MECH NOTES

UNIT-5
Frequency Response of Control Systems – Correlation between Time Response and
Frequency Response – Bode Plot – Nyquist Stability Criterion and Closed Loop Frequency
Response – Introduction to control using state variable system models – Transfer function from
State Model
Part –A (2 Marks)
1. What is frequency response?
A frequency response is the steady state response of a system when the input to
the system is a sinusoidal signal.

2. List out the different frequency domain specifications?

The frequency domain specifications are
• Resonant peak.
Resonant frequency.
Bandwidth
Cut-off rate
Gain margin
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Phase margin
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3. Define –resonant Peak

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The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is called resonant
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peak.
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4. What is bandwidth?
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which the system gain Is more than 3
dB. The bandwidth is a measure of the ability of a feedback system to reproduce the input
signal ,noise rejection characteristics and rise time.

5. Define Cut-off rate?

The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut-off is called cut-off rate. The cut-off
rate indicates the ability to distinguish the signal from noise.

6. Define –Gain Margin?

The gain margin, kg is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the open
loop transfer function at phase cross over G(jω frequency. Gain margin kg = 1 /|pc)| .

7. Define Phase cross over?

The frequency at which, the phase of open loop transfer functions is 180° is called phase
cross over frequency ωpc.

8. What is phase margin?

It is the amount of phase lag at the gain cross The phase margin ,γ over
frequency required to bring system to the verge of instability.

9. Define Gain cross over?

The gain cross over frequency ωgc is the frequency at which the magnitude of the
open loop transfer function is unity..

10. What is Bode plot?

The Bode plot is the frequency response plot of the transfer function of a system. A
Bode plot consists of two graphs. One is the plot of magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function
versus log ω.The other is a plot of the phase angle of a sinusoidal function versus log ω.

11. What are the main advantages of Bode plot?

The main advantages are:
i) Multiplication of magnitude can be in to addition.
ii) A simple method for sketching an approximate log curve is available.
iii) It is based on asymptotic approximation. Such approximation is sufficient if
rough information on the frequency response characteristic is needed.
iv) The phase angle curves can be easily drawn if a template for the phase angle curves of
1+ jω

12. Define Corner frequency

The frequency at which the two asymptotic meet in a magnitude plot is called
corner frequency.

13. Define Phase lag and phase lead?

A negative phase angle is called phase lag. A positive phase angle is called phase lead.

14. What is Nichols chart?

The chart consisting if M & N loci in the log magnitude versus phase diagram is
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called Nichols chart.

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15. What are two contours of Nichols chart?

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Nichols chart of M and N contours, superimposed on ordinary graph. The M contours

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are the magnitude of closed loop system in decibels and the N contours are the phase angle
locus of closed loop system.

16. What are the effects of adding a zero to a system?

Adding a zero to a system results in pronounced early peak to system response thereby
the peak overshoot increases appreciably.

Part –B (11 Marks)

1. Explain in detail about concept of Frequency response analysis and Frequency domain
specifications

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:
The frequency domain transfer function T (jω) is a complex function of ω. Hence it can
be separated into magnitude function and phase function. Now, the magnitude and phase
functions will be real functions of ω, and they are called frequency response.
The frequency response can be evaluated for open loop system and closed loop system.
The frequency domain transfer function of open loop and closed loop systems can be obtained
from the s-domain transfer function by replacing s by jω shown below.
Open loop transfer function:
G(s) G(jω)=|G(jω)|∟G(jω)
Loop transfer function:
G(s)H(s) G(jω)H(jω)=|G(jω)H(jω)|∟G(jω)H(jω)
Closed loop transfer function:
 M(s) M(jω)=|M(jω)|∟M(jω)
Where,
|G (jω)|, |M (jω)|, |G (jω) H (jω)| are Magnitude functions

∟G (jω), ∟M (jω), ∟G (jω) H (jω) are Phase functions.

The advantages of frequency response analysis are the following:

▷ The absolute and relative stability of the closed loop system can be estimated from the
knowledge of their open loop frequency response.
▷ The practical testing of systems can be easily carried with available sinusoidal signal
generators and precise measurement equipments.
▷ The transfer function of complicated systems can be determined experimentally by
frequency response tests.
▷ The design and parameter adjustment of the open loop transfer function of a system for
specified closed loop performance is carried out more easily in frequency domain.
▷ When the system is designed by use of the frequency response analysis, the effects of
noise disturbance and parameters variations are relatively easy to visualize and
incorporate corrective measures.
▷ The frequency response analysis and designs can be extended to certain nonlinear
control systems.
FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS:
The basic objective of control system design is to meet the performance specifications.
These specifications are the constraints or limitations put on the mathematical functions
describing the system characteristics .Such frequency response specifications are described
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below.
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(i) Bandwidth:
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It is defined as the range of frequencies over which the system will respond
satisfactorily It can also be defined as range of frequencies in which the magnitude
response is almost flat in nature. So it is defined as the range of frequencies over the

magnitude of closed loop response i.e. does not drop by more than 3db from
its zero frequency value.
(ii) Cut-off frequency:

It is denoted by .The frequency at which the frequency of the closed loop

response is 3db down from its frequency value is called cut-off frequency. Bandwidth
indicates the speed of the response .It indicates the ability to reproduce the input signal.
It is inversely proportional to the rise time. Large bandwidth means small rise time
means fast response.
(iii) Cut-off rate:
The slope of the resultant magnitude curve near the cut-off frequency is called
cut-off rate.
(iv) Resonant peak (Mr):
It is maximum value of magnitude of the closed loop frequency as shown. Larger
the value of resonant peak more is the value of peak overshoot of system for step input.
It is a measure of relative stability of the system.

