Cloud computing

Cloud computing[1] is the on-demand availability of computer

system resources, especially data storage (cloud storage) and
computing power, without direct active management by the user.[2]
Large clouds often have functions distributed over multiple
locations, each of which is a data center. Cloud computing relies on
sharing of resources to achieve coherence and typically uses a pay-
as-you-go model, which can help in reducing capital expenses but
may also lead to unexpected operating expenses for users.[3][4]

Definition Cloud computing metaphor: the

A European Commission communication issued in 2012 argued group of networked elements
that the breadth of scope offered by cloud computing made a providing services does not need to
be addressed or managed
general definition "elusive",[5] whereas the United States National
individually by users; instead, the
Institute of Standards and Technology's 2011 definition of cloud
entire provider-managed suite of
computing identified "five essential characteristics": hardware and software can be
thought of as an amorphous cloud.
On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally
provision computing capabilities, such as server time
and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each
service provider.
Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through
standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g.,
mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).
Resource pooling. The provider's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple
consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources
dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand.
Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases
automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the
consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear unlimited and can be
appropriated in any quantity at any time.
Measured service. Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by
leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of
service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage
can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency for both the provider and
consumer of the utilized service,[6] although for some organisations the revenue impact of
high usage may affect profitability, compared to an option of sunk capital costs.[4]

History
Cloud computing has a rich history which extends back to the 1960s, with the initial concepts of time-
sharing becoming popularized via remote job entry (RJE). The "data center" model, where users submitted
jobs to operators to run on mainframes, was predominantly used during this era. This was a time of
exploration and experimentation with ways to make large-scale computing power available to more users
through time-sharing, optimizing the infrastructure, platform, and applications, and increasing efficiency for
end users.[7]

The "cloud" metaphor for virtualized services dates to 1994, when it was used by General Magic for the
universe of "places" that mobile agents in the Telescript environment could "go". The metaphor is credited
to David Hoffman, a General Magic communications specialist, based on its long-standing use in
networking and telecom.[8] The expression cloud computing became more widely known in 1996 when
Compaq Computer Corporation drew up a business plan for future computing and the Internet. The
company's ambition was to supercharge sales with "cloud computing-enabled applications". The business
plan foresaw that online consumer file storage would likely be commercially successful. As a result,
Compaq decided to sell server hardware to internet service providers.[9]

In the 2000s, the application of cloud computing began to take shape with the establishment of Amazon
Web Services (AWS) in 2002, which allowed developers to build applications independently. In 2006 the
beta version of Google Docs was released, Amazon Simple Storage Service, known as Amazon S3, and the
Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), in 2008 NASA's development of the first open-source software for
deploying private and hybrid clouds.[10][11]

The following decade saw the launch of various cloud services. In 2010, Microsoft launched Microsoft
Azure, and Rackspace Hosting and NASA initiated an open-source cloud-software project, OpenStack.
IBM introduced the IBM SmartCloud framework in 2011, and Oracle announced the Oracle Cloud in
2012. In December 2019, Amazon launched AWS Outposts, a service that extends AWS infrastructure,
services, APIs, and tools to customer data centers, co-location spaces, or on-premises facilities.[12][13]

Since the global pandemic of 2020, cloud technology has surged in popularity due to the level of data
security it offers and the flexibility of working options it provides for all employees, notably remote
workers.[14]

Value proposition
Advocates of public and hybrid clouds claim that cloud computing allows companies to avoid or minimize
up-front IT infrastructure costs. Proponents also claim that cloud computing allows enterprises to get their
applications up and running faster, with improved manageability and less maintenance, and that it enables
IT teams to more rapidly adjust resources to meet fluctuating and unpredictable demand,[15][16][17]
providing burst computing capability: high computing power at certain periods of peak demand.[18]

Additional value propositions of cloud computing include:

 Topic Description

A public-cloud delivery model converts capital expenditures (e.g., buying servers) to operational
expenditure.[19] This purportedly lowers barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided
by a third party and need not be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks.
Cost Pricing on a utility computing basis is "fine-grained", with usage-based billing options. As well,
reductions less in-house IT skills are required for implementation of projects that use cloud computing.[20]
The e-FISCAL project's state-of-the-art repository[21] contains several articles looking into cost
aspects in more detail, most of them concluding that costs savings depend on the type of
activities supported and the type of infrastructure available in-house.

Device and location independence[22] enable users to access systems using a web browser
Device regardless of their location or what device they use (e.g., PC, mobile phone). As infrastructure is
independence off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect to
it from anywhere.[20][a]
Maintenance of cloud environment is easier because the data is hosted on an outside server
maintained by a provider without the need to invest in data center hardware. IT maintenance of
Maintenance
cloud computing is managed and updated by the cloud provider's IT maintenance team which
reduces cloud computing costs compared with on-premises data centers.

Multitenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users thus allowing
for:

centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs (such as real estate, electricity,
etc.)
Multitenancy
peak-load capacity increases (users need not engineer and pay for the resources and
equipment to meet their highest possible load-levels)
utilization and efficiency improvements for systems that are often only 10–20%
utilized.[23][24]

Performance is monitored by IT experts from the service provider, and consistent and loosely
Performance
coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.[20][25]
Productivity may be increased when multiple users can work on the same data simultaneously,
rather than waiting for it to be saved and emailed. Time may be saved as information does not
Productivity
need to be re-entered when fields are matched, nor do users need to install application software
upgrades to their computer.

Availability improves with the use of multiple redundant sites, which makes well-designed cloud
Availability
computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.[26]
Scalability and elasticity via dynamic ("on-demand") provisioning of resources on a fine-grained,
self-service basis in near real-time,[27][28][b] without users having to engineer for peak
loads.[29][30][31] This gives the ability to scale up when the usage need increases or down if
Scalability and
elasticity resources are not being used.[32] The time-efficient benefit of cloud scalability also means faster
time to market, more business flexibility, and adaptability, as adding new resources does not
take as much time as it used to.[33] Emerging approaches for managing elasticity include the
use of machine learning techniques to propose efficient elasticity models.[34]
Security can improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc.,
but concerns can persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data, and the lack of
security for stored kernels. Security is often as good as or better than other traditional systems,
in part because service providers are able to devote resources to solving security issues that
Security many customers cannot afford to tackle or which they lack the technical skills to address.[35]
However, the complexity of security is greatly increased when data is distributed over a wider
area or over a greater number of devices, as well as in multi-tenant systems shared by
unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible.
Private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the
infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.

Challenges and limitations

One of the main challenges of cloud computing, in comparison to more traditional on-premises computing,
is data security and privacy. Cloud users entrust their sensitive data to third-party providers, who may not
have adequate measures to protect it from unauthorized access, breaches, or leaks. Cloud users also face
compliance risks if they have to adhere to certain regulations or standards regarding data protection, such as
GDPR or HIPAA.[36]

Another challenge of cloud computing is reduced visibility and control. Cloud users may not have full
insight into how their cloud resources are managed, configured, or optimized by their providers. They may
also have limited ability to customize or modify their cloud services according to their specific needs or
preferences.[36] Complete understanding of all technology may be impossible, especially given the scale,
complexity, and deliberate opacity of contemporary systems; however, there is a need for understanding
complex technologies and their interconnections to have power and agency within them.[37] The metaphor
of the cloud can be seen as problematic as cloud computing retains the aura of something noumenal and
numinous; it is something experienced without precisely understanding what it is or how it works.[38]

Additionally, cloud migration is a significant challenge. This process involves transferring data,
applications, or workloads from one cloud environment to another, or from on-premises infrastructure to the
cloud. Cloud migration can be complicated, time-consuming, and expensive, particularly when there are
compatibility issues between different cloud platforms or architectures. If not carefully planned and
executed, cloud migration can lead to downtime, reduced performance, or even data loss.[39]

Security and privacy

Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because
the service provider can access the data that is in
the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or
deliberately alter or delete information.[40] Many
cloud providers can share information with third
parties if necessary for purposes of law and order
without a warrant. That is permitted in their
privacy policies, which users must agree to before
they start using cloud services. Solutions to privacy
Cloud suppliers security and privacy agreements must
include policy and legislation as well as end-users' be aligned to the demand(s) requirements and
choices for how data is stored.[40] Users can requlations.
encrypt data that is processed or stored within the
cloud to prevent unauthorized access.[40] Identity
management systems can also provide practical solutions to privacy concerns in cloud computing. These
systems distinguish between authorized and unauthorized users and determine the amount of data that is
accessible to each entity.[41] The systems work by creating and describing identities, recording activities,
and getting rid of unused identities.

According to the Cloud Security Alliance, the top three threats in the cloud are Insecure Interfaces and
APIs, Data Loss & Leakage, and Hardware Failure—which accounted for 29%, 25% and 10% of all cloud
security outages respectively. Together, these form shared technology vulnerabilities. In a cloud provider
platform being shared by different users, there may be a possibility that information belonging to different
customers resides on the same data server. Additionally, Eugene Schultz, chief technology officer at
Emagined Security, said that hackers are spending substantial time and effort looking for ways to penetrate
the cloud. "There are some real Achilles' heels in the cloud infrastructure that are making big holes for the
bad guys to get into". Because data from hundreds or thousands of companies can be stored on large cloud
servers, hackers can theoretically gain control of huge stores of information through a single attack—a
process he called "hyperjacking". Some examples of this include the Dropbox security breach, and iCloud
2014 leak.[42] Dropbox had been breached in October 2014, having over seven million of its users
passwords stolen by hackers in an effort to get monetary value from it by Bitcoins (BTC). By having these
passwords, they are able to read private data as well as have this data be indexed by search engines (making
the information public).[42]

