properties. These
human settlements. It is also a source of mineral layers starting from Earth’s surface are called the
wealth. troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the
Hydrosphere thermosphere and the exosphere.
Water covers a very big area of the Earth’s surface Layers of Atmosphere
and this area is called the Hydrosphere. The The troposphere is the Earth’s atmosphere’s lowest
Hydrosphere comprises water in all its forms, i.e., layer. The troposphere contains the majority of the
ice, water and water vapour. More than 71% of the Troposphere atmosphere’s mass (about 75-80%).
Earth is covered with water. That is why it is called The troposphere is home to the majority of clouds
the Blue planet. and it is also where practically all weather happens.

Oceans are the major part of hydrosphere. They are The stratosphere is the second layer of the
all interconnected. The ocean waters are always Stratosphere atmosphere of the Earth.
moving. The three chief movements of ocean The stratosphere extends from the top of the
troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles) above the
waters are the waves, the tides and the ocean ground. The ozone layer is found within this layer.
currents.
The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere that
The five major oceans are Pacific Ocean, Atlantic surrounds the Earth. The mesosphere is located
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean and Arctic Mesosphere between the stratosphere and the thermosphere.
Ocean, in order of their size. It reaches a height of 50 to 85 kilometres (31 to 53
— The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean. It is miles) above our Earth. The temperature drops with
spread over one-third of the Earth. Mariana altitude in the mesosphere.
Trench, the deepest part of the Earth, lies in the The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth’s
Pacific Ocean. Thermosphere atmosphere that lies just above the mesosphere and
under the exosphere.
— The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest Ocean in
Because of the absorption of highly intense solar
the world. It is ‘S’ shaped. It is flanked by the radiation, the temperature of the atmosphere rises
North and South America on the Western side and with height.
Europe and Africa on the Eastern side.
The exosphere is the topmost part of the Earth’s
— The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named after a atmosphere, which progressively vanishes into
Exosphere
country, that is, India. The shape of ocean is space.
almost triangular. In the North, it is bound by The thermosphere is the layer directly beneath the
Asia, in the West by Africa and in the East by exosphere and the thermopause is the barrier
between the two.
Australia.
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Human Impact on Environment The indirect impacts are experienced after long
time.
The impact of human on environment can be broadly
Majority of the indirect impacts of human activities
divided into two categories :
on the environment are related to pollution and
Direct Impact environmental degradation.
Direct or Intentional impacts are preplanned and
premeditated because man is aware of the Impact of Environment on Human
consequences, both positive and negative of any The direct impact of climatic factor on different
programme which can change or modify natural races can be seen on the colour of skin, hair, nose,
environment for the economic development of the region cheeks, shape of head, etc.
concerned. Some of the human geographers established a close
Such changes include land use changes, construction, relationship with the weather conditions and
nuclear programmes etc. The direct impacts are crimes like suicide, rape and murder.
noticeable within short period and may continue to Some scholars have also attempted to measure the
affect the environment for long time. These effects are suitability of an environment of human activity, and
reversible. his comfort and discomfort.
Indirect Impact For example, the people of central Asia region
The indirect impacts of man ,on the environment are not depend on livestock, the people of Kalahari and
premeditated and planned. e.g. activities which are Congo basin depend on hunting and conventional
directed to accelerate the pace of economic growth agriculture, and the people of polar region depend
especially industrial development. on hunting and other activities for their subsistence.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 28 305

Ecology, Ecosystem
and Biome

Sources New & Old NCERT Class-VI Chap 5 (Major Domains of the Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Chap 1 (Environment),
New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 15 (Life on Earth), New NCERT Class-XI Biology Chap 13 (Organisms and populations),
New NCERT Class-XII Chap 14 (Ecosystem)

Biotic Factors These are derived from the interactions

Ecology between different species of living organisms
The term ecology is derived from the Greek word (intra-specific as well as inter-specific).
‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined with the word
‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of ’ or ‘the study of ’. Laws of Ecology
In 1866, the ecology was first used by the German Barry Commoner has given some ecological laws which
Zoologist Ernst Haeckel, in his book General are followed by the environment and its functioning.
Morphology of Organism. These laws are as follows :
Ecology is the study of the Earth as a ‘household’, of First Law of Ecology “Everything is connected
plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms. (directly or indirectly) to everything else, we are all in
They all live together as interdependent components. it together.” It means that every component of
It is a study of interactions between life forms (biotic) ecological system is interrelated with each other.
and the physical environment (abiotic). Second Law of Ecology “Everything must go
somewhere”. This law means that in nature, there is
Ecological Factors no such thing as waste. Everything can be used for
The living organisms are influenced by a large number of various purposes. e.g. animals release carbon dioxide
environmental factors. These environmental factors are as a respiratory waste; this is an essential nutrient for
known as ecological factors or eco factors. These factors green plants.
may be biotic (living) or abiotic (non-living). Third Law of Ecology “There is no such thing as a
The ecological factors are broadly divided into four parts: free lunch.” This law states that everything in the
Climatic Factors These include light, temperature, ecological system (ecosystem) has some cost and
rainfall, wind, humidity and pH. A variation in one or their payment cannot be avoided, it can only be
more of these factors affects the distribution and delayed.
lifestyle of organisms. Fourth Law of Ecology “Nature knows best.” It means
Topographic Factors These include altitude, slope that any major man-made change in a natural system
and direction of mountain, exposure and valley. is likely to be detrimental to that system. The ecosystem
do evolve with time and in this process, the ecosystem
Edaphic Factors These include structure, formation moulds itself to function in a best possible manner.
and characteristics of different types of soils.
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Levels of Organisation in Ecology Ecosystem

The concept of levels of organisation are It is a system formed by the interaction of all living
visualised as an ecological spectrum and as organisms with the physical and chemical factors of the
extended ecological hierarchy. Hierarchy means environment in which they live.
“an arrangement into a graded series”. Interaction All plants, animals and human beings are dependent on
with the physical environment (energy and their immediate surroundings. Often, they are also
matter) at each level produces characteristic interdependent on each other. This relation between the
functional systems. living organisms, as well as the relation between
The various levels of organisms are discussed the organisms and their surroundings form an ecosystem.
below : There is an ecosystem of large rain forest, grassland, desert,
Organism or Individual mountains, lake, river, ocean and even a small pond.
It is a group of genetically linked individuals that
can breed to generate fruitful offspring. Ecology
Components of Ecosystem
tries to understand how different organisms are The components of ecosystems can be grouped into two
adapted to their environment in terms of survival categories: Biotic and Abiotic.
and reproduction. Components of Ecosystem
Individuals are not considered members of the
same species if they are unable to generate Biotic Component Abiotic Component
offspring capable of having children.
The distinct role and position of and urganism in
its environment is called its niche. By this, each Decomposers

organism tolerate Various conditions, utilises

various resources etc.

Habitat
n A habitat is an ecological or environmental area
that is inhabited by a particular species of animal,
plant, or other organisms.There are four important
habitats found on the Earth–land, freshwater,
estuary and ocean.
Biotic Component
n The population in a habitat refers to the number of Biotic component can be further divided into Producers,
plants and animals living in that habitat. In present Consumers and Decomposers.
time, there is loss of biodiversity due to the loss of — The producers include all the green plants, which
habitat of plants and animals, which is caused due manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.
to anthropogenic factors. Hence, in order to protect
— The primary consumers include herbivorous animals
the biodiversity and ecosystem, the habitat must be
like deer, goats, mice and all plant-eating animals. The
protected.
carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals like
snakes, tigers and lions.
Population — Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for
Population consists of all organisms of plants and example, scavengers like vultures and crows) and
species inhabiting in a given area. For example, further breaking down of the dead matter by other
all individuals of tiger and lion in an area decomposing agents like bacteria and various
constitute their population. microorganisms.
Community The producers are consumed by the primary consumers
whereas the primary consumers are, in turn, being eaten
Interdependence and interactions among
by the secondary consumers. The secondary consumers
populations of different species in a habitat lead to
are consumed by the tertiary consumers.
community organisation. This is a collection of
plant, animal, bacterial and fungal populations The decomposers feed on the dead at each and every
that reside in a certain area and interact with one level. They change them into various substances such as
another. nutrients, organic and inorganic salts essential for soil
fertility.
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Abiotic Components — Tropical Deciduous Forests These are normally

These are the non-living components, e.g., air, water, found in the regions of monsoon climate. The
soil, suspended particulate matter, etc. diversity of flora is far less in tropical deciduous
forest than the tropical evergreen rainforest. Sal and
Abiotic components of an ecosystem include :
teak are very common trees. These forests represent
— Inorganic substances Carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
the largest number of domesticated mammals.
oxygen, water and elements involved in material
— Temperate Deciduous Forest share close
cycles.
resemblance with Taiga forests and are found in
— Organic chemicals Protein, carbohydrates, lipid etc.
areas with a milder, shorter winter season. In
— Climate factors Light, temperature, pressure, addition to evergreens, trees in the temperate forest
humidity, etc. include maple, elm, oak, cedar and other trees,
which shed their leaves in the fall.
Types of Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem
Ecosystems are of two major types i.e., Terrestrial and
Aquatic. Grasslands are unaltered areas of land, where grass is
Ecosystem the dominant plant life, as opposed to other
terrestrial ecosystems, where trees are predominant
vegetation.
Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem Grasslands are located in both tropical and temperate
regions of the world. Grasslands are classified into
two main categories:
— Temperate Grassland Major temperate grasslands
include velds of Africa, Pampas of South America,
steppes of Eurasia and Prairies of North America.
Prairies are generally humid and are densely
Terrestrial Ecosystem covered with tall grasses. Steppe grasses are
generally shorter than prairie grassland.
Terrestrial ecosystem can be found anywhere apart
— Tropical Grassland These grasslands are located
from heavily saturated places.
near the equator, between the tropics. They cover
These are broadly classified into forest ecosystem, much of Africa as well as large areas of Australia,
grassland ecosystem and desert ecosystem.
South America and India. Tropical grasslands are
Forest Ecosystem dominated by grasses, often 3 to 6 feet tall at
Forests represent the largest and most ecologically maturity. Tropical savanna are most ecologically
complex ecosystem. These are home to a large variety diverse grassland. Savanna plant life is highly
of trees, plants, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, adapted to the hot and dry climate.
invertebrates, insects and microorganisms which vary Desert Ecosystem
depending on the zone’s climate.
This ecosystem covers around one-fifth of the Earth’s
The density of living organism in forest ecosystem is surface and are found in areas of water deficit, Flora
very high. Forest ecosystems are further divided into and Fauna are scarce and poorly developed due to
the following categories: high temperature, low water availability and intense
— Tropical Rainforest They are one of the most sunlight.
ecologically rich of the world’s forests. These forests The vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, grasses and
are vertically layered with dense vegetation growth. rare trees. Plants have modified stems and leaves to
Each layer is shelter to different types of animals. conserve water. This ecosystem is divided into two
Broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant. Animal types:
diversity is also higher than in any other terrestrial — Hot Desert These are caused by dry air and low
biome. precipitation due to presence in sub-tropical high
— Boreal or Taiga Forests Cold regions with high pressure cell. A few of the sub-tropical deserts like
rainfall, strong seasonal climate with long winters Atacama, Arizona, Great Victoria are along the sea
and short summers are home to boreal coniferous coast and are influenced by desiccating effect of the
forest. These forests are dominated by cone-bearing cold offshore ocean currents.
trees such as pine, spruce, fir and hemlock.
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— Cold Desert Cold deserts have hot summers but It ranges from sub-zero levels in polar areas and high
extremely cold winters. These deserts are found in altitudes to >50° C in tropical deserts in summer.
high, flat areas called plateaus, mountainous areas
Water
in temperate region of the world. The combined
effect of interior location and rain-shadow It is another the most important factor influencing the
positioning produces the cold deserts of the Great life of organisms.
Basin of Western-North America, Patagonia, Ladakh, The productivity and distribution of plants is also
Central Asia, Gobi and North-Western China. heavily dependent on water. For aquatic organisms
the quality (chemical composition, pH) of water
Aquatic Ecosystem becomes important.
Ecosystem consisting of water as the main habitat are The salt concentration is less than 5 in inland waters,
known as aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystem is 30-35 in the sea and > 100 in some hypersaline
broadly divided into following types: lagoons.
Marine Ecosystem Sunlight
Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems Since, plants produce food through photosynthesis, a
covering around 71% of the Earth’s surface. process which is only possible when sunlight is
This ecosystem consists of oceanic, inter-tidal zones available as a source of energy.
and also estuaries, coral reefs and salt marshes. Many species of small plants (herbs and shrubs)
growing in forests are adapted to photosynthesise
Lakes Ecosystem
optimally under very low light conditions as they are
Lakes are bodies of non-marine standing water overshadowed by tall trees.
connected by water flow and aerial inputs to their
surrounding landscapes. While it can exist for Soil
centuries, other inland bodies of water such as ponds The nature and properties of soil in different places
tend to dry up fairly quicker. vary; it is dependent on the climate, the weathering
Lakes and ponds like the oceans, are divided into process, whether soil is transported or sedimentary
separate zones, which are defined by their distance and how soil development occurred.
from the shore. The lake sediment plays an important Various characteristics of the soil such as soil
role as habitat for rooted plants and animals. composition, grain size and aggregation determine the
percolation and water holding capacity of the soils.
Wetland Ecosystem
These characteristics along with parameters such as
Other areas of still waters or wetlands, such as glades
pH, Mineral composition and topography determine a
and marshes support a large variety of aquatic flora
large extent the vegetation in any area. This in turn
and fauna.
dictates the type of animals that can be supported.
Aside from plants such as sedges and pond lilies, the
wetlands also support a few types of trees, such as Functioning of Ecosystem
cypress, which are highly adapted to the high
The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as
humidity of these regions.
a unit when considering the following aspects:
The wetlands are rich in life forms, from reptiles to
mammals, to amphibians and birds, to hundreds of Productivity
insects. A constant input of solar energy is the basic
requirement for any ecosystem to function and
Factors Affecting Ecosystem sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount
The various factors affecting ecosystem are temperature, of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area
water, sunlight, soil etc. over a time period by plants during photosynthesis.
Temperature It is expressed in terms of weight (gm −2) or energy
(kcal m −2). The rate of biomass production is called
It is the most important ecologically relevant
productivity.
environmental factor.
Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the
The average temperature on land varies seasonally,
rate of production of organic matter during
decreases progressively from the equator towards the
photosynthesis.
poles and from plains to the mountain tops.
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Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses

(R), is the Net Primary Productivity (NPP).
Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of
formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Decomposition
Decomposers break down complex organic matter Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water
and nutrients and the process is called
decomposition. Nutrient Cycle
Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and The nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems,
dead remain of animals, including faecal matter, rather they are recycled time and again indefinitely.
constitute detritus, which is the raw material for The movement of nutrient elements through the
decomposition. various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient
The important steps in the process of decomposition cycle.
are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical
humification and mineralisation. cycles (Bio: living organism, Geo: rocks, air, water).
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring Nutrient cycles are of two types i.e., gaseous and
process. The rate of decomposition is controlled by sedimentary.
chemical composition of detritus and climatic The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g.,
factors. nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the atmosphere and for
the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and phosphorus
Energy Flow cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust.
The Sun is the source of all our energy. It is a Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH,
continuously exploding hydrogen bomb, where temperature, etc. regulate the rate of release of
hydrogen is converted to helium with the release of nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of the
energy. reservoir is to meet with the deficit which occurs due to
There are laws of thermodynamics governing the imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
relationships between different forms of energy.
These are as follows: Ecological Pyramids
— First Law of Thermodynamics Energy can be Ecological Pyramid refers to relationship between
changed from one form to another, but it can't be organisms at different trophic levels. This, relationship
destroyed or created. The total amount of energy is expressed in terms of number, biomass or energy.
and matter in the universe remains constant, The base of each pyramid represents the producers or
energy is always conserved. The energy of an the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary
isolated system (environment) is constant. This is or top level consumer. The three types of ecological
also known an the Law of Conservation of Energy. pyramids that are usually studied as follows :
— Second Law of Thermodynamics It states that "In
Pyramid of Biomass
all energy exchange, if no energy enters or leaves
the system, the potential energy of the state will Biomass is renewable organic (living) material.
A pyramid of biomass is a representation of the amount
always be less than that of the initial state.” It is
of energy contained in biomass, at different trophic
also referred to as entropy.
levels for a particular time.
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem It is measured in grams per square metre or calories per
The flow of energy from one trophic level to another square metre. This demonstrates that the amount of
within an ecosystem is called energy flow. It flows matter lost between trophic levels.
from producers to subsequent tropic level and is There are two types of biomass pyramids i.e., upright
unidirectional in nature. and inverted.
Energy decreases from the first trophic level — An upright pyramid is one where the combined
upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat at weight of producers is larger than the combined
each trophic level. weight of consumers, e.g. forest ecosystem.
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— An inverted pyramid is one where the combined — An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the
weight of producers is smaller than the combined number of organisms depending on the lower levels
weight of consumers, e.g., an aquatic ecosystem. grows going towards the apex, e.g., a parasitic food
chain.

ber
um
in N
ase
cre
De
Inverted Pyramid of Number Upright Pyramid of Number

Inverted Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy

The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of
energy consumed at each trophic level. An energy
pyramid is always upright as the energy available for
utilisation in the above levels is less than the energy
available in the lower levels.
This happens because during energy transfer from
lower to higher levels, some energy is always lost.
Energy is also lost at every level in the form of heat,
respiration, etc.