(v) Resonant frequency ( ):

 The frequency at which resonant peak Mr occurs in closed loop frequency
response is called resonant frequency. It is inversely proportional to the rise time. These
are the general specifications which are most important from the stability and relative
stability analysis..

(vi) Gain crossover frequency( ):

The frequency at which magnitude of G(j )H(j )is unity i.e. 1 is called gain
crossover frequency. Generally magnitude of G(j )H(j ) is expressed in db. And db
value of one is 20log10 1=0 db. It can be defined as the frequency at which magnitude of

G(j )H(j ) is 0 db at .

(vii) Phase cross-over frequency ( ):

The frequency at which phase angle of G(j )H(j ) is -180 0 is called phase

cross-over frequency, .
(viii)Gain Margin G.M.:
In the root locus as gain ‘K’ is increased the system stability reduces and
for a certain value of ‘K’ it becomes marginally stable. So gain margin is defined as the
margin in gain allowable by which gain can be increased till system reaches on the verge
of instability.
The positive gain margin means such increase in ‘k’ is possible before system becomes
unstable, hence system is stable and negative gain margin means k is greater than Kmar
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and system is unstable so ‘K’ is required to be reduced to make the system stable.
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Mathematically it can be defined as reciprocal of the magnitude of the G (j )H(j )

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measured at phase crossover frequency.

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More positive the G.M, more stable is the system.

(ix) Phase Margin (γ)

The phase margin , is defined as the additional phase lag to be added at the
gain cross over frequency in order to bring the system to the verge of instability. The gain

cross over frequency is the frequency in order to bring the system to the open
loop transfer function is unity (or it is the frequency at which the db magnitude is zero)

The phase margin is obtained by adding 180 to the phase angle

0 of the 0pen
loop transfer function at the gain cross over frequency

Phase margin,

Where,

The phase margin indicates the additional phase lag that can be provided to the
 system without affecting stability.

2. Explain the concept of BODE PLOT.

The Bode plot is a frequency response plot of the sinusoidal transfer function of a
system. A Bode plot consists of two graphs. One is a plot of the magnitude of a
sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω, the other is a plot of the phase angle of a
sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω.
The Bode plot can be drawn for both open loop and closed loop system. Usually
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the bode plot is drawn for open loop system. The standard representation of the
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logarithmic magnitude of open loop transfer function of G(jω) is 20 log | G(jω | where
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the base of the logarithm is 10. The unit used in this representation of the magnitude is
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the decibel, usually abbreviated db. The curves are drawn on semilog paper, using the
log scale (abscissa) for frequency and the linear scale (ordinate) for either magnitude
(in decibels) or phase angle (in degrees).
The main advantage of the bode plot is that multiplication of magnitudes can be
converted into addition. Also a simple method for sketching an approximate
log-magnitude curve is available.
 From the equation it is clear that, when the magnitude is expressed in db, the
multiplication is converted to addition. Hence in magnitude plot, the db magnitudes of
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individual factors of G(jω) can be added.

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Therefore to sketch the magnitude plot, knowledge of the magnitude variations of

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individual factor is essential. The magnitude plot and phase plot of various factors of
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G(jω) are explained in the following section.

BASIC FACTORS OF G(jω)
The basic factors that occur frequently in a typical transfer function G(jω) are,
1. Constant gain, K
2. Integral factor, K/jω or K/(jω) n

3. Derivative factor,K x jω or K x (jω)2

1 1
4. First order factor in denominator, 1+ jωT or m
(1+ jωT )
5. First order factor in numerator,(1+jωT) or(1+jωT) m

1
6. Quadratic factor in denominator, 2
jω jω
1+2ξ ω + ω
n n

7. Quadratic factor in denominator,

2 2
jω jω jω jω
1+2ξ ωn + ωn 1+2ξ ωn + ωn

1.Constant Gain, K

Let, G(s) =K
G(jω)=K=K⎳0 0

A=|G(jω)| in db=20 log K

 Φ=⎳ G(jω)=00

The magnitude plot for a constant gain K is a horizontal straight line at the magnitude of
20 log K db. The phase plot is st. line at 0 ̊
.
When K>1, 20 log K is positive.
When 0<K<1, 20 log K is negative.
When K=1, 20 log K is zero.

2.Integral Factor
Let, G(s) =K/s
G(jω)=K/ jω =K/ ω ⎳-90 0

A=|G(jω)| in db=20 log( K/ω)

Φ=⎳ G(jω)=-90 0

When ω=0.1K, A=20 log (1/0.1) =20 db

When ω=K, A=20 log 1= 0 db
When ω=10 K, A=20 log (1/10) =-20 db

From the above example it is evident that the magnitude plot of the integral factor is a
straight line with a slope of -20 db/dec and passing through 0 db, when ω=K. Since the
∟G (jω) is a constant and independent of ω the phase plot is a straight line at -90 ̊
.
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When an integral factor has multiplicity of n, then,

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Let, G(s) =K/sn

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G(jω)=K/ (jω) =K/ ω ⎳-90n

n n 0

A=|G(jω)| in db=20 log( K/ω ) n

n
1/n 1/n
K K
= 20 log( =20 n log
ω ω
Φ=⎳ G(-jω)= -90 n 0

Now the magnitude plot of the integral factor is a

straight line with a slope of -20 n db/dec and passing through
0 db when ω=K(1/n). The phase plot is a st line at -90n ̊
.

3.Derivative Factor
Let, G(s) =Ks
G(jω)=K/jω =K/ ω ⎳90 0

A=|G(jω)| in db=20 log( Kω)

Φ=⎳ G(jω)= +90 0

When ω=0.1/K, A=20 log (0.1)= - 20 db

When ω=1/K, A=20 log (1)=- 0 db
When ω=10/K, A=20 log (10)= +20 db
From the above analysis it is evident that the magnitude plot of the derivative factor is a
straight line with a slope of +20 db/dec and passing through zero db when ω = 1/K.
Since the G(jω) is a constant and independent of ω, the phase plot
is a straight line at +90°.
When derivative factor has multiplicity of n then,
Let, G(s) =Ks n

G(jω)=K(jω) =Kω ⎳90n

n n 0

A=|G(jω)| in db=20 log( Kωn)

n
1/n 1
K n n
= 20 log( (K^(1/n)ω) =20 n log ( K ω)
ω
Φ=⎳ G(jω)= 90 n 0

Now the magnitude plot of the derivative factor is a st line with a slope of +20 db/dec
and passing through 0 db when ω=1/K . The phase plot is a st line at +90n ̊
1/n .

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4. Explain the procedure to sketch BODE PLOT.

PROCEDURE FOR MAGNITUDE PLOT OF BODE PLOT
From the analysis of previous sections the following conclusions can be obtained.
1. The constant gain K, integral and derivative factors contribute gain (magnitude) at all
frequencies.
2.In approximate plot the first, quadratic and higher order factors contribute gain
(magnitude) only when the frequency is greater than the corner frequency.
Hence the low frequency response up to the lowest earner frequency is decided by K or K/(jω) n

or K(jω) term . Then at every corner frequency the slope of the magnitude plot is altered by the
n

first, quadratic and higher order terms. Therefore the magnitude plot can be started with K or
K/(jω)n or K(jω)n term and then the db magnitude of every first and higher order terms are added
one by one in the increasing order of the corner frequency.

This is illustrated in the following example

2
K(1+ sT )
1
Let,G(s)= 2
s (1+sT )(1+sT )
2 3
2
K(1+ jωT )
1
G(jω)= 2
jω (1+ jωT )(1+ jωT )
2 3

Let, T2˂ T3˂ T1

The corner frequencies are, ωc1 =1/T1, ωc2 =1/T2, ωc3 =1/T3
Let, ωc1< ωc2< ωc3
The magnitude plot of the individual terms of G(jω) and their combined magnitude plot are
shown in figure.
The step by step procedure for plotting the magnitude plot is given below
Step 1 : Convert die transfer function into Bode form or time constant form. The Bode form of
the transfer function is
K(1+sT ) K(1+ jωT )
1 1
G s = 2 →G jω = 2
s s ω ω
s 1+sT (1+ 2 +2ξ ω jω 1+ jωT (1- 2 + j2ξ ω
2 ω n 2 ω n
n n

Step 2 : List the corner frequencies in the increasing order and prepare a table as shown
below.
Term Corner frequency Slope Change in slope
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rad/sec db/dec db/dec

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In the above table enter K or or K/(jω)n K(jω)

as the first term and the other terms in the
n

increasing order of corner frequencies. Then enter the corner frequency, slope contributed by
each term and change in slope at every corner frequency.
Step 3: Choose an arbitrary frequency ωl which is lesser than the lowest corner frequency.
Calculate the db magnitude of K or K/(jω) or K(jω) at ωl and at the lowest corner frequency.
n n

Step 4 : Then calculate the gain (db magnitude) at every corner frequency one by one by using
the formula,
Gain at ωy = change in gain from ωx to ωy + Gain at ωx = Slope from ωx to ωy × log(ωy / ωx ) +
Gain at ωx

Step 5: Choose an arbitrary frequeney ωh which is greater than the highest corner frequency.
Calculate the gain at ωh by using the formula in step 4.
Step 6: In a semilog graph sheet mark the required range of frequency on x-axis (log scale) and
the range of db magnitude on y-axis (ordinary scale) after choosing proper units,
Step 7 Mark all the points obtained in steps 3, 4, and 5 on the graph and join the points by
straight lines. Mark the slope at every part of the graph.