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

Pyramid of Numbers
The pyramid of numbers represents the number of
organisms at each trophic level. This pyramid deals
with the relationships between the number of primary
consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers Pyramid of Energy
and so forth.
Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three Limitations of Ecological Pyramids
types of pyramids of numbers.
It does not take into account the same species
— An aquatic ecosystem and grassland ecosystem are
belonging to two or more trophic levels. It assumes a
an example of upright pyramid where the number simple food chain, something that almost never exists
of organisms becomes fewer and fewer higher up in in nature.
the pyramid.
It does not accommodate a food web. Moreover,
— A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially
saprophytes are not given any place in ecological
upright pyramid, as fewer producers support more
pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
primary consumers, but there are less secondary and
tertiary consumers. ecosystem.
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Trophic Level Man Trophic Level 4

The trophic level of an organism is the position
it occupies in a food chain. It is a point where
food energy is transferred from one group of
organisms to the other group. The chain of Carnivores
transfer of food energy from one group of Trophic Level 3

So
organisms to other group is called food chain.

lar
En
Trophic Level 1 Herbivores

erg
The base of the food chain is formed by

y
autotrophic primary producer organisms Trophic Level 2
which include green plants. Autotroph
Carbon
Trophic
This base of the food chain is called dioxide
Level 1
Trophic level 1 when green plants produce
their food through the process of
photosynthesis with the help of sunlight, Groundwater Nutritional
Element Decomposer
water, CO 2 and inorganic salts.
Green-yellow bacteria, Blue-green algae Trophic Level
and phytoplankton are included under this.
Trophic Level 2 Food Chain
The organisms, who do not produce their Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together. The sequence of
food themselves but depend on primary eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from
producers for their food, are included in one level to another is known as the food chain.
Trophic level 2.
For example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a paddy stalk is
These organisms are animals and are called eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, eaten by a snake, which is then
primary consumers. They are basically consumed by a hawk.
grazers like sheep, cows, rabbits, goats,
Transfer of energy that occurs during the process of a food chain
deer, etc.
from one level to another is known as flow of energy.
Trophic Level 3
The animals, who depend on animals, Types of Food Chain
mainly herbivorous animals, for their food, There are two types of Food chain: Grazing food chain and Detritus
are included in this trophic level. food chain :
These animals are called carnivores and Grazing Food Chain
secondary consumers because they depend
In a grazing food chain, the first level starts with plants as
on the primary consumer animals of
producers and ends with carnivores as consumers at the
herbivorous group of Trophic level 2.
last level, with the herbivores being at the intermediate
Trophic Level 4 level.
Those animals are included in this trophic There is a loss of energy at each level which may be through
level which take their food either directly or respiration, excretion or decomposition. The levels involved in a
indirectly from all the three lower trophic food-chain range between three to five and energy is lost at each
levels. level.
Man is the most important member of this The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is
trophic level because he derives food and restricted as the transfer of energy follows 10% law – only 10%
fuel from the given plants, commodities of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower
from second and third trophic levels. Such trophic level.
animals are called omnivores.
Decomposers also derive their energy from (Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary Consumer)
all the trophic levels.
Grasing Food Chain
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Detritus Food Chain compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic acids,
The Detritus Food Chain (DFC) begins with dead proteins, vitamins and pigments.
organic matter. It is made up of decomposers which Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed.
are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and 90% of fixed nitrogen is biological. Nitrogen can also be
bacteria. fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and cosmic
They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by radiation. In the oceans, some marine animals can
degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are fix it.
also known as saprotrophs (sapro means: to After atmospheric nitrogen has been fixed into an
decompose). available form, green plants can assimilate it.
Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that Herbivorous animals feeding on plants, in turn,
breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, consume some of it. Dead plants and animals,
inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed excretion of nitrogenous wastes is converted into
by them. nitrites by the action of bacteria present in the soil.
Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates
Food Web that can be used again by green plants. There are still
other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates
Food chains are not isolated from one another, into free nitrogen, a process known as
rather they get interlocked with one another. This denitrification.
interconnecting network of species is known as
Food web. Carbon Cycle
Food web provides more chances of survival to species Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living
as compared to food chain because more food organisms. It forms the basic constituent of all the
alternatives are available. A food web represents a organic compounds.
more holistic view of energy transfer in the ecosystem The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon
compared to food chain. dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the fixation of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through
Ecological Niche photosynthesis.
The term ‘niche’ is used in ecology to define the role Such conversion results in the production of
that an organism plays in a group. The physical and carbohydrate, glucose that may be converted to other
environmental characteristics of a species and its organic compounds such as sucrose, starch, cellulose,
interactions (like predation or competition) with other etc.
species make up a species’ niche. During this process, more carbon dioxide is generated
Ecological niche is a very basic and fundamental and is released through its leaves or roots during
ecological term that encompasses all interactions the day. The remaining carbohydrates not being
between a species and its biotic and abiotic utilised by the plant become part of the plant tissue.
environment. Plant tissues are either being eaten by the
herbivorous animals or get decomposed by the micro
Biogeochemical Cycles organisms. The herbivores convert some of the
consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for
The transfer of nutrients and other elements between release into the air through respiration.
biotic and abiotic forces is referred to as
The microorganisms decompose the remaining
biogeochemical cycles. Bio refers to living organisms
carbohydrates after the animal dies. The carbohydrates
and geo to rocks, soil, air and water of the Earth.
that are decomposed by the microorganisms then get
There are two types of biogeochemical cycles : oxidised into carbon dioxide and are returned to the
the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle. atmosphere.

Gaseous Cycles Oxygen Cycle

It is classified into four types. These are as follows: Oxygen is the main by-product of photosynthesis. It is
involved in the oxidation of carbohydrates with the
Nitrogen Cycle release of energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Nitrogen is a major constituent of the atmosphere The cycling of oxygen is a highly complex process.
comprising about 78% of the atmospheric gases. Oxygen occurs in a number of chemical forms and
It is also an essential constituent of different organic combinations.
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It combines with nitrogen to form nitrates and with many Except for two of its constituents, hydrogen sulphide
other minerals and elements to form various oxides (H 2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2), which add a gaseous
such as the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others. component to the sulphur cycle’s usual sedimentary
Much of oxygen is produced from the decomposition cycle, the sulphur cycle is primarily sedimentary.
of water molecules by sunlight during photosynthesis
and is released in the atmosphere through Bioindicators
transpiration and respiration processes of plants.
Bioindicators are biological processes, species or
Water Cycle groups that are used to monitor environmental quality
All living organisms, the atmosphere and the and how it changes over time.
lithosphere maintain between them circulation of Because of their moderate tolerance to environmental
water in solid, liquid or gaseous form referred to as variability, bioindicator species effectively indicate
the water or hydrologic cycle. the state of the ecosystem.
It also refers to the continuous exchange of water
between the oceans, atmosphere, land surface and Ecological Succession
subsurface and the organisms. All communities have one thing in common: their
makeup and structure are always changing in
Sedimentary Cycles response to changing environmental conditions.
Sedimentary cycle refers to circulation of minerals This change is orderly and sequential, parallel with
like phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. the changes in the physical environment.
These elements normally do not cycle through the These changes lead finally to a community that is in
atmosphere, but follow a basic pattern of flow through near equilibrium with the environment and that is
erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic called a climax community.
activity and biological transport through the excreta of The gradual and fairly predictable change in the
marine birds. species composition of a given area is called
Phosphorus and sulphur cycles are discussed below : ecological succession.
Phosphorus Cycle The entire sequence of communities that successively
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological change in a given area are called sere(s). The
individual transitional communities are termed seral
membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy transfer
stages or seral communities.
systems. Many animals also need large quantities of
this element to make shells, bones and teeth. In the successive seral stages, there is a change in the
diversity of species of organisms, increase in the
The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which
number of species and organisms as well as an
contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates. When
increase in the total biomass.
rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these
phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed
Types of Ecological Succession
by the roots of the plants.
Succession is a process that starts in an area where no
Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from
living organisms are there – these could be areas
plants. The waste products and the dead organisms
where no living organisms ever existed or in areas
are decomposed by phosphate-soluble bacteria that
that somehow, lost all the living organisms that
release phosphorus.
existed there.
Sulphur Cycle The former is called primary succession, while the
Sulphur is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and latter is termed secondary succession.
inorganic (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) deposits in
Primary Succession
the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur
in the soil and sediments. Primary succession occurs on newly cooled lava, bare
rock, newly created pond or reservoir. The
It is delivered to terrestrial and aquatic habitats in salt
establishment of a new biotic community is generally
solution by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and
slow.
decomposition of organic materials.
Before a biotic community of diverse organisms can
Sulphur enters the atmosphere from a variety of
become established, there must be soil.
sources, including volcanic eruptions, fossil fuel
combustion, ocean surface emissions and In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the
decomposition gases. small phytoplankton’s, which are replaced with time
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
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by rooted-submerged plants, rooted-floating Stages of Succession

angiosperms followed by free-floating plants, then
reed-swamp, marsh-meadow, scrub and finally the Nudation This is the development of a bare area
trees. without any form of life. The cause of nudation may be:
— Topographic (gravity, water, mine)
Secondary Succession — Climatic (glaciers, hailstorm, frost, fire)
Secondary succession begins in areas where natural — Biotic (man, fungi, viruses).
biotic communities have been destroyed such as in
Invasion This is the successful establishment of a
abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands
species in a bare area. This whole process is completed
that have been flooded.
in following stages:
In secondary succession, the species that invade
— Migration dispersal Seeds, spores, propagules of a
depend on the condition of the soil, availability of
species reach the bar area due to migration.
water, the environment etc. Since, soil is already there,
the rate of succession is much faster and hence, — Ecesis Ecesis is the process of successful
climax is also reached more quickly. establishment of a speices in the bare area.
— Aggregation After ecesis the individuals of a species
Succession of Plants increase their number and they stay close to each
Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water other. this process is called aggregation.
(or very wet areas) or it is on very dry areas- Competition and Coactions Different species in a
succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch, limited area compete for space, light, nutrition, etc.
respectively. Individuals of a species affect each other’s life in
— Hydrarch succession takes place in wet areas and various ways which is termed as coactions.
the successional series progress from hydric to the Reaction It is the modification of the environment
mesic conditions. through the influences of living organisms. It creates
— As against this, xerarch succession takes place in the favourable environment for a new species.
dry areas and the series progress from xeric to Stabilisation (Climax) Finally, there occurs a stage in
mesic conditions. process, when the final terminal community becomes
Both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to more or less stabilised for a longer period of time.
medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry It can maintain itself in equilibrium with the climate of
(xeric) nor too wet (hydric). the area and is known as climax community. This
community can maintain its equlibrium with the
The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer
climate of the area.
species. In primary succession on rocks these are
usually lichens which are able to secrete acids to
dissolve rock, helping in weathering and soil Ecological Adaptation
formation. n Charles Darwin first used adaptation in 1859 to
describe how an organism adapts and changes to
Factors of Ecological Succession become better suited to living in its habitat and
The factors responsible for ecological succession are as environment. An adaptation is a mutation or genetic
change that helps an organism, such as a plant or
follows :
animal to survive in its environment.
Climatic Factors Both macro and micro climate are n Due to the helpful nature of the mutation, it is passed
responsible for ecological succession. down from one generation to the next. As more and
Biotic Factors Plants and animals are included in this more organisms inherit the mutation, the mutation
factor. becomes a typical part of the species.
Physical Factors Factors like slope and stucture are
n The mutation has become an adaptation in
environment. Mutation is the ability of a species to
also important determinants of succession.
survive in a particular ecological niche, especially
Soil Factor It includes soil composition and soil because of alterations of form or behaviour brought
structure. about through natural selection.
NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
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Biomes
A biome can be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific conditions.
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity and soil conditions. A biome is a plant and animal community that
covers a large geographical area. The boundaries of different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.
Some of the major biomes of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and tundra biomes.

Types of Biomes
Biomes Subtypes Regions Climatic Characteristics Soil Flora and Fauna
Forest A Tropical
1. Equatorial A1 10° N.S A1. Temp. 20-25°C, A1. Acidic, A1. Multi-layered canopy tall and large
evenly distributed poor in nutrients trees
2. Deciduous A2 10°-25° N-S A2. Temp. 25-30°C, A2. Rich in A2. Less dense, trees of medium height;
Rainfall, ave. ann. nutrients many varieties coexist. Insects, bats,
1,000mm, seasonal birds and mammals are common
species in both.
B. Temperate B. Eastern-North B. Temp. 20-30° C, B. Fertile, B. Moderately dense broad leaved trees
America. North- Rainfall evenly enriched With less diversity of plant species.
East Asia. Western distributed 750- 1,500mm, with Oak, Beach, Maple etc. are some
and Central Europe Well-defined seasons and decaying common species. Squirrels, rabbits,
distinct winter. litter skunks, birds, black bears,
mountain lions etc.
C. Boreal C. Broad belt of C. Short moist moderately C. Acidic and C. Evergreen conifers like pine, fur and
Eurasia and North warm summers and long poor in spruce etc. Wood peckers, hawks,
America (parts of cold dry winter; very low nutrients, bears, wolves, deer, hares and bats are
Siberia, Alaska, temperatures. thin soil common animals
Canada and Precipitation mostly cover
Scandinavia) snowfall 400 -1,000mm
Desert A. Hot and A. Sahara, Kalahari, A. Temp. 20 - 45°C. Rich in nutrients A-C. Scanty vegetation; few large
Dry desert Marusthali, with little or no mammals, insects, reptiles and birds.
Rub-el-Khali organic matter
B. Semi arid B. Marginal areas of B. 21 - 38°C. – –
desert hot deserts
C. Coastal C. Atacama C. 15 - 35°C. – –
desert
D. Cold desert D. Tundra climatic D. 2 - 25°C, A-D Rainfall is – D. Rabbits, rats, antelopes and ground
regions less than 50 mm squirrels.
Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas of A. Warm hot climates, A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees and large shrubs
Savannah Africa, Australia, Rainfall 500-1,250mm thin layer of absent; giraffes zebras, buffalos,
South America and humus leopards, hyenas, elephants, mice,
India moles, snakes and worms etc.
are common animals.
B. Temperate B. Parts of Eurasia B. Hot summers and cold B. Thin B. Grasses; occasional trees such as
Steppe and North America winter flocculated soil, cottonwoods, oaks and willows;
Rainfall 500-900 mm rich in bases gazelles, zebras, rhinoceros, wild
horses, lions, varieties of birds, worms,
snakes etc are common animals.
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, Algae and other aquatic and marine
rivers and wetlands widely with cooler air swamps and plant communities with varieties of
temperatures and high marshes water dwelling animals.
humidity
B. Marine B. Oceans, coral – B.Water, tidal –
reefs, lagoons and swamps and
estuaries marshes

Altitudinal — Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra

mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude.
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
Rockies
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Inter-Species Interactions
Interspecific interactions arise from the interaction of populations of two different species. They could be
beneficial, detrimental or neutral (neither harm nor benefit) to one of the species or both.
‘+’ sign for beneficial interaction, ‘-’ sign for detrimental and 0 for neutral interaction.
Species A Species B Name of Interaction Explanation
+ + Mutualism This interaction confers benefits on both the interacting species.
For example, Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus
and photosynthesising algae or cyanobacteria.
− − Competition Competition occurs when closely related species as well as totally unrelated species
compete for the same resources that are limiting.
For example, Plants which are in compete for nitrogen in roots.
+ − Predation It occurs when an individual from one species kills another individual of another species
at once to feed on it.
For example, carnivores’ interaction.
+ − Parasitism It takes place when a species obtains the benefit from another species provoking a
gradual damage that does not cause the immediate cause of the victim.
For example, Pig around worm.
+ 0 Commensalism This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor
benefited.
For example, an orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch and barnacles
growing on the back of a whale benefit while neither the mango tree nor the whale
derives any apparent benefit.
− 0 Amensalism In Amensalism one species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected.
For example, Grazing cattle and insects. When cattle graze in grass, the insects are
consumed by birds while cattle remain unaffected.
 INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 29 317

Biodiversity

Sources Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 1 (Resources), Class-VIII New NCERT Chap 2 (Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and
Wildlife Resources), Class-X New NCERT Chap 1 (New Resources and Development), Class-XI New NCERT
Chap 5 (Forest and Wildlife Resources), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Biodiverisity and Conservation),
Class-XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Natural Vegetation), Class-XI New NCERT Chap 16 (Biodiversity and
Conservation (Biology)), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 16 (Planning and Sustainable Development in India)

Human beings genetically belong to the Homo sapiens

Meaning of Biodiversity group and also differ in their characteristics such as
Biodiversity is a combination of two words, ‘Bio’ height, colour, physical appearance. This is due to
(life) and ‘diversity’ (variety). Biodiversity is the genetic diversity. This genetic diversity is essential for a
number and variety of organisms found within a healthy breeding of population of species.
specified geographic region.
Species Biodiversity
It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and
microorganisms, the genes they contain and the Species biodiversity refers to the variety of species.
ecosystems they form. It relates to the number of species in a defined area.
It relates to the variability among living organisms The diversity of species can be measured through its
on the Earth, including the variability within and richness, abundance and types. Some areas are richer in
between the species and that within and between species than others. Areas rich in species diversity are
the ecosystems. called hotspots of diversity. For example, the Western
Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than
The term biodiversity was first used by Edward O
the Eastern Ghats.
Wilson in 1985.
The age of the Earth is estimated 10-40 lakh years. Ecosystem Biodiversity
It is also hypothesised that 99% of the species on the The biodiversity of ecosystem refers to the variety of
Earth have become extinct. ecosystems, both in terms of nature and number, in
Biodiversity on the Earth is not same everywhere. which living organisms interact with their environment
In tropical regions, a large number of species and with one another.
biodiversity is found. At the ecosystem level, India, with its deserts, rain
forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries and
Types of Biodiversity alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a
Biodiversity can be classified at three levels : Scandinavian country like Norway.