PROCEDURE FOR PHASE PLOT OF BODE PLOT

The phase plot is an exact plot and no approximations are made while drawing the
phase plot. Hence the exact phase angles of G(jω) are computed for various values of ω and
tabulated. The choices of frequencies are preferably the frequencies chosen for magnitude plot.
Usually the magnitude plot and phase plot are drawn in a single semilog - sheet on a common
frequency scale,.
Take another y-axis in the graph where the magnitude plot is drawn and in this y-axis
mark the desired range of phase angles after choosing proper units. From the tabulated values
of ω and phase angles, mark all the points on the graph. Join the points by a smooth curve.

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IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
• Gain cross over frequency: It is the frequency at which magnitude of G(jω) is zero db.
• Phase cross over frequency: It is the frequency at which the phase angle of G(jω) at -180 ̊
line.
• Gain Margin: It is the magnitude in decibels at phase cross over frequency.
• Phase Margin: It is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency.
GAIN ADJUSTMENT IN BODE PLOT
In the open loop transfer function G(jω) the constant K contributes only magnitude. Hence by
changing the value of K the system gain can be adjusted to meet the desired specifications. The
desired specifications are gain margin, phase margin. In a system transfer function if the value
of K required to be estimated to satisfy a desired specification then draw the bode plot of the
system with K= 1. The constant K can add 20 log K to every point of the magnitude plot and due
to this addition the magnitude plot will shift vertically up or down. Hence shift the magnitude
plot vertically up or down to meet the desired specification. Equate the vertical distance by
which the magnitude plot is shifted to 20 log K and solve for K.
Let, x= change in db , (x is positive if the plot is shifted up and vice versa).
Now,
20 log K = x; log K = x/20; K=10x/20

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5.Sketch the Bode Plot for the following transfer function and determine Phase Margin
And Gain Margin
75(1+0.2s)
G s = 2
s( s +16s+100)
 Oncomparingthequadraticfactorinthedenominatorof G s withstandardformof
quadraticfactorwecanestimateζand ωn.
2 2 2
s +2ζ ωn s+ ωn =s +16s+100
2
Oncomparingweget, ωn =100∴ ωn =10 rad sec
16 16
2ζ ωn =16⇒ζ= 2 ω = =0.8∴ ζ=0.8
n 2×10
75 1+0.2s 75 1+0.2s 0.75 1+0.2s
∴G s = 2
= 2
= 2
s s +16s+100 s 16s s 1+0.01s +0.16s
100 s 100 +100 +1

The sinusoidal transfer function G(jω)is obtained by replacing s by jω in G(s)

0.75 1+j0.2ω 0.75 1+j0.2ω
∴G s = 2
= 2
jω 1+0.01 jω +j0.16ω jω 1-0.01ω +j0.16ω

1
Thecornerfrequenciesare,ω = =5 rad sec and ω =ωn =10 rad sec
c1 0.2 c2

Note:Forquadraticfactorthecornerfrequencyis ωn

MAGNITUDE PLOT
Term Corner frequency Slope Change in slope
Rad/sec db/dec db/dec
0.75 - -20
jω
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1+j0.2ω 1 20 -20+20=0
ω = =5 rad sec
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c1 0.2
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1 ω =ωn =10 rad sec -40 0-40= - 40

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c2
2
1-0.01ω +j0.16ω
Choosealowfrequency ω suchthat ω < ω and
l l c1

Choosealowfrequency ω suchthat ω < ω and

l l c1
chooseahighfrequency ω suchthat ω >ω
h h c2
Letω =0.5 rad sec and ω =20 rad sec
l h
0.75
Atω=ω ,A=20log =3.5db
l 0.5
0.75
Atω=ω ,A=20log =-16.5db
c1 5
ω 10
c2
Atω=ω ,A= changeinslopefrom ω to ω ×log ω +A =0×log -16.5=-16.5db
c2 c1 c2 c1 atω= ω 5
c1

ω 20
ch
Atω=ω ,A= changeinslopefrom ω to ω ×log ω +A =-40×log -16.5=-56.2db
ch c2 ch c2 atω= ω 10
c2

PHASE PLOT
Thephaseangleof G jω asafunctionof ωisgivenby ,
-1 -1 0.16ω
ϕ=∠G jω =tan 0.2ω-90- tan 2 forω≤ωn
1-0.01ω
 -1 -1 0.16ω °
ϕ=∠G jω =tan 0.2ω-90- tan 2 +180 forω>ωn
1-0.01ω

Thephaseangleof G jω arecalculatedforvariousvaluesof ω
ω tan-10.2ω -1 0.16ω ϕ=∠G jω Points in phase
tan
rad/sec deg 1-0.01ω
2
deg plot
deg
0.5 5.7 4.6 -88.9 ≈ -88 e
1 11.3 9.2 -87.9 ≈ -88 f
5 45 46.8 -91.8 ≈ -92 g
10 63.4 90 -116.6 ≈ -116 h
20 75.9 -46.9+180=133.2 -147.3 ≈ -148 i
50 84.3 -18.4+180=161.6 -167.3 ≈ -168 j
100 87.1 -92+180=170.8 -173.7 ≈ -174 k

Let ϕgc bethephaseof G jω atgaincross-overfrequency ,ωgc.

° ° ° ° ° °
Weget,ϕgc =88 ∴Phasemargin,γ=180 +ϕgc =180 -88 =92 ⇒ γ=92

Thephaseplotcrosses180°onlyatinfinity.T he G jω atinfinityis-∞db.Hencegainmarginis+∞.

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6.Plot the bode diagram for the following transfer function and obtain the gain and
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10
phase cross over frequencies. G s =
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s 1+0.4s 1+0.1s
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The sinusoidal transfer function G(jω)is obtained by replacing s by jω in G(s)

10
∴G s =
( jω(1+0.4jω)(1+0.1jω)
1 1
Thecornerfrequenciesare,ω = =2.5 rad sec ,ω = =10 rad sec
c1 0.4 c2 0.1
Magnitudeplot
Table -1
Term Corner frequency Slope Change in slope
Rad/sec db/dec db/dec
10 -20
jω

1 1 -20 -20-20= -40

ω = =2.5 rad sec
1+ j0.4ω c1 0.4

1 1 -20 -40-20= - 60
ω = =10 rad sec
1+ j0.1ω c2 0.1

Choosealowfrequency ω suchthat ω < ω and

l l c1
chooseahighfrequency ω suchthat ω >ω
h h c2
Letω =0.1rad sec and ω =50 rad sec
l h
 10
Atω=ω ,A=20log =40db
l 0.1
10
Atω=ω ,A=20log =12db
c1 2.5
ω 10
c2
Atω=ω ,A= changeinslopefrom ω to ω ×log ω +A =-40×log +12=-12db
c2 c1 c2 c1 atω= ω 2.5
c1

ω 50
ch
Atω=ω ,A= changeinslopefrom ω to ω ×log ω +A =-60×log -12=-54db
ch c2 ch c2 atω= ω 10
c2

Drawthemagnitudeplotfor 0.1rad sec ,40db 2.5 rad sec,12db 10rad sec,12db

50 rad sec, -54db
PHASE PLOT
Thephaseangleof G jω asafunctionof ωisgivenby ,
-1 -1
ϕ=∠G jω =-90- tan 0.4ω- tan 0.1ω
TABEL 2
ω tan 0.2ω
-1 -1 0.16ω ϕ=∠G jω Points in phase
tan 2
rad/sec deg 1-0.01ω deg plot
deg
0.1 2.29 0.57 -92.86 ≈ -92 e
1 21.80 5.71 -117.5 ≈ -118 f
2.5 45.0 14.0 -149 ≈ -150 g
4 57.99 21.8 -169.79 ≈ -170 h
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10 75.96 45.0 -210.96 ≈ -210 i

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20 82.87 63.43 -236.3 ≈ -236 j

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Fromthegraph,thegainand phasecrossoverfrequenciesarefoundtobe5 rad sec

Gaincrossoverfrequency=5 rad sec

Phasecrossoverfrequency=5 rad sec

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 7.Discuss about the mathematic preliminaries for Nyquist stability criterion
MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES FOR NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION
Let F(s) be a function of s, which is expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in s, as
shown in equation, (the polynomials are expressed in the factored form).

The roots of numerator polynomial are zeros

and the roots of denominator polynomial are poles. The function has m number of zeros and n
number of poles. Here, s is a complex variable expressed as, s = σ+jω, where σ is real part of s
and ω is imaginary part of s. (The s is also called complex frequency). For a particular value of
σ and ω, the s will represent a point in the s-plane.
Since s is a complex variable, the function F(s) will also be a complex quantity for any
value of s. Hence, F(S) can also be expressed as, F(s) = u+jv, where u is real part of F(s) and v is
imaginary part of F(s). Let us define another complex plane called F(s)-plane, with coordinates u
and v. For a particular value of s, the F(s) will represent a point in F(s)-plane. Therefore, for every
point s in the s-plane at which F(s) is analytic, there exists a corresponding point F(s) in the
F(s)-plane. Hence it can be concluded that the function F(s) maps the points in the s-plane into
the F(s)-plane.
Note: A function is analytic in the s-plane provided the function and all its derivatives exist.
The points in the s-plane where the Junction (or it derivatives) does not exist are called singular
points.
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Since any number of points of analycity in the s-plane can be mapped into the F(s)- plane it
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can be concluded that for a contour in the s-plane which does not go through any singular point,
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there exists a corresponding contour in the F(s)-plane as shown in fig.

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The above figure shows examples of arbitrary s-plane contours and their corresponding
F(s)-plane contours. Normally the direction of arbitrary contour in s-plane is chosen as
clockwise. Here zeros are marked by small circles (o) and poles by (X).
On observing the s-plane contours and the corresponding F(s)-plane contours shown in fig,
it can be proved that there exists a relationship between the enelosure of poles and zeros by the
s-plane closed contour and number of encirclements of the origin of F(s)- plane by the
corresponding F(s)-plane contour.
Note: For the development of Nyquist criterion, the exact shape of the contour is not
required but only the number of encirclements of the origin of the F(s) - plane is essential.
 TABLE

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 The summary of relationship between the enclosure of poles and zeros by the s-plane
closed contour and number of encirclements of the origin of F(s)-plane by the corresponding
F(s)-plane contour, are given below.
1 . If s-plane closed contour encloses Z number of zeros in the right half of s-plane then the
corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will encircle, the origin of F(s)-plane Z times in the
clockwise direction. ' .