Genetic Biodiversity Measurement of Biodiversity

Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes Biodiversity can be measured by alpha, beta and gamma
within species. Genes are the basic building blocks biodiversity.
of various life forms. Groups of individual
Alpha Diversity (α-diversity) It is defined as the mean
organisms having certain similarities in their
diversity of species in different sites or habitats within a
physical characteristics are called species.
local scale.
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318

Beta Diversity (β-diversity) It is a comparison of It is immorally to cause the extinction of any species.
diversity ecosystems, usually measured as the The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of the state
change in number of species in the ecosystem. of our relationships with other living species.
Gamma Diversity (γ-diversity) It is a measure of
total species diversity in a landscape. Attributes of Biodiversity
There are three attributes of Biodiversity for assessing the
Importance of Biodiversity characteristics of any region:
Biodiversity has aided the development of human Composition It is the diversity and uniqueness of an
culture in numerous ways and human communities. ecological system. Composition descriptors are often
Biodiversity plays the following roles: lists of species residents in an area or ecosystem and
ecological, economic and scientific. composition metrics include species richness and
Ecological Role of Biodiversity diversity.
Many different species contribute to the Structure Ecosystem structure is a network of
functioning of an ecosystem in one way or another. interactions between biotic and abiotic components of
Nothing in an ecosystem evolves or persists for no the system. It is a physical pattern of system, from
reason. In addition to extracting its own needs, habitat complexity as measured within communities to
each organism gives something beneficial to other the pattern of habitats and other elements at a
organisms. landscape level.
Species capture and store energy, produce and Functions The quantity of various organisms and their
decompose organic materials, aid in the circulation relative frequencies in an ecosystem are all part of
of water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, biodiversity. It also reflects the organisational structure
fix atmospheric gases and help to regulate the of organisms at various levels.
climate. Biodiversity is important for both ecological and economic
The more diverse an ecosystem, better are the reasons. It provides us food, shelter, fuel, clothing, etc.
chances for the species to survive through
adversities and attacks and consequently, is more
Depletion of Biodiversity
productive. The current rate of loss of biodiversity is said to be 10,000
Just like a species with a high genetic diversity, an to 25,000 times faster than the natural rate of extinction.
ecosystem with high biodiversity may have a greater The reasons of biodiversity depletion are as follows :
chance of adapting to environmental change.
Habitat Fragmentation
Economic Role of Biodiversity It is the process whereby a large continuous area of
Crop diversity Agro-biodiversity, is an important habitat is both reduced in area and divided into two or
component of biodiversity. Biodiversity is viewed as more fragments. They are divided into smaller pieces by
a resource reservoir from which food, roads, fields, towns and a wide range of other human
pharmaceutical and cosmetic products can be activities.
derived. It leaves a patchwork of habitat fragments, which are
The concept of biological resources is to blame for isolated from one another by a degraded landscape.
the decline in biodiversity. At the same time, it is the Fragmentation need not always involve a reduction in
source of new conflicts concerning natural resource the overall area, but the setting up of barriers.
division and appropriation rules.
Overexploitation and Hunting
Food crops, animals, woods, fish, medicinal
resources and so on are some of the essential Increased human population, increased demand and the
economic commodities that biodiversity provides to methods of harvesting also became more efficient.
humanity. More rapid harvesting over a wider area became
possible with new technology, such as the introduction
Scientific Role of Biodiversity of motorboats and trawlers for fishing.
Biodiversity is important because each species can The development of a commercial market for a
give us some clue as to how life evolved and will particular product or item can also cause
continue to evolve. overexploitation and poaching. e.g. the demand for
Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life fur and fur-products led to the reduction of many
functions and the role of each species in sustaining species.
ecosystems of which we are also a species.
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Elephants, rhinos, tigers, leopards, Asiatic bear and — Endangered Species It includes those species which
pandas are all facing threats to their survival due to a are in danger of extinction. The IUCN publishes
flourishing trade in wildlife and wildlife products information about endangered species world-wide as
around the world. the Red List of threatened species.
Hunting for pleasure used to be a major historical — Vulnerable Species This includes the species which
cause for the reduction of many species of game are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if
animals. However, game hunting is now an illegal the factors threatening to their extinction continue.
activity in most of the countries and its actual Survival of these species is not assured as their
contribution to biodiversity loss is on the decline. population has reduced greatly.
Disaster and Pollution — Rare Species Population of these species is very small
in the world; they are confined to limited areas or
Even without destroying or fragmenting the habitats,
thinly scattered over a wider area.
human activities can make them unsuitable for other
species. This can accelerate their rate of extinction.
External factors like pollution and climate change Geographical Biodiversity
can affect the quality of air, water and soil. The biological variety and variability of life on Earth is
Pesticide pollution, water and soil pollution, air referred to as biodiversity. Biodiversity is a measure of
pollution such as acid rain and contamination by genetic, species and ecosystem variation.
hundreds of chemicals can force intolerant and There are some countries which are situated in the
poorly adaptable species to disappear. tropical region; they possess a large number of the
Shifting Cultivation world’s species diversity. They are called mega
In shifting cultivation, a plot of land is cleared and diversity centres.
cultivated for a short period of time. There are 12 such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia,
Once the land becomes inadequate for crop Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo,
production, it is left to be reclaimed by natural Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and
vegetation or sometimes converted to different long Australia in which these centres are located.
term cyclical farming practice. Regions of Excess Biodiversity
Invasion of Exotic Species The growth of plants and animals in this region is
Environmental and climatic barriers such as greater than other parts of the world due to favourable
mountains, rivers, temperature zones and oceans climatic conditions.
have restricted the geographical ranges of species Tropical Rainforest
and have allowed the development of endemic
These forests are found in the Western slope of the
species. Endemicity depends on the level of isolation.
Western Ghats, hills of the North-Eastern region and
However, as the human population grew, people the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are found in
spread out to the every corner of the world. In the warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of
process, they have introduced many new species into over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above
new areas they settled. 22°C.
Climate Change Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, with
Climate change is the recent potent factor of depletion layers closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs
of biodiversity in different biomes. The impacts of and creepers, with short structured trees followed by
rising temperature on vegetation communities mainly tall variety of trees.
forests are now perceptible in Taiga forests which In these forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m or
have shown shrinking in their areas whereas above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their
increased rainfall due to temperature rise in the leaves, flowering and fruition.
tropical regions has positive impact on forest growth.
Coral Reef
Classification of Species Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed
According to their Extinction of the skeletons of colonial marine invertebrates called
The International Union of Conservation of Nature coral. Corals are formed mostly of the calcium
and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the carbonate skeletons of corals.
threatened species of plants and animals into three The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is blessed with the
categories for the purpose of their conservation : beauty of the world’s largest coral reef.
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The four major coral reef areas identified for Regions of Normal Biodiversity
intensive conservation and management in India are
A large area of the world is very low in biodiversity
— Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) because of the lack of favourable condition for the
— Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat) growth of plants and animals. Examples of these
— Lakshadweep regions are desert and sub-polar regions.
— Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Regions of Least Biodiversity
Tropical Oceanic Region Polar ice and arctic Tundra have least diversity.
The high temperature and high precipitation in Tundra is a region where is permanently frozen.
tropical region is boon for excess biodiversity in this So, roots of plants cannot penetrate those areas.
region. Without large vegetation, a whole segment that’s
But the biodiversity of this region is lower than that present in other biomes is missing from the polar
of the temperate region. regions.
Wetland Indian Biodiversity
A wetland is a place where the land is covered by India is a megadiverse country which is rich in
water, either salty or fresh water. Marshes and biodiversity. With just 2.4% of the world’s land area,
ponds, the edge of a lake or ocean, the delta at the India holds about 7-8% of the global biodiversity.
mouth of a river, low lying areas that frequently flood
The wide diversity in physical features and climatic
are the examples of wetlands.
situations have resulted in a variety of ecosystems such
Wetlands often support high concentrations of as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine
animals including mammals, birds, fish and desert.
invertebrates and serve as nurseries for many of
Forests ecosystems in particular exhibit tremendous
these species.
variability ranging from temperate alpine to tropical
There are two types of wetlands : wet evergreen forests.
Coastal There is dense forest in Malabar coast and Andaman
Marine and coastal wetlands encompass the and Nicobar region of India. It includes trees like Saal,
enormous variety of marine and coastal species. Sheesham, Mango tree, Palash, Peepal, etc.
They provide open sea habitats and ecosystems for There are 16 major forest types in India. India is also
species and the wealth of ecological province that one of the eight primary centres of the origin of
support all of these species. cultivated plants and is rich agricultural biodiversity.
Over 4,5000 species of plants and 91,000 species of
Inland
animals have been recorded so far.
Inland wetlands account for 69.22% of the total
India maintains this biodiversity while supporting 20%
wetlands. The majority of the inland wetlands are
of the world’s human and cattle population. India also
directly or indirectly dependent on the major rivers
has two of the 34 identified hotspots of the world,
like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari,
which are characterised by high degree of endemism
Krishna, Kaveri and Tapti.
and are therefore areas of global conservation concern.
They occur in the hot and arid regions of Gujarat and
Eastern Himalayas is recognised as the Cradle of
Rajasthan, the deltaic regions of the East and West
Speciation due to rich diversity of primitive flowering
coasts, highlands of Central India, wet humid zones
plants.
of South peninsular India and Andaman and Nicobar
and Lakshadweep islands.
Biodiversity Hotspots
Regions of High Biodiversity
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a
Some regions of the world have high biodiversity significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat
because of the Geomorphological structure and from humans.
climate of that region. It includes Western Europe,
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by
monsoonic regions, grasslands, etc.
Norman Myers in two articles in ‘The
Western Europe has temperate type of climate, Environmentalist’ (1988 and 1990), revised after
which signifies high rainfall. Due to high moisture thorough analysis by Myers and others in ‘Hotspots:
content in the soil, there is favourable condition for Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered
the growth of vegetation in these regions. Terrestrial Eco-regions’.
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To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 World Biodiversity Hotspots

edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet
At present, there are 36 Biodiversity hotspots on our planet.
two strict criteria
(i) It must contain atleast 0.5% or 1500 species of Major Hotspots of World
vascular plants as endemics. Africa l
Eastern Afro-Montane
(ii) It must have 30% or less of its original natural l
The Guinean Forests of Western Africa
vegetation. In other words, it must be l
Horn of Africa
threatened. l
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
Around the world, atleast 25% areas qualify under l
Maputaland, Pondoland, Albany Hotspot
this definition. These sites support nearly 60% of l
Succulent Karoo
the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile and l
South Africa’s Cape Floristic Hotspot
amphibian species, with a very high share of l
Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
endemic species. Currently, there are 35 Asia and l
Himalayan Hotspot
biodiversity hotspots according to Conservation Asia-Pacific l
The Eastern Himalayas (Nepal/India)
International, most of which occur in tropical l
Mountains of South-West China New Caledonia
forests. l
New Zealand Biodiversity Hotspot
Each of them holds atleast 1500 endemic plant l
Philippine Biodiversity Hotspot
species and have lost atleast 70% of its original l
Polynesia and Micronesian Islands Complex
habitat extent. including Hawaii
India has two biodiversity hotspots : l
East Melanesian Islands
South-Western l
Western Sunda
Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot Australia l
Wallacea (Eastern Indonesia)
Eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floral region l
The Western Ghats of India and Islands of Sri
and comprises Nepal, Bhutan, states of East and Lanka
North-East India and a contiguous sector of l
Indo-Burma
Yunnan Province in South-Western China. l
Japan Biodiversity Hotspot
In the whole of Eastern Himalaya, there are an North Central l
California Floristic Province
estimated 9000 plant species, out of which 3500 America l
Caribbean Islands Hotspot
(i.e. 39%) are endemic. l
North American Coastal Plain
In the Indian portion, there occurs some 5800 South America l
Brazil’s Cerrado
plant species, roughly 2000 (i.e. 36%) of which are l
Chilean Winter Rainfall (Valdivian) Forests
endemic. l
Tumbes Choco Magdalena
At least 55 flowering plants endemic to this area l
Tropical Andes
are recognised as rare, e.g. the pitcher plant l
Atlantic Forest
(Nepenthes khasiana).
Europe and l
Caucasus Region
Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot Central Asia l
Iran-Anatolia Region
The Western Ghats region, which is spread into 6
l
The Mediterranean Basin and its Eastern Coastal
Region
states of India, is considered to be one of the most
l
Mountains of Central Asia
important biodiversity hotspots of India, as it is
one of the richest centres of endemism.
Due to varied topography and micro-climatic Biodiversity Conservation
regimes, some areas within the region are
considered to be active zones of speciation. The method of conservation of biodiversity can be classified
into two groups :
This hotspot account for around 25% of India’s
biodiversity. In-Situ
The Western Ghats are home to more than 5000 In-situ conservation means the conservation of
species of plants and about 35% of these are ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and
endemic to this area. recovery of viable populations of species in their natural
The ghats are home to special kind of fresh water surroundings.
swamps known as Myristica swamps. Examples; National parks, Sanctuaries, Natural Reserves,
Reserves of the biosphere, Sacred grooves, etc.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
322

In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich The Act empowers the central government to
regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves, safeguard and improve environmental quality, control
national parks and sanctuaries. and decrease pollution from all sources. It also
In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside and all prohibits or restricts the establishment and/or
the trees and wildlife inside it were given total operation of any industrial facility based on
protection. environmental considerations.
Sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat Biological Diversity Act cause into force on 5th
regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, February, 2003. It was designed to provide the
Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh. protection of biological diversity and the
Ex-Situ sustainable use of its components. It also aims the
fair and equal sharing of the advantages emerging
In this approach, threatened animals and plants are
from the use of biological resources, knowledge and
taken out from their natural habitat and placed in
matters related to or incidental to these.
special setting where they can be protected and given
special care. For example, zoological parks, botanical
gardens and wildlife safari parks.
Biodiversity Loss
Many animals have become extinct in the wild but they Since the last few decades, growth in human
are kept alive in zoological parks. Ex-situ conservation population has increased the rate of consumption
has gone beyond the confinement of threatened species of natural resources. It has accelerated the loss of
in cages in recent years. species and habitation in different parts of the
world.
Action Plan associated with Biodiversity loss occurs when a specific species is
Biodiversity Conservation extinct or the habitat necessary for its life is
Some important action plan associated with biodiversity degraded.
conservation are as follows : The latter is more common because habitat
destruction is unavoidable by-product of
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 development.
Wildlife Protection Act was enacted on 9th Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the
September,1972. India is the first country in the world to local habitat but are introduced into the system, are
have made provisions for the protection and called exotic species.
conservation of environment in its Constitution.
Some animals like tigers, elephants, rhinoceros,
It was enacted to provide the main legal framework for crocodiles, minks and birds were hunted
conservation and protection of wildlife in India mercilessly by poachers for their horn, tusks,
The two main objectives of the Act are, to provide hides, etc.
protection to the endangered species listed in the
schedule of the Act and to provide legal support to the International Efforts towards
conservation areas of the country classified as National Bodiversity Conservation
parks, sanctuaries and closed areas. Some international efforts towards bodiversity
The Act was amended subsequently in 1982, 1986, 1991 conservation are as follows :
and 1993 to accommodate provision for its effective
implementation.
Rio Summit
The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 established Wildlife It was held in Rio De Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992. In this
Sanctuaries and National Parks. historical Biodiversity Summit, the nations (155,
including India) were asked to adopt correct and
It also prohibits hunting of endangered animals and long term measures to conserve Biodiversity.
grants licences for the sale, transfer and possession of
wildlife. Ramsar Convention
Environment Protection Act, 1986 It was signed in Ramsar city of Iran for conservation
and wire use of weltands.
It was enacted on 9th January, 1986 in the wake of the
Bhopal gas Tragedy by the Government of India under About 1831 weltands of international importance
Article-253 of the Constitution. have been listed as Ramsar sites.
 INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 30 323

Biosphere Reserves,
National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries

Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 5 (Natural Vegetation), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 16 (Biodiversity and Conservation),
Class-XII New NCERT Chap 15 (Biology) (Biodiversity and Conservation)

National Park Biosphere Reserves

A national park is an area designated by a national
A biosphere reserve is a unique and representative
government to preserve the natural environment.
ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which
A National Park may be established for the goal of
are internationally recognised within the framework
public recreation and enjoyment, or for historical or
of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB)
scientific relevance.
Programme.
National Parks are declared in areas that are considered
The Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme is an
to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and
Intergovernmental Scientific Programme aiming to
natural significance.
set a scientific basis for the improvement of the
According to National Wildlife Database, December, relationships between people and their environment
2021 there are 106 existing National Parks in India, that globally.
covers an area of 43716 km 2, which is 1.33% of the
There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India. 12
geographical area of the country.
Biosphere Reserves have been recognised by the
The first national park in India was established in 1936 UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
by the name of Hailey National Park. In 1956, it was
renamed as Corbett National Park. Objectives of Biosphere Reserves
The Biosphere Reserve aims at achieving the three
Wildlife Sanctuary objectives.
A wildlife sanctuary is a place where animals and their Conservation Conservation of biodiversity and
habitats are protected. Animal capture, slaughter and ecosystem.
poaching are all severely prohibited in certain areas. Development Association of environment with
According to National Wildlife Database, December, development.
2020 there are 566 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India. Objectives International network for research and
It covers an area of 122420 km 2, which is 3.72% of the monitoring.
geographical area of the country.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
324

Important National Parks/Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Location National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary

Location National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary Sikkim Kanchenjunga National Park

Arunachal Namdapha National Park, Dihang Wildlife Tamil Nadu Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary,
Pradesh Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary
Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa National Park, Kishanpur Wildlife
Assam Kaziranga National Park, Sonai Rupai Sanctuary, Chandraprabha Sanctuary
Sanctuary, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttarakhand Jim Corbett National Park (named in the
Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary memory of Jim Corbett), Askot Wildlife
Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Sanctuary, Sanctuary (Musk Deer), Rajaji NP, Nanda Devi
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Papikonda NP

Bihar Gautam Buddha Sanctuary, Valmiki National Haryana Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary (WS),
Park, Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaimur Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary
Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagi Dam Wildlife Tripura GUMIT Sanctuary, Trisna Sanctuary
Sanctuary
Punjab Abhor NP, Bir Moti (WS), Bir Bhadson WS,
Chhattisgarh Achanakmar Sanctuary, Indravati National Harike WS
Park
West Bengal Sundarban NP, Neora Valley NP, Buxa tiger
Gujarat Valvadore National Park, Wild Ass Sanctuary, reserve
Gir Forest, Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife
Sanctuary
Biosphere Reserves in India
Goa Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Balaram Ambaji
Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhagwan Mahavir NP Biosphere Reserve Year Location in the States/UT
and Area (km 2 )
Himachal Pradesh Manali Sanctuary, Rupi Bhabha Sanctuary,
Tundah Wildlife Sanctuary, Pong Dam Nilgiri (5520) 1986 Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole,
Sanctuary, Great Himalayan NP Bandipur and Mudumalai,
Nilambur, Silent Valley and
Karnataka Nagarhole National Park, (lies in Cauvery Siuvani Hills Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Basin) Dandeli Sanctuary, Bhadra Sanctuary, and Karnataka
Bannerghatta National Park, Bandipur
Sanctuary Nanda Devi 1988 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and
(5860.691) Almora districts in Uttarakhand
Kashmir Salim Ali National Park, Kishtwar National
Park, , Dachigam Sanctuary Nokrek (820) 1988 Part of East, West and South Garo
Hill districts in Meghalaya.
Kerala Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar National
Park, Silent Valley NP Manas (2837) 1989 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon,
Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and
Jharkhand Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary, Dalma Darang districts in Assam
Wildlife Sanctuary, Koderma Wildlife Sunderban (9630) 1989 Part of delta of Ganges and
Sanctuary, Lawalong Wildlife Sanctuary Brahmaputra river system in West
Madhya Pradesh Pachmarhi Sanctuary, Gandhi Sagar Bengal
Sanctuary, Bandhavgarh National Park, Gulf of Mannar 1989 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar
Madhav National Park, Bori Wildlife (10500) extending from Rameswaram
Sanctuary, Bagdara Wildlife Sanctuary, Pench Island in the North to
Sanctuary, Karera Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamla Kanyakumari in the South of
NP, Panna NP Tamil Nadu
Maharashtra Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Chandoli Great Nicobar (8851 1989 Southernmost island of Andaman
National Park, Gautala Autramghat Sanctuary, and Nicobar Islands
Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, Painganga, Aner
Dam Similipal (4374) 1994 Part of Mayurbhanj district in
Odisha
Manipur Yangoupokpi Lok Chao, Keibul Lamjao
National Park Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsuika
(765) districts in Assam
Meghalaya Nokrek National Park, Balpakram National
Park, Bhagmara Wildlife Sanctuary Dehang Dibang 1998 Part of Upper Siang, West Siang
(5111) and Diang Valley districts in
Odisha Simlipal Sanctuary, Chilika Bird Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh
West Bengal Sundarban Tiger Reserve, Jaldapara Pachmarhi (4926) 1999 Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and
Sanctuary Chhindwara districts in Madhya
Pradesh
Rajasthan Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Sariska
Wildlife Sanctuary, Ranthambore Wildlife Khangchendzonga 2000 Part of North and West districts in
Sanctuary (2619.92) Sikkim
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
325

Biosphere Reserve Year Location in the States/UT State Tiger Reserve Year
and Area (km 2 )
Bihar l
Valmiki Tiger Reserve 1989-90
Agasthyamalai 2001 Part of Tirunelveli and
(1828) Kanyakumari districts in Tamil Chhattisgarh l
Indravati Tiger Reserve 1982-83
Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram, l
Udanti and Sitanadi Tiger 2008-09
Kollam and Pathanamthitta Reserve
districts in Kerala l
Achanakmar Tiger Reserve 2008-09
Achanakmar-Amark 2005 Part of Anuppur and Dindori
Jharkhand l
Palamau Tiger Reserve 1973-74
antak (3835.51) Districts of Madhya Pradesh and
Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh Karnataka l
Bandipur Tiger Reserve 1973-74
Kachchh (12454) 2008 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, l
Nagarhole Tiger Reserve 2008-09
Surendranagar and Patan districts l
Dandeli-Anshi Tiger 2008-09
in Gujarat Reserve
Cold Desert (7770) 2009 Pin Valley National Park and l
Bhadra Tiger Reserve 1998-99
surroundings: Chandratal and
Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife Kerala l
Periyar Tiger Reserve 1978-79
Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh l
Parambikulam Tiger 2008-09
Reserve
Seshachalam 2010 Seshachalam hill ranges in
(4755.997) Eastern Ghats encompassing part Madhya Pradesh l
Bandhavgarh Tiger 1993-94
of Chittoor and Kadapa Districts in Reserve
Andhra Pradesh l
Bori-Satpura Tiger Reserve 1999-2000
Panna (2998.98) 2011 Parts of Panna and Chhatarpur l
Kanha Tiger Reserve 1973-74
districts in Madhya Pradesh l
Panna Tiger Reserve 1994-95
l
Pench Tiger Reserve 1992-93
Wildlife Conservation Schemes l
Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve 2008-09

Various conservation schemes have been proposed by l

Ratapani Tiger Reserve
government to conserve wildlife. Maharashtra l
Melghat Tiger Reserve 1973-74
Some of these are as follows : l
Pench Tiger Reserve 1998-99
l
Tadoba-Andhari Tiger 1993-94
Project Tiger Reserve
It was launched in 1973. Tigers are globally listed as l
Sahyadri Tiger Reserve 2009-10
‘Endangered’ on the International Union for the l
Bor Tiger Reserve 2014
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened
Species. The main objective of the scheme is to ensure Mizoram l
Dampa Tiger Reserve 1994-95
maintenance of viable population of tigers in India for Odisha l
Simlipal Tiger Reserve 1973-74
scientific, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values. l
Satkosia Tiger Reserve 2008-09
It also aimed to preserve areas of biological West Bengal l
Buxa Tiger Reserve 1982-83
importance as natural heritage for the benefit, l
Sunderbans Tiger Reserve 1973-74
education and enjoyment of the people. India has 2967
tigers, according to the population estimation which Rajasthan l
Ranthambore Tiger 1973-74
Reserve
was carried out in 2018.
l
Sariska Tiger Reserve 1978-79
List of Tiger Reserves in India l
Mukundara Hills Tiger 2013
State Tiger Reserve Year Reserve

Andhra Pradesh l
Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam 1982-83 Tamil Nadu l
Kalakad-Mundathurai Tig 1988-89
Tiger Reserve (Largest er Reserve
Critical Tiger Habitat) l
Mudumalai National Park 2008-09
l
Kawal Tiger Reserve 2011 l
Sathyamangalam Tiger 2013
Arunachal l
Pakhui Tiger Reserve 1999-2000 Reserve (Pro)
Pradesh l
Namdapha Tiger Reserve 1982-83 Uttar Pradesh l
Dudhwa Tiger Reserve 1987-88
Assam l
Nameri Tiger Reserve 1999-2000 l
Pilibhit Tiger Reserve 2010
l
Manas Tiger Reserve 1973-74 Uttarakhand l
Corbett Tiger Reserve 1973-74
l
Kaziranga Tiger Reserve 2008-09
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
326

Project Snow Leopard Project Olive Ridley Turtles

The project was started on the lines of Project The dwindling population of Olive Ridley Turtles made
Elephant, Project Tiger and Project Rhino by the the Government of Odisha start the project in 1975.
Ministry of Environment and Forests in 2006. The project was launched at Bhitarkanika in Cuttack
India is believed to have between 200 and 600 snow district. Bhitarkanika is the second largest mangrove
leopards in the five Himalayan states i.e. Jammu and forest. The project even extends to the Rushikulya and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim mouth of river Devi.
and Arunachal Pradesh.
Crocodile Breeding Project
The project aims to conserve and protect the
Crocodile Breeding Project was launched in 1975.
highly endangered species in its natural habitat.
Crocodile is listed as a Critically Endangered by IUCN.
Project Elephant The Gharial and Saltwater Crocodile Conservation
Project Elephant was launched in 7th December, Programme was launched in Odisha in early 1975,
1992 to assist states having free ranging population of followed by the Mugger Conservation Programme.
wild elephants. The African Forest Elephant is
Critically Endangered and the African Savannah Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project
Elephant is Endangered on the IUCN Red List of The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project is an
Threatened Species. initiative of the Indian Government to provide
It was aimed at ensuring long-term survival of safeguards to the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica)
identified viable population of elephants in their from extinction in the wild by means of reintroduction.
natural habitat. The single population faces the threats of epidemics,
The Project is being mainly implemented in 16 States natural disasters and other anthropogenic factors.
/ UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, The project aims to establish a second independent
Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, population of Asiatic lions at the Kuno Wildlife
Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Tamil Sanctuary in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.
Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Project Hangul
Bengal.
Hangul is known as Kashmiri stag, the only surviving
Project Rhino species of red deer family in Kashmir.
The greater one-horned rhinoceros (or Indian The Project Hangul had started in 1970 by the
Rhinoceros) is the largest of the rhino species. Kashmir government with the help of WWF. Hangul is
It is native to Indian subcontinent. listed as a Critically Endangered specie by IUCN.
The population of rhinos is highly threatened by Project Red Panda
illegal poaching for its horn, which is highly valued
Red panda is found in the Eastern Himalayan region
as an aphrodisiac in grey markets. The Project Rhino
of India at a height between 1500 m and 4000 m.
was initiated in 1987. Kaziranga and Manas in Assam
In Arunachal Pradesh, it is known as Cat Bear.
and Jaldapara, West Bengal are the main habitats of
Rhinos. The project was started in 1966 at Padmaja Naidu
Himalayan Wildlife Park with the help of WWF.
Project Manipur Thamin Red Panda is found in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and
South-East part of lake Loktak in Manipur is home to Darjeeling region in Paschim Banga.
Thamin deer. It is enlisted among the rarest species of
mammals. Its population slipped to mere 18 in 1977. Institutes Associated with
To conserve and increase the population, Project Biodiversity Conservation in India
Thamin was launched in 1977 in Manipur. Important institutes associated with biodiversity
In order to fulfil the above objectives, the biosphere conservation in India are :
reserves are classified into zones like the core area, Botanical Survey of India
buffer area and transition area or area of cooperation.
It was established on 13th February, 1890 it is an apex
The Indian Government has established 18 biosphere research organisation under the ministry of
reserves of India among which 9 are included in the environment and forest. The headquarters of Botanical
list of the world network of biosphere reserves. Survey of India is located in Kolkata, West Bengal.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
327

The basic objective of this survey is to explore the Name of Site State Year of
Declaration
plant resources of the country and to identify the
plant species with economic virtues. Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha 2002
Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh 2002
Zoological Survey of India
East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 2002
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established
Kanjli Lake Punjab 2002
on 1st July, 1916. The headquarters of Zoological
Survey of India is located in Kolkata, West Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 2002
Bengal. Point Calimere Tamil Nadu 2002
It aims to promote the survey, exploration, Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 2002
research and documentation leading to the Tsomoriri Lake Jammu and Kashmir 2002
advancement in our knowledge on various aspects
Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 2002
of animal taxonomy of the Indian subcontinent.
Ropar Lake Punjab 2002
Forest Survey of India Hokera Wetland Jammu and Kashmir 2005
Forest Survey of India was established on 1st June, Chandertal Wetland Himachal Pradesh 2005
1981. The headquarters of Forest Survey of India is
Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 2005
located in Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 2005
Its goal is to conduct forest surveys, studies and
Upper Ganga River Uttar Pradesh 2005
research on a regular basis to monitor the
(Brijghat to Narora
changing situation of land and forest resources. Stretch)
It presents the data for national planning,
Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu and Kashmir 2005
conservation and sustainable environmental
management, as well as the implementation of Nalsarovar Bird Gujarat 2012
Sanctuary
social forestry projects.
Sunderbans Wetland West Bengal 2019
Ramsar Convention for Wetland Keshopur - Miani Punjab 2019
Community Reserve
Conservation Beas Conservation Punjab 2019
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty Reserve
for the conservation and wise use of wetlands. It is Nangal Wildlife Punjab 2019
named after the Iranian city of Ramsar, on the Sanctuary
Caspian Sea, where the treaty was signed on 2nd Nawabganj Bird Uttar Pradesh 2019
February, 1971. Sanctuary
Two sites—Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo Parvati Arga Bird Uttar Pradesh 2019
National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as Sanctuary
waterfowl habitats under the Convention of Saman Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2019
Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
Samaspur Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2019
Convention).
Sandi Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2019
Ramsar Sites (Wetlands) in India Sarsai Nawarjheel Uttar Pradesh 2019
Name of Site State Year of Nandur Madhmeshwar Maharashtra 2019
Declaration
Sur Sarovar Uttar Pradesh 2020
Chilika Lake Odisha 1981
Tso Kar Wetland Ladakh 2020
Keoladeo Ghana Rajasthan 1981 Complex
National Park
Asan Conservation Uttarakhand 2020
Harike Lake Punjab 1990 Reserve
Wular Lake Jammu and Kashmir 1990 Kabartal Wetland Bihar 2020
Loktak Lake Manipur 1990 Maharashtra 2020
Lonar Lake
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 1990
Sultanpur National Park Haryana 2021
Asthamudi Wetland Kerala 2002
Thol Lake Wildlife Gujarat 2021
Vembanad Kol Wetland Kerala 2002 Sanctuary
Deepor Beel Assam 2002 Wadhvana Wetland Gujarat 2021
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER
328 31

Climate Change, Greenhouse

Effect and Ozone Depletion

Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 12 (Geography) (World Climate and Climate Change), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 16 (Biology)
(Environmental Issues), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 14 (Chemistry) (Environmental Chemistry)