2 . Ifs-plane closed contour encloses P number of poles in the right half of s-plane then the
corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will encircle the origin of F(s)- plane P times in
anticlockwise direction.

If the s-plane closed contour encloses Z zeros and P poles in the right half of s-plane and if P >
Z, then the corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will encircle the origin of F(s)-plane (P-Z) times
in the anti-clockwise direction .

If the s-plane closed contour encloses Z zeros and P poles in the right half of s-plane and if P < Z
then the corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will encircle the origin of F(s) plane (Z-P) times in
the clockwise direction.

1. If s-plane closed contour encloses Z zeros and P poles in right half of s-plane and if
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P = Z, then corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will not encircle the origin of F(s)-plane.
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2. If the s-plane closed contour does not enclose any pole or zero, then the corresponding
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contour in F(s)-plane will not encircle the origin of F(s) plane.

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The relation between the enclosure of poles and zeros of F(s) lying on the right half of s-plane by
s-plane contour and the encirclements of the origin of F(s)-plane by the corresponding
F(s)-plane contour called principle of argument.
The principle of argument is stated as follows:
Let F(s) is a single valued rational function and is analytic in a given region in the s-plane
except at some points. Now, if an arbitrary closed contour is chosen in the s-plane, so that F(s)
is analytic at every point on the closed contour in s-plane then the corresponding F(s)-plane
contour mapped in the F(s)-plane will encircle the origin N times in anticlockwise direction where
N is the difference between the number of poles and number of zeros of F(s) that are encircled
by the chosen closed contour in s-plane.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as, N = P-Z.
Where, N = Number of encirclement of origin of F(s)-plane, made by F(s)-contour.
Z = Number of zeros of F(s) lying on right half of s-plane and enclosed by the s-plane
closed contour.
P = Number of poles of F(s) lying on right half of s-plane and enclosed by the s-plane
closed contour.
The value of N can be positive, zero or negative. Based on the sign of N, following
conclusions can be made, provided the arbitrary s-plane contour is chosen in the clockwise
direction.

1. If N is positive, then direction of encirclement of origin of F(s)-plane will be anticlockwise.

2. If N is zero, then there will be no encirclement of origin of F(s)-plane.
 3. If N is negative, then direction of encirclement of origin of F(s)-plane will be clockwise.

8. Discus about the Nyquist Stability Criterion

NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION
"If the G(s)H(s) contour in the G(s)H(s)-plane corresponding to Nyquist contour in the s-plane encircles the point
-1+j0 in the anticlockwise direction as many times as the number of right half s-plane poles of G(s)H(s), then the closed
loop system is stable".

In examining the stability of linear control systems using the Nyquist stability criterion, we
come across the following three situations.
1. No encirclement of -1+j0 point: This implies that the system is stable if there are no
poles of G(s) H(s) in the right half s-plane. If there are poles on right half s-plane then
the system is unstable.
2. Anticlockwise encirclements of -1+j0 point: In this case the system is stable if the
number of anticlockwise encirclements is same as the number of poles of G(s) H(s) in
the right half s-plane. If the number of anticlockwise encirclements is not equal to
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number of poles on right half s-plane then the system is unstable.

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3. Clockwise encirclements of the -1+j0 point: In this case the system is always unstable.
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Also in this case, if no poles of G(s)H(s) in right half s-plane, then the number of clod*- 3t
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encirclement is equal to number of poles of closed loop system on right half s-plane.
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PROCEDURE FOR INVESTIGATING THE STABILITY USING NYQUIST CRITERION

The following procedure can be followed to investigate the stability of closed loop system
from the knowledge of open loop system, using Nyquist stability criterion.

1. Choose a Nyquist contour as shown in fig, which encloses the entire right half s-plane except
the singular points. The Nyquist contour encloses all the right half s-plane poles and zeros
of G(s) H(s). [The poles on imaginary axis are singular points and so they are avoided by
taking a detour around it as shown in fig b and c].

Note: For mapping a contour from s-plane to G(s) H(s) plane the Nyquist contour in s-plane should be analytic
at every point. At singular points it is not analytic.
2. The Nyquist contour should be mapped in the G(s) H(s)-plane using the function
G(s)H( s ) to determine the encirclement -1+ j0 point in the G(s)H(s)-plane. The
Nyquist contour fig b can be divided into four sections C1, C2, C3 and C4. The mapping of the
four sections in the G(s)H(s)-plane can be carried section wise and then combined together
to get entire G(s)H(s)-contour.
3. In section C1 the value of ω varies from 0 to + ∞. The mapping of section C1 is obtained by
letting s = jω in G(s)H(s) and varying ω from 0 to + ∞,
i.e G(s)H(s)│s=jω =G(jω) H(jω)│ω=0 to ∞
The locus of G (jω) H (jω) as ω is varied from o to +∞ will be the G(s)H(s)-contour in
G(s)H(s)-plane corresponding to section C1 in s-plane. This locus is the polar plot of G (jω) H
(jω). There are three ways of mapping this section of G(s) H(s)-contour, they are,
i. Calculate the values of G(jω)H(jω) for various values of ω and sketch the actual locus of
G(jω)H(jω). (or)
ii. Separate the real part and imaginary part of G(jω)H(jω). Equate the imaginary part to zero,
to find the frequency at which the G (jω) H (jω) locus crosses real axis (to find phase
crossover frequency). Substitute this frequency on real part and find the crossing point
of the locus on real axis. Sketch the approximate locus of G (jω) H (jω) from the
knowledge of type number and order of the system (or from the value of G (jω) H (jω) at
ω = 0 and to ω = ∞).
iii. Separate the magnitude and phase of G (jω) H (jω). Equate the phase of G (jω) H (jω) to
-180° and solve for ω. This value of ω is the phase crossover frequency and the
magnitude at this frequency is the crossing point on real axis. Sketch the approximate
root locus as mentioned in method (ii).
4. The section C2 of Nyquist contour has a semicircle of infinite radius. Therefore, every point
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on section C2 has infinite magnitude but the argument varies from +Π/2 to –Π/2. Hence the
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mapping of section C2 from s-plane to G(s) H(s) plane can be obtained by letting
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s=LtR->∞Rejθ in G(s)H(s) and varying θ from +Π/2 to –Π/2.