Climate Change Historical Records of Climate Change

The planet Earth has witnessed many variations in n The nineties decade of the last century witnessed
climate since, the beginning. Geological records show extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded the
alteration of glacial and inter-glacial periods. warmest temperature of the century and some of the
worst floods around the world.
The geomorphological characteristics, particularly at n One example is the worst destructive drought in the
high altitudes and latitudes, show evidence of glacier Sahel region, South of the Sahara Desert, from 1967 to
advances and retreats. Warm and cold eras are also 1977. The dust bowl was a catastrophic drought that
revealed by sediment deposits in glacial lakes. occurred in the Southern Great Plains of the United
India has also experienced wet and dry spells. States during the 1930s.
According to archaeological evidence, the Rajasthan
desert experienced a moist and cool environment
approximately 8,000 BC. Causes of Climate Change
Higher rainfall occurred between 3,000 and 1,700 BC. The causes of climate change can be grouped into
This region was the centre of the Harappan civilisation astronomical and terrestrial causes.
from around 2,000 to 1,700 BC. Natural Causes of Climate Change
Since then, dry conditions have become more The natural causes of climate change are as follows :
pronounced.
Sunspot Activity Sunspots are dark spots on surface
Around 500-300 million years ago, during the of the Sun which have reduced surface temperature
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods, the compared to the surrounding photosphere.
world was heated.
Decrease in number of sunspots causes global
Glacial and inter-glacial periods occurred during the temperature increase.
Pleistocene epoch, with the last significant peak
Continental Drift The continents of the world are
glacial period occurring around 18,000 years ago.
constantly drifting. This drift in past had an impact
The current interglacial epoch began 10,000 years ago.
on climate due to change in physical features of the
From roughly 1550 to 1850, Europe experienced a landmass, their position and position of water bodies.
Little Ice Age. From around 1885 until 1940, the global
Milankovitch Cycles : Earth’s eccentricity, changes
temperature increased. After 1940, the rate of
in axial tilt and precession of equinoxes taken
temperature rise slowed.
together constitute Milankovitch cycles. This has
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
329

large impact on climate change and are notable for It caused the planet to warm by 1. 4° Fahrenheit since
their correlation with glacial and interglacial periods. 1880. Rising temperatures are warming ocean waters,
Volcanic Activity Eruption of volcanoes causes which expand as the temperature increases.
outburst of gases and dust particles. These partially Change in Ocean Current’ Far beneath the surface
block the incoming rays of the Sun which lead to of the ocean, deep currents act as conveyer belts,
cooling of the weather. channeling heat, carbon, oxygen and nutrients
around the globe.
Anthropogenic or Man-made
A new study has found the recent climate change
Causes of Climate Change may be acting to slow down one of these conveyer
The anthropogenic or man-made causes of climate change belts, with potentially serious consequences for the
are as follows : future of the planet.
Deforestation Forests act as carbon sink and play an Impact on Biodiversity Global warming does not
important role in fight against global warming. only make vegetation ‘gasp for air’ but also leads to
When forest is disturbed or cleared, carbon stored is animal habitat loss. This is an especially big problem
released as carbon dioxide causing global warming. for sensitive species.
Burning of Fossil Fuel Burning of carbon-based fossil The loss of these habitats leads to extinction of the
fuels causes release of carbon dioxide in the amphibians dependent on these forests for their
atmosphere. This has led to increase in concentration survival.
of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Many species may be seriously affected by the spread
Modern Agricultural Practices Agricultural practices of viruses and bacteria which normally thrive in
adopted in recent years contribute to a large extent warmer conditions. This, among many other things,
towards global warming. Flooded field used for rice may push these animals even closer to the brink of
cultivation is a major contributor of methane gas, a extinction.
potent greenhouse gas. Impact on Human Health Warming oceans and a
Industrialisation and Urbanisation The excessive changing change climate are resulting in extreme
exploitation of resources for industrial activities has weather patterns which have brought about an
large impact on climate change. increase of infectious diseases both new and
Cutting down forests to create industrial complexes re-emerging. An increase in temperature signifies an
and settlements had led to changes in the amount of increase in mosquito populations, escalating the risk
sunlight reflected from the ground back into space. of malaria, dengue and other insect borne infections.
These extreme weather patterns are creating extended
Global Warming rainy seasons in some areas and extended periods of
drought in others as well as introducing new climates
The increased amount of CO2 in the air is mainly to different regions.
responsible for global warming. About 75 % of the solar
Impact on Climate There is clear evidence of
energy reaching the Earth is absorbed by the Earth’s
changes in the composition of the greenhouse gases
surface, which increases its temperature. The rest of
in the lower atmosphere, with CO2 in particular
the heat radiates back to the atmosphere.
steadily increasing to its present level of about 400
Some of the heat is trapped by gases such as carbon ppm. It has increased by one-third in the last 200
dioxide, methane, ozone, Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) years, and half of that in the last 30 years.
compounds and water vapour in the atmosphere. Thus,
Impact on Food Production Moderate warming and
they add to the heating of the atmosphere. This causes
more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may help
Global warming.
plants to grow faster. More severe warming, however
Impacts of Global Warming may reduce yield due to drought and floods.
The impacts of Global warming are as follows :
Melting of Ice Since 1995, the ice shelf’s area has Global Warming Potential
shrunk by 40%. According to NASA, the polar ice cap is
n The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is a
now melting at the alarming rate of 9% per decade. measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over a
particular period of time (usually 100 years),
Arctic ice thickness has decreased 40% since the 1960s.
compared to carbon dioxide.
Rise in Sea Level Human activities, such as burning n Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, than
coal and oil, cutting down tropical forests, have gases with a lower GWP, and thus contribute more to
increased atmospheric concentration of heat-trapping warming Earth.
gases.
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Climate Change Mitigation Methods The concept of carbon trade was the outcome of Kyoto
Protocol, signed in Kyoto, Japan by 180 countries in 1997.
Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit
The Kyoto Protocol calls for 38 industrialised countries to
the magnitude and/or rate of long-term climate change.
reduce their greenhouse gas emission between 2008 to
Climate change mitigation generally involves reduction
2012 levels that are 5.2% lower than those of 1990.
in anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.
Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the Mission/Schemes Related to
capacity of carbon sinks, through reforestation.
Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks
Climate Change
associated with human induced global warming. Important mission/schemes related to climate change are
as follows :
Few of the climate change mitigation methods are as
follows: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration Carbon Government of India has launched eight missions as
Sequestration is the process of capturing and string part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change
atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is a set of (NAPCC) in specific areas.
technologies that can greatly reduce CO2 emission These areas are solar energy, enhanced energy
from new as well as existing coal and gas fired efficiency, sustainable habitat, water, sustaining the
power plants, and large industrial sources. Himalayan eco-system, green India, sustainable
Carbon Offsetting Mitigation of carbon footprints agriculture etc.
through the development of alternative projects is It also includes strategic knowledge for climate change,
known as carbon offsetting. The alternative projects which include assessment of the impact of climate
may be the solar, wind, tidal energy or reforestation. change and actions needed to address climate change.
Carbon Tax It is a tax levied on the carbon content — National Solar Mission The NAPCC aims to promote
of fuels. It is a form of carbon pricing. Carbon is the development and use of solar energy for power
present in every hydrocarbon fuel (coal, petroleum generation and other uses through this mission. Its
and natural gas) and is released as carbon dioxide ultimate objective is to make solar competitive with
when they are burnt. In contrast, non-combustion fossil-based energy options.
energy sources— wind, sunlight, hydropower and — National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency It
nuclear do not convert hydrocarbons to CO2. includes initiatives based on increasing the energy use
Carbon Footprint It is the mark that we have on our efficiency were expected to yield savings of 10000 MW
planet as a result of our daily activities and usage or by 2012.
emission of carbon dioxide. In other words, it is the — National Mission on Sustainable Habitat It aims to
measures of impact that human activities have on promote energy efficiency as a core component of
the environment. This is calculated in proportion to urban planning.
the greenhouse gases produced and measured in — National Water Mission With water scarcity projected
units of carbon dioxide. to worsen as a result of climate change, the plan sets a
Carbon Credit It is a permit that allows the holder to goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency
emit one tonne of carbon dioxide. Credits are through pricing and other measures.
credited to countries or groups that have reduced — National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan
their greenhouse gases below their emission quota. Ecosystem The plan aims to conserve biodiversity,
Carbon credits can be traded in the international forest cover and other ecological values in the
market at their current market price. Himalayan region.
The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction — National Mission for a ‘Green India’ Its goals include
with the Kyoto Protocol. Its goal is to stop the the afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded
increase of carbon dioxide emissions. forest lands, expanding forest cover from 23% to 33%
Carbon Trading Carbon trading is an exchange of and enhance annual CO2 sequestration by 50-60
credits between nations designed to reduce million tonnes in the year 2020.
emissions of carbon dioxide. The carbon trade — National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture The
allows countries that have higher carbon emission to plan aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture
purchase the right to release more carbon dioxide through the development of climate-resilient crops,
into the atmosphere from countries that have lower expansion of weather insurance mechanisms and
carbon emissions. agricultural practices.
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— National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Montreal Protocol, 1987 To stop depletion of ozone
Climate Change It aims to gain a better understanding layer, this conference was organised in Canada on
of climate science, impacts and challenges. The plan 16th September, 1987. In the conference, an
envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, agreement was signed about the production of
improved climate modelling and increased Chlorofluoro carbon gases in next ten years.
international collaboration. Helsinki Conference, 1989 This conference was
— It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop organised to stop a mission of Chlorofluoro carbon
adaptation and mitigation technologies through (CFCs) gases in order to reduce ozone depletion.
venture capital funds. First Earth Summit, 1992 (Rio Summit) It is also
known as The United Nations Conference on
National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) Environment and Development (UNCED) or Rio
n The Finance Bill 2010-11 provided for creation of a Summit. It was held in Rio de Janeiro from 3rd June
corpus called National Clean Energy Fund to invest in to 14th June, 1992.
entrepreneurial ventures and research in the field of It was attended by 172 countries. The theme of this
clean energy technologies. conference was the state of the global environment
n An Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG) has been constituted and the political relationship between economics,
to approve the projects/schemes eligible for financing science and the environment. The Rio Summit
under the National Clean Energy Fund. The National produced conventions dealing with climate change,
Clean Energy Fund will be used for funding research and biodiversity, forestry and recommended a list of
innovative projects in clean energy technologies.
development practices called ‘Agenda 21’.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Conferences Related to Climate Change Change (UNFCCC) The UNFCCC was signed in
Important conferences related to climate change are as 1992, at the United Nations Conference on
follows : Environment and Development. The UNFCCC
entered into force on 21st March, 1994, and has been
Stockholm Conference, 1972 Stockholm was the first
ratified by 197 countries.
world conference to make the environment a major
issue. It was adopted on 22, May, 2001 in Stockholm, The goal of UNFCCC is to stabilise greenhouse gas
Sweden and entered into force on 17th May, 2004. concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
prevents hazardous human involvement with the
The objective of the Stockholm Convention is to protect
climate system while allowing ecosystems to adapt
human health and the environment from persistent
naturally and allowing for sustainable development.
organic pollutants.

Conference of Parties (CoP) Summit

Place Year Important Facts
Berlin (Germany) 1995 The first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties took place from 28th March to 7th April, 1995 in Berlin,
(CoP 1) Germany. It voiced concerns about the adequacy of countries’ abilities to meet commitments under the Body
for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI). CoP I
agreed on “Activities Implemented Jointly”, first joint measures in international climate action.
Geneva 1996 Its ministerial declaration was noted (but not adopted) on 18th July, 1996, and reflected a United States
(Switzerland) position statement presented by Timothy Wirth, former Under Secretary for Global Affairs for the United
(CoP 2) States Department of States. It accepted the scientific findings on climate change proffered by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its second assessment (1995).
Kyoto (Japan) 1997 CoP 3 took place in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. The outcome was the famous Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto
(CoP 3) Protocol was the legally binding protocol, which outlined the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation
for Annex I countries.
It also came out with some mechanisms collectively known as Kyoto mechanisms. These mechanisms include
the emissions trading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation. The Government of
India had decided to ratify the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 after various countries had ratified the protocol.
Buenos Aires 1998 In this conference, Plan of Action was incorporated to implement Kyoto Protocol.
(Argentina) (CoP 4)
Bonn (Germany) 1999 This conference was organised to discuss on technical subject of climate change.
(CoP 5)
The Hague 2000 A major issue was discussed in this CoP was the proposal of the United States, in which it said that credit for
(Netherlands) carbon ‘sinks’ should be allowed in forests and agricultural lands.
(CoP 6)
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Place Year Important Facts

Marrakesh 2001 The outcome of the session was a Bundle of decision known as Marrakesh Accords. In this session, US took
(Morocco) (CoP 7) part as an observer. By this time, the Kyoto Protocol was not put in force, as 55 countries had not ratified it.
An Adaptation Fund was established, primarily in supporting developing countries better adapt to climate
change.
New Delhi (India) 2002 Outcome of this session of UNFCCC was the Delhi Ministerial Declaration, which called the developed
(CoP 8) countries to transfer technology and minimise the impact of climate change on developing countries.
Milan (Itlay) (CoP 9) 2003 In this conference, a fund was created for developing nations to control climate change.
Buenos Aires 2004 In this conference, Buenos Aires Action Plan was incorporated which aimed to promote issues of climate
(Argentina) change.
(CoP 10)
Montreal (Canada) 2005 Important outcome of CoP 11 was the Montreal Action Plan (MAP). The MAP called for an extension to the
(CoP 11) life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse gas
emissions. Thus, it became the basis of the negotiations for extending the Kyoto Protocol beyond 2012.
Nairobi (Kenya) 2006 A Five Year Plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries was adopted and
(CoP 12) agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund.
Bali (Indonesia) 2007 In this meeting, an Adhoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWGLCA) under the
(CoP 13) convention was established as a new subsidiary body to conduct the negotiations aimed at urgently
enhancing the implementation of the convention upto and beyond 2012.
Poznan (Poland) 2008 —
(Cop 14)
Copenhagen 2009 In this conference, Green Climate Fund was established.
(Denmark) (Cop 15)
Cancun (Mexico) 2010 The agenda for Cancun was an agreement on a Green Fund to disburse the aid that the developed countries
(CoP 16) promised at Copenhagen i.e. $ 100 billion a year by 2020 for the developing countries to adapt the climate
change by building the seawalls and shifting farming patterns and also to install clean energy sources.
Durban (South 2011 More than 190 countries met in Durban, South Africa, to agree on a global deal to succeed the Kyoto
Africa) (CoP 17) Protocol, which was to expire in 2012 and cut emissions of planet-warming greenhouse gases.
Doha (Qatar) 2012 The conference produced a package of documents collectively titled the Doha Climate Gateway. The
(CoP 18) documents collectively contained an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol featuring second commitment period
running from 2012 until 2020, limited in scope to 15% of the global carbon dioxide emissions due to the lack
of commitments of Japan.
Warsaw (Poland) 2013 In the conference, the rule book for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(CoP 19) (REDD) was agreed, together with measures to bolster forest preservation and a results based payment
system to promote forest protection. The Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) was established
with an aim to stimulating technology cooperation and transfer to developing countries.
Lima (Peru) 2014 In the conference, 194 nations pledged to reduce world carbon emission.
(CoP 20)
Paris (France) 2015 The 21st Conference of Parties under the UNFCCC agreed on adoption of the Paris Agreement on post-2020
(CoP 21) actions on climate change. This universal agreement is to succeed the Kyoto Protocol. This agreement is
different from the Kyoto Protocol in that, it provides a framework for all countries to take steps to curb
climate change.
Marrakesh 2016 The Marrakesh Partnership for Global Climate Action was adopted at this conference.
(Morocco) (CoP 22)
Bonn (Germany) 2017 The purpose of this summit was to make plan for reaching the targets set under the Paris Agreement of 2015.
(CoP 23) Its key agenda was to bring out a so called ‘Rule Book’ or ‘Paris Work Programme’ which countries need to
abide by in post 2020 world.
Katowice (Poland) 2018 It set up Overall Mitigation in Global Emissions (OMGE) under the Paris Agreement.
(CoP 24)
Madrid (Spain) 2019 The prime objective of the conference was to complete the rule-book to the 2015 Paris Agreement that will
(CoP 25) become effective in 2020 to replace the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (comes to an end in 2020).
Scotland (United 2021 Delayed for a year due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was the 26th Conference of the Parties (CoP) to
Kingdom) (CoP 26) the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the third meeting of the parties
to the 2015 Paris Agreement and the 16th meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
Sharm El-Sheikh 2022 —
(Egypt) (CoP 27)
United Arab 2023 —
Emirates (CoP 28)
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Greenhouse Effect
A greenhouse/glasshouse is a building made of glass chambers in which plants are grown in cold countries or in
cold climate areas. There is a continued increase in temperature in greenhouse when outside temperature
remained low. It protects plants from frost.
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that blankets the Earth lower atmosphere and warm
it, maintaining the temperature suitable for living things to survive. Just as greenhouses, that keep the air warm
inside their chamber, water vapour and greenhouse gases warm the Earth.

Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases play an important role in the balance of Earth’s cooling and warming. The effect was first
recognised by French scientist, Jean-Baptiste Fourier.
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The atmosphere also
transmits the incoming solar radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long-wave radiation emitted upwards by
the Earth’s surface.
The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon dioxide (CO 2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH 4),
nitrous oxide (N 2O) and ozone (O 3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO)
easily react with GHGs and affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
The effectiveness of any given GHG molecule will depend on the magnitude of the increase in its concentration,
its life time in the atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation that it absorbs.
The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission of CO 2 comes mainly from
fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide. Forests use CO 2
in their growth.

Major Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse Gas Sources Sinks Importance for Climate
Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) l
Burning of fossil fuel l
Ocean uptake l
Absorbs infrared radiation; affects
l
Land-use change (deforestation) l
Plants photosynthesis stratospheric O 3

Methane (CH 4 ) l
Biomass burning l
Reactions with OH l
Absorbs infrared radiation; affects
l
Enteric fermentation l
Microorganisms uptake by soils tropospheric O 3 , affects
stratospheric O 3 and H 2O; produces
l
Rice paddy CO 2
Nitrous Oxide (N 2O) l
Biomass burning l
Removal by soils l
Absorbs infrared radiation; affects
l
Fossil-fuel combustion l
Stratospheric photolysis and stratospheric O 3
l
Fertilisers reaction with O

Ozone (O 3 ) l
Photochemical reactions l
Catalytic chemical reactions l
Absorbs ultraviolet and infrared
(ground layer) involving O 2 involving NO x , ClO x and HO x radiations
species

Carbon Monoxide (CO) l

Plant emissions l
Soil uptake l
Affects stratospheric O 3 and OH
l
Man-made release (transport, l
Reactions with OH cycles; produces CO 2
industrial)
Chlorofluorocarbons l
Industrial production l
Insignificant in troposphere, l
Absorbs ultraviolet and infrared
(CFCs) dissociated in stratosphere radiation
(photolysis and reaction with O)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) l
Volcanoes l
Dry and wet deposition l
Forms aerosols, which scatter solar
l
Coal and biomass burning l
Reactions with OH radiation

Water Vapour (H 2O) l

Evaporation of ocean l
Rain, snowfall l
Forms hydrological cycle
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It causes aging of skin, damage to skin cells and

Ozone Layer Depletion various types of skin cancers. In human eye, cornea
Ozone (O 3) is a highly reactive gas that is made up of absorbs UV-B radiation and a high dose of UV-B
three oxygen atoms. It is both a natural and man-made causes inflammation of cornea, called
product that occurs in the stratosphere and snow-blindness, cataract, etc. Such exposure may
troposphere. permanently damage the cornea.
Ozone influences life on Earth in either a positive or Plant proteins get easily affected by UV radiations
negative way depending on where it resides in the which leads to the harmful mutation of cells.
atmosphere. It also increases evaporation of surface water through
Ozone which absorbs ultra violet radiation in the the stomata of the leaves and decreases the moisture
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing terrestrial content of the soil. Increase in UV radiations damage
radiation when it is present in the lower troposphere. paints and fibres, causing them to fade faster.
Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where ultra-violet
rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays Acid Rain
do not reach the Earth’s surface. The CFCs which drift Acid rain refers to the ways in which acid from the
into the stratosphere destroy the ozone. Large atmosphere is deposited on the Earth’s surface.
depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are acidic in
The depletion of ozone concentration in the nature can be blown by wind along with solid
stratosphere is called the ozone hole. The ozone hole particles in the atmosphere. Finally, they settle down
over Antarctica develops every year between late either on the ground as dry deposition or in water,
August and early October. This allows the ultra violet fog and snow as wet deposition.
rays to pass through the troposphere.
The thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the Causes of Acid Rain
ground to the top of the atmosphere is measured in Acid rain is a by-product of a variety of human
terms of Dobson Units (DU). activities that emit the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
in the atmosphere.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Burning of fossil fuels (which contain sulphur and
CFCs are used in refrigerants. Ozone gas is nitrogenous matter) such as coal and oil in power
continuously generated in the stratosphere by the stations and furnaces or petrol and diesel in motor
action of UV radiation on molecular oxygen and it is engines produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
also degraded into molecular oxygen.
SO2 and NO2 after oxidation and reaction with water
Halogens are also responsible for depletion of ozone are major contributors to acid rain, because polluted
layer. Halogens are components of Fire Extinguisher. air usually contains particulate matter that catalyse
the oxidation.
Ozone Hole Aerosol particles of oxides or ammonium salts in rain
n The ozone layer above the Antarctic has been drops result in wet deposition. SO 2 is also absorbed
particularly impacted by pollution since the mid of directly on both solid and liquid ground surfaces and
1980s. This region’s low temperature speeds up the is thus deposited as dry-deposition.
conversion of CFCs to chlorine.
n The vast hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica Impacts of Acid Rain
appears to be healing. The study was published by
Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants
researchers from the World Meteorological Organisation
as it dissolves and washes away nutrients needed for
(WMO) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP)
states that, the size of the ozone hole has strunk on their growth.
average by around 4 sq km since 2000. It causes respiratory ailments in human beings and
n The Montreal Protocol, a 1987 international treaty animals. When acid rain falls and flows as ground
ratified by all UN members, successfully spurred water to reach rivers, lakes etc it affects plants and
nations to eradicate the use of CFCs in products. animals life in aquatic ecosystem.
It corrodes water pipes resulting in the leaching of
Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into the
drinking water.
With the depletion of ozone layer, more UV radiation
filters into troposphere. UV-B damages DNA and Acid rain damages buildings and other structures
mutation may occur. made of stone or metal. The Taj Mahal in India has
been affected by acid rain.
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NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 32 335

Environmental Issues

Sources Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 11 (Geography) (Human Impact on Environment), Class-XII New NCERT
Chap 16 (Biology) (Environmental Issues), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 12 (Geography) (Geographical
Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems)

Environmental Pollution Air pollution is taken as addition of contaminants,

like dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour, smoke or vapour to
Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable the air in substantial proportion and duration that
changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects may be harmful to flora and fauna and property.
on plants, animals and human beings. A substance,
With increasing use of varieties of fuels as the source
which causes pollution, is known as pollutant.
of energy, there is a marked increase in emission of
Pollutants are solid, liquid, or gaseous chemicals that toxic gases into the atmosphere resulting in the
are present in greater concentration than in natural pollution of air.
abundance and are formed as a result of human actions
Combustion of fossil fuels, mining and industries are
or natural occurrences.
the main sources of air pollution.
Pollutants can be biodegradable, such as discarded
These processes release oxides of sulphur and
vegetables, which degrade quickly through natural
nitrogen, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon
processes. Pollutants that degrade slowly, on the other
monoxide, lead and asbestos.
hand, can persist in the environment for many
decades. Air Pollutants
Substances such as dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane The following are the major gaseous and particulate
(DDT), plastic polymers, heavy metals, numerous pollutants present in the troposphere:
chemicals, nuclear wastes and others are difficult to Gaseous air pollutants These are oxides of sulphur,
remove once discharged into the environment. nitrogen and carbon, hydrogen sulphide,
In the process of environmental pollution, pollutants hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.
originate from a source and get transported by air or Particulate pollutants These are dust, mist, fumes,
water or are dumped into the soil by human beings. smoke, smog etc.
Types of Pollution Effects of Air Pollution
Mainly, there are following types of pollution : Effects of air pollution on human health are as follows:
— Air Pollution — Water Pollution Sulphur (S) It causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat,
— Land Pollution — Noise Pollution damage to lungs when inhaled. It also causes
diseases acute and chronic asthma, bronchitis,
Air Pollution emphysema and lung cancer.
Air pollution occurs due to undesirable solid or Ammonia (NH3) It plays a critical role in the
gaseous particles, particulate matter in the air, in transportation and enhanced deposition of acidic
quantities that are harmful to human health and the pollutant. Its high concentration also harms
environment. vegetation, animals and humans.
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Main source of ammonia in the environment are Government Initiatives to Prevent Air Pollution
cattle. Dairy production systems are hot-spots of The initiatives taken by government to prevent air
ammonia emission. pollution are as follows:
Suspended Particulate Matter Airborne particles The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
are tiny fragments of solid or liquid nature It was a law passed by India’s Parliament to prevent and
suspended in the air (which are called aerosols). manage the detrimental impacts of air pollution in the
Acid Deposition The process by which acidic air country. This act is regarded as the government of
pollutants, generally sulfur dioxide and nitrogen India’s first concrete effort toward combating air
oxides, are deposited on the Earth. Much of this pollution.
deposition occurs when the pollutants condense in The Government of India Through a new auto fuel
water and fall to the Earth as precipitation, generally policy has laid out a roadmap to cut down vehicular
known as acid rain. pollution in Indian cities. More stringent norms for fuels
Acid deposition causes changes in the pH of water means steadily reducing the sulphur and aromatic
and soil, leading to a host of environmental problems. content in petrol and diesel fuels.
Acid deposition may be reduced by switching to National Air Quality Monitoring Programme The
low-sulfur coal or by removing the sulfur either Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been
before or after combustion, often by adding scrubbers executing a nationwide programme of ambient air
to smokestacks. quality monitoring known as National Air Quality
Wet Deposition It refers to acid rain, fog and snow. Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas National Ambient Air Quality Standards National
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were notified
ground in the form of rain, snow, fog or mist. in the year 1982. It is based on health criteria and land
Dry Deposition In areas where the weather is dry, uses.
the acid chemicals may become incorporated into Air Quality Index (AQI) It was launched in 2015.
dust or smoke and fall to the ground through dry The AQI has six categories of air quality viz, good,
deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings, homes, satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor and
cars and trees. severe with distinct colour scheme. AQI considers eight
Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed pollutants i.e. PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3
from these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to and Pb.
increased runoff. This runoff water makes the
resulting mixture more acidic. About half of the SAFAR
acidity in the atmosphere falls back to the Earth n SAFAR-Air (System of Air Quality and Weather
through dry deposition. Forecasting and Research) is the first mobile application
Measures to Control Air Pollution service in India to provide a current and advanced
forecast for air quality. The application was developed by
Electrostatic precipitator, which can remove over scientists at Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
99% particulate matter present in the exhaust from (IITM), Pune.
a thermal power plant. n It will enable citizens to check their city’s air quality in
A scrubber can remove gases like sulphur dioxide. real time. The app will provide current data and a
In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray forecast for air quality in the user’s current location
of water or lime. through a colour-coded system- green is good, yellow is
moderately polluted, orange is poor, red is very poor and
Proper maintenance of automobiles along with use maroon is critical.
of lead-free petrol or diesel can reduce the
pollutants they emit.
Catalytic converters, having expensive metals Water Pollution
namely platinum-palladium and rhodium as the Pollution of water originates from human activities.
catalysts, are fitted into automobiles for reducing Through different paths, pollution reaches surface or
emission of poisonous gases. ground water.
As the exhaust passes through the catalytic Point sources of pollution are easily identified source or
converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into place of pollution. e.g., municipal and industrial
carbon dioxide and water and carbon monoxide and discharge pipes where pollutants enter the
nitric oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and water-source.
nitrogen gas, respectively.
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Non point sources of pollution are those where a The method of Bioremediation is used to treat
source of pollution cannot be easily identified, contaminated water. Under this method,
e.g., agricultural runoff (from farm, animals and microorganisms (like Bacteria and Fungi) are used to
crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water drainage (from degrade the environmental contaminants into less toxic
streets, parking lots and lawns), etc. forms.
Water Pollutants and their Sources The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
Pollutant Source
1974 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the prevention
Micro-organisms Domestic sewage
and control of water pollution and for the maintaining or
Organic wastes Domestic sewage, animal excreta and restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country. The
waste, decaying animals and plants,
discharge from food processing factories.
Act was amended in 1988.
Plant nutrients Chemical fertilisers
Toxic heavy metals Industries and chemical factories Namami Gange Mission
Sediments Erosion of soil by agriculture and strip An Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission called Namami
mining Gange was setup in 2014 with as a budget as ` 20,000 crore.
The amount has been allocated for developments of ghats and
Pesticides Chemicals used for killing insects, fungi
beautification of river fronts at Kedarnath, Haridwar, Kanpur,
and weeds
Varanasi, Allahabad, Patna and Delhi. Following are
Radioactive Mining of uranium containing minerals objectives of this projects :
substances
n Nirmal Dhara

Heat Water used for cooling in industries — ensuring sustainable municipal sewage management.
— managing sewage from rural areas.
Causes of Water Pollution
— managing industrial discharge.
Pathogens The most serious water pollutants are n Aviral Dhara

the disease-causing agents called pathogens. — Promotion of tourism and shipping in a rational and
Pathogens include bacteria and other organisms sustainable manner.
that enter water from domestic sewage and animal — Knowledge management on Ganga through Ganga
excreta. Knowledge Centre.
Organic wastes The other major water pollutant is
organic matter such as leaves, grass, trash etc. They Methods of Measuring Water Quality
pollute water as a consequence of run off. Excessive
phytoplanktons growth within water is also a cause The various methods to measure water quality are as
of water pollution. These wastes are biodegradable. follows :
Chemical Pollutants Water soluble inorganic Biological Oxygen Demand The amount of oxygen
chemicals that include heavy metals such as required by bacteria to break down the organic matter
cadmium, mercury, nickel etc constitute an present in a certain volume of a sample of water, is
important class of pollutants. called Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
The amount of BOD in the water is a measure of the
Measures to Control Water Pollution amount of organic material in the water, in terms of how
The controlling measures of water pollution are as much oxygen will be required to break it down
follows : biologically. Clean water would have BOD value of less
Clean Water Act or other such acts are to regulate than 5 (ppm) whereas highly polluted water could have a
how industries and water treatment plants BOD value of 17 (ppm) or more.
processed their water before releasing it. Eutrophication The process in which nutrient enriched
Communities and industries have come up with water bodies support a dense plant population, which
solutions for reducing the amount of sediment in kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen and results in
water by preventing soil erosion through building subsequent loss of biodiversity is known as
dams and planting trees.Utility companies have Eutrophication.
improved the controls in their treatment plants and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) It is a test that
fixed broken pipes to reduce the amount of sewage determines the quantity of oxygen necessary to
and chemical detergents released into water chemically oxidise organic and inorganic substances
supplies. found in water, such as Ammonia and Nitrate.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
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Noise Pollution Other Types of Pollution

Noise pollution refers to the state of unbearable and Other important types of pollution are discussed as
uncomfortable to human beings which is caused by noise follows :
from different sources.
The main sources of noise pollution are various factories, Radioactive Pollution
mechanised construction and demolition works, Radioactive (or nuclear) waste is generated as a
automobiles and aircraft, etc by-product of nuclear reactors, fuel processing
There may be added periodical but polluting noise from plants, hospitals and research institutes.
sirens, loudspeakers used in various festivals, programmes Decommissioning and dismantling nuclear
associated with community activities. reactors and other nuclear facilities also
The level of steady noise is measured by sound level generates radioactive waste.
expressed in terms of decibels (dB). Sound upto 50 dB is Radiation, given off by nuclear waste is
considered as normal. Sound more than 80 dB is called as extremely damaging to organisms, because it
noise. causes mutations at a very high rate.
Noise pollution is location-specific and its intensity At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal but at
decreases with increasing distance from the source of lower doses, it creates various disorders, the
pollution, such as industrial districts, transportation most frequent of all being cancer. Therefore,
corridors, airports and so on. nuclear waste is an extremely potent pollutant and
has to be dealt with utmost caution.
Measures to Prevent Noise Pollution
Turn off appliances at home and offices. Measures to Prevent Radioactive Pollution
When not in use, we can turn off home and office — Safe disposal of radioactive waste.
appliances such as TVs, games, computers and so on, — Regular monitoring through frequent sampling
which can cause unnecessary stress on the ears. and quantitative analysis.
We can also save electricity by turning them off. — Safety measures against nuclear accidents.
Close the door when using noisy machines. For rooms — Nuclear explosions and use of nuclear weapons
where dishwashers or washing machines are housed, we should be completely banned.
can close the door after turning them on.
Solid Waste Pollution
Obey the noise level limits.
Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in
Community law should prohibit the use of loudspeakers, trash. Municipal solid wastes are wastes from
outdoor parties and political public announcements. homes, offices, stores, schools, hospitals, etc.,
Control noise levels near sensitive areas. that are collected and disposed by the
municipality.
Soil Pollution
All waste that we generate can be categorised
Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that into the following three types :
covers the Earth’s rocky surface. Soil pollution is defined as
— Bio-degradable waste It is any product that
the ‘‘addition of substances to the soil, which adversely
affect physical, chemical and biological properties of soil can be easily broken down naturally by water,
and reduces its productivity.’’ oxygen, the Sun’s rays, radiation, or
micro-organisms. e.g., Food waste, Human
Soil pollution primarily results from agricultural chemicals
Waste, Manure, Sewage etc.
(e.g., pesticides) and leachates from solid wastes deposited
— Recyclable waste Recycling is the process of
over it.
converting waste materials into new materials
Measures to prevent soil pollution are : and objects and those materials which can be
— Reducing chemical fertiliser and pesticide use recycled are called recyclable waste. e.g., Glass,
— Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilisers Paper, Metal, Plastic etc.
— Organic farming — Non-Bio-degradable waste Those which
— Four R’s: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse and Recycle cannot be decomposed or dissolved by natural
— Afforestation and reforestation agents are called Non-Bio-degradable waste.
— Solid waste treatment e.g., Plastic Bottle, Medical waste, Carbon
— Reduction of waste from construction areas paper etc.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
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Measures to Prevent Solid Waste Pollution Cadmium It is used in the battery of a cell phone.
Open Dumps They dumps refer to uncovered areas It is associated with deficits in cognition, learning,
that are used to dump solid waste of all kinds. The behaviour and neuromotor skills in children. It has
rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates also been linked to kidney damage.
nearby land and water thereby spreading disease. Mercury It is used in the cell phone’s battery, crystal
Treatment by open dumps is to be phased out. displays and circuit boards. A single cell phone
Landfills They are generally located in urban areas. It contains upto 2 grams of mercury. Mercury exposure
is a pit that is dug in the ground. Sanitary landfills contributes to brain and kidney damage.
were adopted as the substitute for open-burning Barium It is used in computers in the front panel of a
dumps. In a sanitary landfill, wastes are dumped in a CRT to protect users from radiation. Short term
depression or trench after compaction and covered exposure to barium causes brain swelling, muscles
with dirt every day. weakness, damage to heart, etc.
Incineration plants The process of burning waste in Cobalt Hazardous in case of inhalation and ingestion
large furnaces at high temperature is known as and is an irritant of the skin.
incineration. In these plants the recyclable material is
segregated and the rest of the material is burnt and ash
E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
is produced.
The E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 has replaced the
Pyrolysis It is a process of combustion in absence of E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 which
oxygen or the material burnt under controlled introduced concept of ‘extended producer responsibility’.
atmosphere of oxygen. It can be seen an alternative to Main provisions of E-Waste Management Rules 2016 are:
incineration. n State Government to prepare integrated plan.