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Consider the loop transfer function in time constant form and with y number of poles at
origin, as shown below.

From the above two equations we can conclude

that the section C2, of Nyquist contour in s-plane is mapped as circles/circular arc around origin
with radius tending to zero in the G(s)H(s)-plane.
5. In section C3, the value of ω varies from -∞ to 0. The mapping of section C3 is obtained
letting s = +jω in G(s)H(s) and varying ω from -∞ to 0.
i.e G(s)H(s)│s=jω =G(jω) H(jω)│ω=0 to ∞
The locus of G (jω) H (jω) as ω is varied from -∞ to 0 will be the G(s)H(s)-contour in
G(s)H(s)-plane corresponding to section C3 in s-plane. This locus is the inverse polar plot of
 G (jω) H (jω). The inverse polar plot is given by the mirror image of polar plot with respect to
real axis.
6. The section C4 of Nyquist contour has a semicircle of zero radius. Therefore every point on
semicircle has zero magnitude but the argument varies from
-Π/2 to +Π/2. Hence the mapping of section C4 from s-plane to G(s)H(s)-plane can be
obtained by letting s = LtR->0 R e-je in G(s)H(s) and varying θ from -Π/2 to +Π/2.

Consider the loop transfer function in time constant form and with y number of poles at origin
as shown below

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From the above two equations we can conclude that the section C4 of Nyquist contour in s-plane
is mapped as circles/circular arc in G(s)H(s)-plane with origin as centre and infinite radius.
Draw the Nyquist plot for the system whose open loop transfer function is, G(s)
H(s)=K/s(s+2)(s+10). Determine the range of K for which closed loop system is stable.
SOLUTION

The open loop transfer function has a pole at origin. Hence choose
the Nyquist contour on s-plane enclosing the entire right half plane
except the origin as shown in fig1.
The Nyquist contour has four sections C1, C2, C3 and C4. The
mapping of each section is performed separately and the overall
Nyquist plot is obtained by combining the individual sections.
MAPPING OF SECTION C1
In section C1, ω varies from 0 to +∞. The mapping of section
C1 is given by the locus of G (jω) H (jω) as ω is varied from 0 to ∞.
This locus is the polar plot of G (jω) H (jω).

When the locus of G (jω) H (jω) crosses real axis the imaginary term will be zero and the
corresponding frequency is the phase crossover frequency, ωpc

The open
loop
system is type-1 and third order system. Also it is a minimum phase system with all poles.
Hence the polar plot of G (jω) H (jω) starts at -90° axis at infinity, crosses real axis at -0.00417K
and ends at origin in second quadrant. The section C1 and its mapping are shown in fig
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MAPPING OF SECTION C2
The mapping of section C2 from s-plane to G (s) H (s) plane is obtained by letting
s=LtR->∞Rejθ G(s)H(s) and varying θ from +Π/2 to -Π/2. Since s-»R ejθ and R-> ∞, the
G(s) H(s) can be approximated as shown below, [ i.e., (1+sT) ~ sT ].
From the equations (1) and (2) we can say that section C2 in s-plane (fig 5.13.4.) is mapped as
circular arc of zero radius around origin in G(s)H(s)-plane with argument (phase) varying from
-3Π/2 to+3Π/2 as shown in fig5.
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MAPPING OF SECTION C3
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In section C3, ω varies from -∞ to 0. The mapping of section C3 is given by the locus of
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G(jω)H(jω) as ω is varied from -∞ to 0. This locus is the inverse polar plot of G (jω)H(jω).
The inverse polar plot is given by the mirror image of polar plot wife respect to real axis. The
section C3, in s-plane and its corresponding contour in G(s)H(s) plane are shown in fig 6 and
fig
7.

MAPPINGOF SECTION C4
The mapping of section C4 from s-plane to G(s) H(s)-plane is obtained by letting
s=LtR->∞Re in G(s)H(s) and varying θ from -Π/2 to Π/2. Since s->R e and R->0, the G(s) H(s)
jθ jθ

can be approximated as shown below, [ i.e., (1+sT) ~ 1 ].