Composting It is a biological process in which n The transportation of E-Waste shall be carried out as

microorganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, per the manifest emphasis.

n Dealer or retailer or E-retailer shall refund the amount
decompose degradable organic waste into humus like
substance in the presence of oxygen. as per take back system. The manufacturer is also now
responsible to collect E-waste.
Vermiculture It is also known as earthworm farming.
In this method, Earth worms are added to the compost.
These worms break the waste and the added excreta of Measures to Prevent E-Waste Pollution
the worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients. Proper education, awareness and alternative
cost-effective technology must be supplied so that
E-Waste Pollution
those who rely on this for a living can be provided
Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are with a better standard of living.
known as electronic wastes (e-wastes). E-wastes are
To address India’s E-waste management concerns, a
buried in landfills or incinerated.
comprehensive solution is required.
More than half of the e-waste generated in the
A suitable system must be developed to incorporate
developed world is exported to developing countries,
small units from the unorganised sector and large
primarily China, India and Pakistan, where metals
units from the organised sector into a single value
such as copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are
chain.
recovered during the recycling process.
In contrast to developed countries, which have Soil Erosion and Desertification
specifically built facilities for E-waste recycling,
The degradation of natural resources can occur, not
recycling in developing countries frequently involves
just by the action of pollutants but also by improper
manual participation, exposing workers to toxic
resource utilisation practices.
substances present in E-waste.
The development of the fertile top-soil takes
Recycling is the sole method for the treatment of
centuries. But it can be removed very easily due to
E-waste, provided it is done at an E-waste facility.
human activities like over-cultivation, unrestricted
Impacts of E-Waste on Human Health grazing, deforestation and poor irrigation practices,
Lead It is found in a wide variety of cell phone resulting in arid patches of land.
components including the circuit boards, batteries and When large barren patches extend and meet over
as a stabiliser in PVC products. Lead exposure can time, a desert is created. Desertification has become a
cause damage to blood and nervous systems. major problem because of urbanisation.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
340

The pressure on agricultural land increases not only These are Swachh Bharat Mission–Urban (SBM–U)
due to the limited availability but also by deterioration and Swachh Bharat Mission-Gramin (SBM–G).
of quality of agricultural land. Soil erosion, The SBM–U primarily aims at making Urban India
waterlogging, salinisation and alkalinisation of land free from open defecation and achieving
lead to land degradation. 100% scientific management of solid waste in the
country.
Deforestation The SBM–G targets to bring about an improvement in
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to the general quality of life in rural areas by promoting
Non-forested ones. cleanliness and hygiene and eliminating open
Factors which led to deforestation are : defecation.
— A number of human activities altogether have
Green Chemistry
contributed to deforestation.
Green chemistry is a production process that would
— One of the major reasons is the conversion of forest
bring about minimum pollution or deterioration to the
to agricultural land so as to feed the growing human environment.
population.
Utilisation of existing knowledge base for reducing
— Trees are axed for timber, firewood, cattle ranching
the chemical hazards along with the developmental
and for several other purposes.
activities is the foundation of green chemistry.
— Slash and burn agriculture, commonly called as
Green chemistry, is a cost-effective approach which
Jhum cultivation in the North-Eastern states of
involves reduction in material, energy consumption
India, has also contributed to deforestation.
and waste generation.
Causes of Deforestation
One of the major effects of deforestation is enhanced International Efforts to
carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere Control Environment Pollution
because trees that could hold a lot of carbon in their Basel Convention Basel convention was established
biomass are lost with deforestation. on 5th May, 1992. It is an international convention
Deforestation also causes loss of biodiversity due to aimed at reducing the flow of hazardous waste
habitat destruction, disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes between Nations and in particular, preventing the
soil erosion and may lead to desertification in extreme transfer of hazardous waste from developed to Less
cases. Developed Countries (LDCs).
Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that The Rotterdam Convention The Rotterdam
once existed but was removed at some point of time in convention was established on 10th September, 1998.
the past. Reforestation may occur naturally in a It aims to promote shared responsibility and
deforested area. cooperative efforts among Parties in the international
trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to
Strategies to Control protect human health and the environment from
Environmental Pollution potential harm.
The strategies adopted to control environmental Stockholm Convention Stockholm was the first world
pollution are as follows: conference to make the environment a major issue.
It was adopted on 22nd May, 2001 in Stockholm,
‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ or ‘Clean India Mission’ Sweden and entered into force on 17th May, 2004.
It was launched by Union Government in 2014. Two The objective of the Stockholm Convention is to
programmes are being implemented under the broad protect human health and the environment from
umbrella of the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. persistent organic pollutants.
 INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
NCERT Notes
CHAPTER 33 341

Sustainable Development

Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 9 (Economics) (Environment and Sustainable Development)
Class-XII New NCERT Chap 9 (Geography) (Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context),

Meaning of Sustainable Development The publication of ‘The Population Bomb’ by

Ehrlich in 1968 and ‘The Limits to Growth’ by
The term development is generally used to describe the Meadows in 1972 further raised the level of fear
state of particular societies and the process of changes among environmentalists and people.
experienced by them.
The concept of sustainable development was Objectives of Sustainable
emphasised by the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED).
Development
Sustainable development aims at decreasing the
It defined sustainable development as ‘Development
absolute poverty of the poor by providing lasting and
that meets the need of the present generation without
secure livelihoods that minimise resource depletion,
compromising the ability of the future generation to
environmental degradation, cultural disruption and
meet their own needs’.
social instability.
The use of the concept ‘needs’ in the definition is
The United Nations established a World
linked to distribution of resources.
Commission on Environment and Development
Edward Barbier defined sustainable development as (WCED) headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister
“one which is directly concerned with increasing the Gro Harlem Brundtland. The commission was
material standard of living of the poor at the grass root named as Brundtland Report.
level — this can be quantitatively measured in terms of
increased income, real income, educational services, Brundtland Commission gave a report entitled as
health care, sanitation, water supply etc.” ‘Our Common Future’ in 1987.
The report defines sustainable development as a
Concept of Sustainable Development ‘development that meets the needs of the present
Sustainable development is a multi-dimensional without compromising the ability of future
concept and signifies the positive, irreversible generations to meet their own needs.’
transformation of the economy, society and Sustainable development takes care of ecological,
environment. social and economic aspects of development during
The notion of sustainable development emerged in the the present times.
wake of general rise in the awareness of environmental It urges for conservation of resources to enable the
issues in the late 1960s in Western world. future generations to use these resources.
It reflected the concern of people about undesirable It also takes into account the development of whole
effects of industrial development on the environment. human kind which have common future.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
342

Fundamental Ideas of Gender Inequality

Sustainable Development Due to the gender division of labour in society, women
Renewability The rate of utilisation of renewable and men have different needs and uses of natural
resource should be lower than or equal to the rate of resources.
regeneration of the resource. The resources that have The different responsibilities imposed by societies on
already depleted due to ‘over use’ should be given females and males have implications for how they
complete protection. interact with their local environment.
Adaptability A sustainable developing society has Process of Sustainable Development
ability to adapt in changing environment. It is also
capable of creating opportunities for survival and Sustainable development should be the basis for the
recreation through innovation, manifested in employment. For this, it is required to collect informations
Research and Development (R&D) activities. which may be of two types :
Interdependence A sustainable society neither Environment related Information It includes
imports resources from outside through deprivation information related to biodiversity, physical visual and
of other communities, nor it exports its own wastes to changed visual land.
create pollution in other societies. Human related Information It includes information
Substitution Sustainable development ensures related to the population increase rate, population size,
substitution of use of non-renewable natural food productivity, etc.
resources by the use of renewable natural resources. These informations are collected, evaluated and lastly
Institutional Commitment It includes political implemented. Social forestry in India is an important
support, constitutional provisions, legal framework, example of human related information.
coordination between legal institutions and above all Strategies for Achieving
the ability to understand the need of sustainable
development in a society.
Sustainable Development
Following efforts are being made to achieve sustainable
Parameters of Sustainable Development development :
Parameters of sustainable development refer to the Lifestyle It includes everything in our life; from the
guiding principles that help in understanding the food we eat and how we interact with others to the way
concept of sustainable development. we get around.
The parameters include inter and intra-generational Population It is very closely related with sustainable
equity, carrying capacity and gender inequality. development, population growth, population ageing
and decline, as well as migration and urbanisation affect
Inter-generational Equity virtually all development objectives that are on the top
It refers to the use of Earth’s resources between of national and global development agendas.
generations in a manner that the present generation does Conservation It concern for maintenance and
not consume it completely to its exhaustion. sustainability is a rational response to the nature of
Three principles form the basis of inter-generational living resources and also an ethical imperative,
equity are as follows : expressed in the belief that ‘we have not inherited the
Conservation of Option Conservation of Quality Earth from our parents, we have borrowed it from our
Conservation of Access children’.

Intra-generational Equity Measures for Promotion of

It refers to fair in utilisation of resources among Sustainable Development
human members of present generations, both Attaining sustainable development in the command area
domestically and globally. requires major thrust upon the measures to achieve
Carrying Capacity ecological sustainability. The measures for promotion of
Sustainable development are as follows:
It refers to the number of individuals who can be
supported in a given area within natural resource Revamped Cropping Patterns In general, the cropping
limits, without degrading the natural social, cultural pattern shall not include water intensive crops. It shall
and economic environment for present and future be adhered to and people shall be encouraged to grow
generations. plantation crops such as citrus fruits.
NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
343

Measures to reduce water loss The CAD Sustainable Development Goals

programmes such as lining of water courses, land
development and levelling and warabandi system The United Nations approved the Sustainable
(equal distribution of canal water in the command Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global
area of outlet) shall be effectively implemented to Goals, in 2015 as a universal call to action to end
reduce the conveyance loss of water. poverty, safeguard the environment and ensure that by
2030, all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
Achieving Social Sustainability The social sustainability
in the region can be achieved only if the land According to the latest SDG India Index from NITI
allottees having poor economic background are Aayog, India has achieved steady progress toward
provided adequate financial and institutional meeting the United Nations’ Sustainable Development
support for cultivation of land. Goals (SDGs) in the areas of health, energy and
infrastructure. India’s overall SDG score increased by 6
Achieving Economic Sustainability The
points, from 60 in 2019 to 66 in 2020-21.
agricultural and allied activities have to develop
along with other sectors of economy. The 17 proposed SDGs are as follows :
This shall lead to diversification of economic base 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
and establishment of functional linkages between 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved
basic villages, agro-service centres and market nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
centres. 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for
Solar Power through Photovoltaic Cells India is all at all ages.
naturally endowed with a large quantity of solar 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
energy in the form of sunlight. With the help of and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
photovoltaic cells, solar energy can be converted 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women
into electricity. and girls.
CNG in Urban Areas In Delhi, the use of Compressed 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of
Natural Gas (CNG) as fuel in public transport water and sanitation for all.
system has significantly lowered air pollution and
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
the air has become cleaner in the last few years.
and modern energy for all.
Wind Power In areas where speed of wind is
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
usually high, wind mills can provide electricity
economic growth, full and productive employment
without any adverse impact on the environment.
and decent work for all.
Traditional Knowledge and Practices
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
Traditionally, Indian people have been close to
sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.
their environment. Use of more Organic and
environmental friendly products will be essential 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.
for environment. 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production
New Sustainable Development Agenda patterns.
n On 25th September, 2015, United Nations adopted an
agreement on the outcome document ‘New
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and
Sustainable Development Agenda’ for the next its impacts.
15 years (till 2030). The document was adopted in 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
70th session of UN General Assembly at UN marine resources for sustainable development.
Headquarters, New York. 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
n The agreement has 169 target issues that comprise terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
different socio-economic issues. The title of the combat desertification and halt and reverse land
agenda document is ‘Transforming Our World, the
degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’.
n Sustainable development goals outline broader 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainability agenda dealing with five Ps-People, sustainable development, provide access to justice
Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. It seeks for all and build effective, accountable and
to address the universal need for development that inclusive institutions at all levels.
works for all people and root causes of poverty. It 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and
also includes specific goals on economic indicators revitalise the global partnership for sustainable
for first time.
development.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER
344 34

Disaster Management

Sources Class-XI New NCERT Chap 7 (India and the World, Natural Hazards and Disasters)

As a result of this, both the plates are said to be locked

Disaster with each other resulting in accumulation of energy at
A disaster is a result of natural or man-made causes different points of time.
that leads to sudden disruption of normal life, causing Excessive accumulation of energy results in building
severe damage to life and property to an extent that up of stress, which ultimately leads to the breaking up
available social and economic protection mechanisms of the lock and the sudden release of energy causes
are inadequate to cope. earthquakes along the Himalayan arch.
As per origin, disasters can be classified as follows : Some of the most vulnerable states are Jammu and
— Natural disasters Earthquake, flood, drought, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Tsunami, landslide, etc. the Darjeeling and subdivision of West Bengal and all
— Man-made disasters Bhopal Gas Tragedy, the seven states of the North-East.
Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster and Fukushima Nuclear
Earthquake Zones
Disaster, etc.
National Geophysical Laboratory, Geological Survey
of India, Department of Meteorology, Government of
Natural Disasters in India India, along with the National Institute of Disaster
Some of the major natural disasters in India are as follows : Management divided India into the following five
earthquake zones :
Earthquakes — Zone I Very high damage risk zone
Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and — Zone II High damage risk zone
highly destructive of all the natural disasters. — Zone III Moderate damage risk zone
Tectonic earthquakes result from a series of Earth — Zone IV Low damage risk zone
movements brought about by a sudden release of
— Zone V Very low damage risk zone
energy during the tectonic activities in the Earth’s
crust and they are most devastating. Zone I and Zone II had experienced some of the most
devastating earthquakes in India. Areas vulnerable to
Volcanic earthquakes associated with rock fall,
these earthquakes are the North-East states, areas
landslides, subsidence, particularly in the mining
along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar, Uttarakhand,
areas, impounding of dams and reservoirs, etc., have
Western Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir valley and
limited area of influence and the scale of damage.
the Kachchh (Gujarat).
It is due to movement of the Indian plate at a speed of
Zone III covers Southern and South-Eastern parts of
one centimeter per year towards the North and
Rajasthan, larger parts of Madhya Pradesh,
North-Eastern direction. This movement of plates is
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Northern and
being constantly obstructed by the Eurasian plate
North-Western part of Odisha.
from the North.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
345

Zone IV is least seismic activity zone. Most of the Tsunami

areas that can be considered safe are from the stable
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the
landmass covered under the Deccan Plateau.
sea-floor to move abruptly resulting in sudden
Effects of Earthquakes displacement of ocean water in the form of high
Earthquakes have all encompassing disastres effects vertical waves are called ‘tsunamis’.
on the area of their occurrence. Tsunamis are also known as harbour waves or seismic
Surface seismic waves produce fissures on the upper sea waves.
layers of the Earth’s crust through which water and The seismic waves cause only one instantaneous
other volatile materials gush out, inundating the vertical wave. After the initial disturbance, a series of
neighbouring areas. after waves are created in the water that oscilliate
Earthquakes are also responsible for landslides and between high crest and low trough in order to restore
often these cause obstructions in the flow of rivers the water level.
and channels resulting in the formation of reservoirs. The speed of wave in the ocean depends upon the
depth of water. It is more in the shallow water than in
Effects of Earthquakes the ocean deep.
On Ground On Man-made On Water As a result of this, the impact of tsunami is less over the
Structures ocean and more near the coast where they cause
Fissures Cracking Waves large-scale devastations.
Settlements Slidings Hydro-Dynamic A ship at sea is not much affected by tsunami. It is
Pressure difficult to detect a tsunami in the deeper parts of sea
Landslides Overturning Tsunami because over deep water the tsunami has very long
Liquefaction Buckling wave-length and limited wave-height.
Earth Pressure Collapse Wave length of Tsunami gets reduced and wave height
Possible increases when it enters a shallow water.
Chain-effects Possible Possible Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific
Chain-effects Chain-effects Ring of Fire, particularly along the coast of Alaska,
Japan, Philippines and other Islands of South-East Asia,
Earthquake Hazard Mitigation Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and
India etc.
Some of the measures on disaster preparedness and
mitigation are as follows: Causes of Tsunami
Establishing earthquake monitoring centres Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes generated in
(seismological centres) for regular monitoring and subduction zone, an area where an oceanic plate is
fast dissemination of information among the people forced down into the mantle.
in the vulnerable areas. In general, tsunami is caused by sudden motion on the
Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can ocean floor. This sudden motion could be an
be of great help in monitoring the movement of earthquake, volcanic eruption, or an underwater
tectonic plates. landslide. The impact of a large meteorite could also
Preparing a vulnerability map of the country cause a tsunami.
and dissemination of vulnerability risk information Impacts of Tsunami
among the people and educating them about the
After reaching the coast, the tsunami waves release
ways and means minimising the adverse impacts of
enormous energy stored in them and water flows
disasters.
turbulently onto the land destroying port-cities and
Modifying the house types and building designs in towns, structures, buildings and other settlements.
the vulnerable areas and discouraging construction The loss of life and property is likely to be much higher
of high-rise buildings, large industrial by a Tsunami as compared to other natural hazards in
establishments and big urban centres in such areas. the coastal areas due to high population density and
Finally, making it mandatory to adopt centre of economic activities.
earthquake-resistant designs and use light materials The whole coastline of mainland India alongwith
in major construction activities in the vulnerable islands in both oceans are prone to Tsunami
areas. disaster.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
346