From the equations (3) and (4) we can say that section C4 in s-plane (fig 8) is mapped as a
circular arc of infinite radius with argument (phase) varying from +Π/2 to —Π/2 as shown in fig
9.

COMPLETE NYQUIST PLOT

The entire Nyquist plot in G(s)H(s)-plane can be obtained by combining the mappings of
individual sections, as shown in fig 10.
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STABILITY ANALYSIS
When, -0.00417K= -l, the contour passes through (-1+j0) point and corresponding value of K Is the
limiting value of K for stability.
Limiting value of K =1/0.00417=240.
When K < 240
When K is less than 240, the contour crosses real axis at a point between 0 and -1+j0. On
travel through Nyquist plot along the indicated direction it is found that the point -1+j0 is not
encircled. Also the open loop transfer function has no poles on the right half of s-plane.
Therefore the closed loop system is stable.
When K > 240
When K is greater than 240, the contour crosses real axis at a point between -1+j0 and
-∞. On travelling through Nyquist plot along the indicated direction it is found that the point
-1+j0 is encircled in clockwise direction two time. [Since there are two clockwise encirclement
and no right half open loop poles, the closed loop system has two poles on right half of s-plane].
Therefore the closed loop system unstable.

RESULT
The value of K for stability is 0 < K <240

9. Explain about the state space analysis method

The state variable approach is a powerful tool/technique for the analysis and design of
control systems. The analysis and design of the following systems can be carried using state
space method.
1. Linear system.
2. Non-linear system.
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3. Time invariant system.

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4. Time varying system

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5. Multiple inputs and multiple output system.

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The state space analysis is a modern approach and also easier for analysis using digital
computers. The conventional methods of analysis employ the transfer function of the system.
The drawbacks in the transfer function model and analysis are,
1. Transfer function is defined under zero initial conditions
2. Transfer function is applicable to linear time invariant systems.
3. Transfer function analysis is restricted to single input and single output
systems.
4. Does not provide information regarding the internal state of the system.
The state variable analysis can be applied for any type of systems. The analysis can be
carried with initial conditions and can be on multiple input and multiple output systems.

STATE SPACE FORMULATION

The state of a dynamic system is a minimal set of variables (known as state variables)
such that the knowledge of these variables at t=t0 together with the knowledge of the inputs for
t ≥ t0, completely determines the behaviour of the system for t > t0.

In the state variable formulation of a system, in general, a system consists of m-inputs,

p-output and n-state variables .The state representation of the system may be visualized as
shown in figure.
 The different variables may be represented by the vector as shown below.

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The state variable representation can be arranged in the form of n number of first order
differential equations as shown below

The n numbers of differential equations may be written in vector notation as

STATE MODEL:
The state model of a system consists of the state equation and output equation. The
state equation of a system is a function of state variables and inputs
For linear time invariant systems the first derivatives of state variables can be expressed
as a linear combination of state variables and inputs.
In the matrix form the above equations can also be expressed as,

The matrix equation also be written as

Where ,
X(t) = State vector of order (n×1)
U(t) = Input vector of order (m×1)
A = System matrix of order (n×n)
B = Input matrix of order (n×m)

The equation is called as the state equation of linear time invariant

system.
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The output at any time are functions of state variables and inputs.
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Output vector ,Y(t)=f(X(t),U(t))

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Hence the output variables can be expressed as a linear combination of state variables and
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inputs.

In the matrix form the above equations can be expressed as,

The matrix equation can also be written as, Y(t)=CX(t)+DU(t)

Where , X(t)=State vector of order (n×1)
U(t)=Input vector of order (m×1)
C=Output vector of order (p×1)
D=Transmission matrix of order (p×m)
The equation Y(t)=CX(t)+DU(t) is called the output equation of linear time invariant system.
 ;state equation.
Y(t)=CX(t)+DU(t);output equation.
The block diagram representation of the state model is

THE SELECTON OF STATE VARIABLES FOR DIFFERENT SYSTEMS:

1. In the mechanical system, the potential and kinetic energy of a mass are functions
of position and velocity of the mass. Therefore, position and velocity can be chosen
as state variables.
2. In an electric circuit like RLC network, capacitors and inductors are energy storage
elements. Therefore the rate of change of current in an inductor, and the rate of
change of voltage across a capacitor can be chosen as state variables. The voltage
across resistor and current through the resistor cannot be chosen as state variables,
because resistance is not an energy storage element.
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3. In chemical engineering systems, the rate of change of variables are often

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temperature, pressure and flow. Therefore rate of change of temperature, rate of

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change of pressure, rate of change of flow are often chosen as state variables.
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10. Explain in detail about correlation between time response and frequency response

(Refer UNIT 5 Ebook)

Reference:

▷ N.C. Jagan – “Control Systems” – BS Publications (2008).

▷ R. AnandaNatrajan and P. Ramesh Babu, “Control Systems Engineering”, fourth edition, Sci Tech
Publications (India) Pvt. Limited, Chennai, 2013.
▷ I.J.Nagrath and M.Gopal, “Control Systems Engineering”, fifth edition, New age international (p)
Limited, New Delhi, 2007.
▷ A.Nagoor kani, Control System Engineering” First edition, RBA publications, Chennai