Tsunami Warning System in India Conditions for Emergence of Tropical Cyclone

The 26th December, 2004 earthquake and the Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air
subsequent tsunami exposed the vulnerability of the that can release enormous latent heat.
Indian coastline to Oceanic hazards. Strong Coriolis force that can prevent filling of low
Following the event, India started its own interim pressure at the centre (absence of Coriolis force near
tsunami warning centre in the first quarter of 2005 to the equator prohibits the formation of tropical cyclone
issue tsunami bulletins generated from seismic between 0° -5° latitude).
information. Unstable condition through the troposphere that creates
The interim services were succeeded by setting up of local disturbances around which a cyclone develops.
a state-of-the-art Indian Tsunami Early Warning Absence of strong vertical wind wedge, which disturbs
System (ITEWS) at the Indian National Centre for the vertical transport of latent heat.
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad,
under the Earth System Sciences Organisation Structure of Tropical Cyclone
(ESSO). Tropical cyclones are characterised by large pressure
The system implemented in phases became gradients. The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm
full-fledged 24 × 7 operational early warning system and low-pressure, cloudless core known as eye of the
in October 2007. storm.
The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System has the The isobars are closely placed to each other showing
responsibility to provide tsunami advisories to Indian high-pressure gradients, which varies between
mainland and the Island regions. Acting as one of the 14-17mb/100 km, but sometimes it can be as high as
Regional Tsunami Advisory Service Providers 60 mb/100 km.
(RTSPs) for the Indian Ocean Region, ITEWS also Consequences of Tropical Cyclones
provides tsunami advisories to the Indian Ocean rim
With the increase in distance from the sea, the force of
countries alongwith Australia and Indonesia.
the cyclone decreases.
In India, the force of the cyclone decreases with
Tsunami Warning System (TWS) increase in distance from the Bay of Bengal and the
n A Tsunami Warning System (TWS) is used to detect Arabian Sea.
tsunamis in advance and issue warnings to prevent
loss of life and damage.
The coastal areas are often struck by severe cyclonic
storms with an average velocity of 180 km/h. Often,
n The Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the Pacific,
comprised of 26 participating international member this results in abnormal rise in the sea level known as
states, has the functions of monitoring seismological Storm Surge.
and tidal stations throughout the Pacific Basin to Tropical Cyclones results in inundation of human
evaluated potentially tsunamigenic earthquakes and settlements, agricultural fields, damaging crops and
disseminating tsunami warning information. destruction of structures created by human beings.
n The Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) is the
operational centre of the Pacific TWS. Located near Tropical Cyclones in India
Honolulu, Hawaii, PTWC provides tsunami warning Indian subcontinent is one of the worst cyclone affected
information to national authorities in the Pacific areas of the world. Around 8% of the total geographical
Basin. area, particularly along the Eastern coast and coast of
Gujarat is vulnerable to tropical cyclones. Some
Tropical Cyclone divastating cyclones that occurred in India are :
Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure areas Cyclone Thane This cyclone hit the Southern state of
confined to the area lying between 30° N and 30° S Tamil Nadu, killing dozens of people in 2001.
latitudes, in the atmosphere around which high Odisha Super Cyclone This super cyclone that hit
velocity winds blow. Odisha coast in 1999 killed more than 10,000 people.
Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1000 km and Phailin It was the most intense tropical cyclone to hit
vertically from surface to 12-14 km. Eastern coast of India since Odisha super cyclone.
A tropical cyclone also known as hurricane is like a It swept through Odisha and Andhra coast in 2013.
heat engine that is energised by the release of latent Hudhud Cyclone Hudhud (2014) pounded India’s
heat on account of the condensation of moisture Eastern coast, killing more than 40 people.
that the wind gathers after moving over the oceans Nilofar This cyclone hit the Gujarat coast in 2014.
and seas. It was categorised as severe storm.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
347

Flood Flood Prone Zones in India

Flooding is defined as the inundation of land and In India, around 40 million hectare area is flood-prone,
human settlements caused by the rise of water in which is one-eighth of the total area. The most flood
the channels and its spill-over. prone areas are the Brahmaputra, Ganga and Indus
Floods occur commonly when water in the form of basins.
surface run-off exceeds the carrying capacity of the Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha are the
river channels and streams and flows into the most flood affected states followed by Haryana, Punjab
neighbouring low-lying flood plains. and Andhra Pradesh. Now-a-days, Rajasthan and Gujarat
Floods are also caused due to a storm surge in the also feel the fury of floods. Karnataka and Maharashtra
coastal areas, high intensity rainfall for a are no longer immune to floods.
considerably longer time period, melting of ice and In September 2014, the Kashmir region witnessed
snow, etc. disastrous floods across majority of its districts caused by
Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the high torrential rainfall.
flood-prone states of India. Tamil Nadu Impact of Floods
experiences flooding during November and
Frequent inundation of agricultural land and human
January due to the retreating monsoon.
settlement has serious consequences on the national
Causes of Flood economy and society.
Heavy Rainfall Heavy rain in the catchment area Floods do not only destroy valuable crops every year but
of a river causes water to overflow its banks, which also damage physical infrastructure such as roads, rails,
results in the flooding of nearby areas. bridges and human settlements.
Sediment Deposition River beds become shallow Millions of people are rendered homeless and are also
due to sedimentation. The water carrying capacity washed down alongwith their cattle in the floods.
of such river is reduced. As a result, the rainwater Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis
overflows the river banks. and other water-borne diseases spread in the
Deforestation Vegetation hampers the flow of flood-affected areas.
water and forces it to percolate in the ground. As a Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every
result of deforestation, the land becomes year, floods deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields,
obstruction free and water flows with greater speed which is good for the crops.
into the rivers and causes flood.
Flood Mitigation and Control Measures
Cyclone Cyclone generated sea waves of abnormal
height spread the water in the adjoining coastal Warning With the advancement of technology such as
areas. satellite and remote-sensing equipments, flood can be
tracked as the water level rises. Evacuation is possible
In October 1999, Odisha cyclone generated severe
with suitable monitoring and warning.
floods and caused unprecedent loss of life and
property. Warning is issued by the Central Water Commission
(CWC), Irrigation and Flood Control Department and
Interference in Drainage System Drainage
Water Resources Department.
congestion caused by badly planned construction
of bridges, roads, railway tracks, canals, etc Mapping of the Flood Prone Areas Flood hazard
hampers the flow of water and the result is flood. mapping will give the proper indication of water flow
during floods.
Change in the Course of River Meanders and
change in the course of river cause floods. Land Use Control It will reduce danger of life and
property, when waters inundate the floodplains and the
Tsunami Large coastal areas are flooded by rising
coastal areas. No major development should be permitted
sea water, when a tsunami strikes the coast.
in the areas which are subjected to high flooding.
Consequence of Floods Flood Control It aims to reduce flood damage. This can
Floods destroy valuable crops every year as well as be done by decreasing the amount of run-off with the
also damage physical infrastructure such as roads, help of reforestation. Flood diversion includes levees,
rails, bridges and human settlements. embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can
Floods are also responsible for spread of diseases store water and can release water at a manageable rate.
like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other But failure of dams in earthquakes and operation of
water-borne diseases spread in the flood-affected releasing the water can cause floods in the lower areas.
areas.
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348

Flood Proofing It reduces the risk of damage. Gujarat fall in this category. The districts like
Measures include use of sand bags to keep flood Jaisalmer and Barmer from the Indian desert receive
water away, blocking or sealing of doors and less than 90 mm average annual rainfall.
windows of houses, etc. Severe Drought Prone Areas Parts of Eastern
Restoration of Original Drainage System Drainage Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh, Eastern parts
system is generally choked by the construction of of Maharashtra (including Marathawada), interior parts
roads, canals, railway tracks, etc. Floods could be of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau, Northern
checked if the original form of drainage system is parts of interior Tamil Nadu and Southern parts of
restored. Jharkhand and interior Odisha.
Moderate Drought Affected Areas Northern parts of
Drought Rajasthan, Haryana, Southern districts of Uttar
The term ‘drought’ refers to a prolonged time in Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra,
which there is a scarcity of water due to insufficient (including Marathawada) except Konkan, Jharkhand
precipitation, an excessive rate of evaporation and and Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior
over-utilisation of water from reservoirs and other Karnataka.
storages, including ground water.
Drought Mitigation Measures
Types of Drought
Drought Monitoring It is continuous observation of
Meteorological Drought It is a situation when there the rainfall situation, availability of water in the
is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall marked reservoirs, lakes, rivers, etc and comparing with the
with mal-distribution of the same over time and space. existing water needs in various sectors of the society.
Agricultural Drought It is also known as soil Sowing Drought Resistant Crops By sowing drought
moisture drought, characterised by low soil moisture resistant crops of cotton, split green gram, pearl millet,
that is necessary to support the crops, thereby wheat, etc, the impact of drought could be mitigated to
resulting in crop failures. a certain extent.
Hydrological Drought It results when the availability Rain Water Harvesting Collection of each and every
of water in different storages and reservoirs like drop of rain could help in coping with the drought.
aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the Small quantity of water can irrigate comparatively larger
precipitation can replenish. area by using drip irrigation and sprinkler methods.
Ecological Drought When the productivity of a Drought Planning The basic goal of drought planning is
natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water and to improve the effectiveness of preparedness and
as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation
induced in the ecosystem. and response measures.
Consequences of Drought Planning for Drought
Droughts have cascading effects on various other Provision for the distribution of safe drinking water,
aspects of environment and society. medicines for the victims and availability of fodder and
Crop failure leading to scarcity of food grains (Akal), water for the cattle and shifting of the people and their
fodder (Trinkal), inadequate rainfall, resulting in livestock to safer places.
shortage of water (Jalkal) and often shortage in all Identification of ground water potential in the form of
the three (Trikal). aquifers, transfer of river water from the surplus to the
Large-scale death of cattle and other animals, deficit areas and particularly planning for inter-linking
migration of humans and livestock. of rivers and construction of reservoirs and dams, etc.
Scarcity of water compels people to consume Remote sensing and satellite imageries can be useful in
contaminated water resulting in spread of many identifying the possible river-basins that can be inter-
waterborne diseases like gastro-enteritis, cholera, linked and in identifying the ground water potential.
hepatitis, etc. Rainwater harvesting can also be an effective method
in minimising the effects of drought.
Drought Prone Areas in India
On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided Landslides
into three regions : Landslide is the rapid sliding of large mass of bedrocks.
Extreme Drought Affected Areas Most parts of Unlike other disasters that are sudden, unpredictable and
Rajasthan, particularly areas to the West of the are largely controlled by macro, regional and highly
Aravalli hills i.e., Marusthali and Kachchh region of localised factors.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
349

Consequences of Landslides Other Areas The remaining parts of India, particularly

Landslides have relatively small and localised area states like Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
of direct influence, but roadblock, destruction of West Bengal (except district Darjeeling), Assam (except
railway lines and channel blocking due to rock-falls district Karbi Anglong) and Coastal regions of the
have far-reaching consequences. Southern states are safe as far as landslides are
concerned.
Diversion of river courses due to landslides can also
lead to flood and loss of life and property.
It also makes spatial interaction difficult, risky as Man-Made Disasters
well as a costly affair, which, in turn, adversely Man-made disasters refer to non-natural disastrous
affects the developmental activities in these areas. occurrences that can be sudden for longer term. Sudden
Mitigation man-made disasters include structural collapses, such as
building and mine collapse, when this occurs
Restriction on the construction and other independently without any outside force.
developmental activities such as roads and dams.
Man-made disaster includes communal riots, civil strife,
Limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with
international war, nuclear blast, fire, accidents, etc.
moderate slopes and control on the development of
large settlements in the high vulnerability zones, Important man-made disasters are as follows :
should be enforced. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984), India
Construction of bunds to reduce the flow of water. Bhopal Gas Tragedy was a gas leak incident in India. It is
Terrace farming should be encouraged in the considered one of the world’s worst industrial disasters.
North-Eastern hill states where Jhumming (Slash
It occurred on the mid night 2nd-3rd December, 1984 at
and Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.
the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant
Landslide Vulnerability Zones in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Over 5,00,000 people were
Very High Vulnerability Zone Highly unstable, exposed to Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas and other
relatively young mountainous areas in the chemicals.
Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, high rainfall Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster (1986)
regions with steep slopes in the Western Ghats and
A dangerous large-scale release of nuclear radiation
Nilgiris, the North-Eastern regions, along with
occurred during the nuclear accident in nuclear power
areas that experience frequent ground shaking due
plant at Chernobyl in Ukraine on 25th April, 1986.
to earthquakes, etc. The areas of intense human
activities particularly those related to construction The radiation leaks and fallout of radioactivity was quite
of roads, dams, etc., are also included in this zone. widespread covering almost most of Belarus, large part
of Russia and Ukraine and even European territories.
High Vulnerability Zone Areas that have almost
similar conditions to these included in the very Fukushima Nuclear Disaster (2011), Japan
high vulnerability zone are also included in this Fukushima Daiichi incident was a nuclear disaster,
category. The only difference between these two is resulting in a meltdown of the plant’s six nuclear
the combination, intensity and frequency of the reactors. The failure occurred when the plant was hit by
controlling factors. a tsunami triggered by the magnitude 9.0 Tohoku
All the Himalayan states and the states from the earthquake.
North-Eastern regions except the plains of Assam are The plant began releasing substantial amounts of
included in the high vulnerability zones. radioactive material on 12th March, becoming the largest
Moderate to Law Vulnerability Zone Areas that nuclear incident since the Chernobyl disaster in April
receive less precipitation such as Trans-Himalayan 1986 and the second after Chernobyl to measure level 7
areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES).
undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation
areas in the Aravali, rain shadow areas in the Disaster Management in India
Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau also
Disaster management is the process of planning for and
experience occasional landslides.
responding to natural disasters. It entails carefully
Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most coordinating resources to mitigate the damage caused by
common in states like Jharkhand, Odisha, calamities. It also entails a systematic strategy to
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, handling catastrophe prevention, readiness, response,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and and recovery duties.
Kerala.
 NCERT Notes INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY
350

There are three stages involved in disaster mitigation National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009
and management: India’s National Policy on Disaster Management was
(i) Pre-disaster management involves generating data approved by the Union Cabinet on 22nd October, 2009.
and information about the disasters, preparing It aims to minimise the losses to lives, livelihoods and
vulnerability zoning maps and spreading property, caused by natural or man-made disasters with
awareness among the people about these. Apart a vision to build a safe and disaster resilient India by
from these, disaster planning, preparedness and developing a holistic, proactive, integrated and
preventive measures are other steps that need to be technology driven strategy.
taken in the vulnerable areas.
The themes underpinning the policy include
(ii) During disasters, rescue and relief operations such community based disaster management, capacity
as evacuation, construction of shelters and relief development in all spheres, consolidation of past
camps, supplying of water, food, clothing and initiatives and best practices. The policy aims
medical aids etc. should be done on an emergency
cooperation with agencies at National and
basis.
International levels with multi-sectoral synergy.
(iii) Post-disaster operations should involve
rehabilitation and recovery of victims. It should Objectives of National Policy of
also concentrate on capacity building in order to Disaster Management
cope up with future disasters. The objectives of the National Policy of Disaster
Management are :
Government Initiatives for Disaster Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and
Management resilience at all levels through knowledge innovation
and education.
Important initiatives of Government of India regarding
disaster management are as follows : Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology,
traditional wisdom and environmental sustainability.
National Disaster Management Act
Mainstreaming disaster management into the
(NDMA), 2005 development planning process.
The NDM Act provides for disaster management Establishing institutional and techno-legal frameworks
institutions at the national, state and district levels, to create an enabling regulatory environment and a
and represents a shift in emphasis from relief to compliance regime.
preparedness, prevention and mitigation.
The NDM Act provides for the establishment of a National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) It covers all phases of disaster management–
headed by the Prime Minister, State Disaster prevention, mitigation, response and recovery. It
Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by Chief provides for horizontal and vertical integration among
Ministers and District Disaster Management all the agencies and departments of the government.
Authorities (DDMAs) headed by District Collectors/ The plan also spells out the roles and responsibilities of
Magistrates. all levels of government right up to Panchayat and
The NDM Act has constituted funds related to Urban Local Body level in a matrix format. The plan
disaster management such as National Disaster has a regional approach, which will be beneficial not
Response Fund (NDRF), State Disaster Response only for disaster management but also for development
Fund (SDRF) and National Disaster Mitigation Fund planning.
(NDMF). It identifies major activities such as early warning,
information dissemination, medical care, fuel,
transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc to
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) serve as a checklist for agencies responding to a
n The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is the disaster.
specialised force for disaster response which works
under the overall supervision and control of the The vision of NDMP is to make India disaster resilient,
NDMA. achieve substantial disaster risk reduction, and
n Vision of NDRF is to emerge as the most visible and significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and
vibrant multi-disciplinary, multi-skilled, high-tech assets– economic, physical, social, cultural and
force capable to deal with all types of natural as well environmental– by maximising the ability to cope with
as man-made disasters and to mitigate the effects of disasters at all levels of administration as well as
disasters. among communities.