There is the problem of legal ownership of the data (If a user stores some data in the cloud, can the cloud
provider profit from it?). Many Terms of Service agreements are silent on the question of ownership.[43]
Physical control of the computer equipment (private cloud) is more secure than having the equipment off-
site and under someone else's control (public cloud). This delivers great incentive to public cloud computing
service providers to prioritize building and maintaining strong management of secure services.[44] Some
small businesses that do not have expertise in IT security could find that it is more secure for them to use a
public cloud. There is the risk that end users do not understand the issues involved when signing on to a
cloud service (persons sometimes do not read the many pages of the terms of service agreement, and just
click "Accept" without reading). This is important now that cloud computing is common and required for
some services to work, for example for an intelligent personal assistant (Apple's Siri or Google Assistant).
Fundamentally, private cloud is seen as more secure with higher levels of control for the owner, however
public cloud is seen to be more flexible and requires less time and money investment from the user.[45]

The attacks that can be made on cloud computing systems include man-in-the middle attacks, phishing
attacks, authentication attacks, and malware attacks. One of the largest threats is considered to be malware
attacks, such as Trojan horses. Recent research conducted in 2022 has revealed that the Trojan horse
injection method is a serious problem with harmful impacts on cloud computing systems.[46]

Service models

Comparison of on-premise, IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS

The service-oriented architecture (SOA) promotes the idea of "Everything as a Service" (EaaS or XaaS, or
simply aAsS).[47] This concept is operationalized in cloud computing through several service models as
defined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The three standard service models
are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a
Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS).[6]
They are commonly depicted as layers in a stack,
providing different levels of abstraction. However,
these layers are not necessarily interdependent. For
instance, SaaS can be delivered on bare metal,
bypassing PaaS and IaaS, and a program can run
directly on IaaS without being packaged as SaaS.

Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)

Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) refers to online
services that provide high-level APIs used to abstract
various low-level details of underlying network
infrastructure like physical computing resources,
location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup,
etc. A hypervisor runs the virtual machines as guests.
Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational
system can support large numbers of virtual machines Cloud computing service models arranged as
and the ability to scale services up and down according layers in a stack
to customers' varying requirements. Linux containers
run in isolated partitions of a single Linux kernel
running directly on the physical hardware. Linux cgroups and namespaces are the underlying Linux kernel
technologies used to isolate, secure and manage the containers. The use of containers offers higher
performance than virtualization because there is no hypervisor overhead. IaaS clouds often offer additional
resources such as a virtual-machine disk-image library, raw block storage, file or object storage, firewalls,
load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.[48]

The NIST's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as "where the consumer is able to deploy and run
arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage
or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed
applications; and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls)."[6]

IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data
centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual
private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their
application software on the cloud infrastructure. In this model, the cloud user patches and maintains the
operating systems and the application software. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility
computing basis: cost reflects the number of resources allocated and consumed.[49]

Platform as a service (PaaS)

The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Platform as a Service as:[6]

The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-
created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and
tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud
 infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the
deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.

PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically develops
toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS models, cloud
providers deliver a computing platform, typically including an operating system, programming-language
execution environment, database, and the web server. Application developers develop and run their
software on a cloud platform instead of directly buying and managing the underlying hardware and
software layers. With some PaaS, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to
match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually.[50]

Some integration and data management providers also use specialized applications of PaaS as delivery
models for data. Examples include iPaaS (Integration Platform as a Service) and dPaaS (Data Platform
as a Service). iPaaS enables customers to develop, execute and govern integration flows.[51] Under the
iPaaS integration model, customers drive the development and deployment of integrations without installing
or managing any hardware or middleware.[52] dPaaS delivers integration—and data-management—
products as a fully managed service.[53] Under the dPaaS model, the PaaS provider, not the customer,
manages the development and execution of programs by building data applications for the customer. dPaaS
users access data through data-visualization tools.[54]

Software as a service (SaaS)

The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Software as a Service as:[6]

The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud
infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin
client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The
consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network,
servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible
exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.

In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software and databases. Cloud
providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as
"on-demand software" and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis or using a subscription fee.[55] In the
SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the
software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the
application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own
computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from other applications in
their scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to meet
changing work demand.[56] Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual machines. This
process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access-point. To accommodate a large
number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning that any machine may serve more
than one cloud-user organization.
The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user,[57] so prices
become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point. It may also be free.[58]
Proponents claim that SaaS gives a business the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing
hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to
reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware/software spending and from personnel expenses,
towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without
the need for users to install new software. One drawback of SaaS comes with storing the users' data on the
cloud provider's server. As a result, there could be unauthorized access to the data.[59] Examples of
applications offered as SaaS are games and productivity software like Google Docs and Office Online.
SaaS applications may be integrated with cloud storage or File hosting services, which is the case with
Google Docs being integrated with Google Drive, and Office Online being integrated with OneDrive.[60]

"Backend" as a service (BaaS)

In the "backend" as a service (m) model, also known as "mobile backend as a service" (MBaaS), web app
and mobile app developers are provided with a way to link their applications to cloud storage and cloud
computing services with application programming interfaces (APIs) exposed to their applications and
custom software development kits (SDKs). Services include user management, push notifications,
integration with social networking services[61] and more. This is a relatively recent model in cloud
computing,[62] with most BaaS startups dating from 2011 or later[63][64][65] but trends indicate that these
services are gaining significant mainstream traction with enterprise consumers.[66]

Serverless computing or Function-as-a-Service (FaaS)

Serverless computing is a cloud computing code execution model in which the cloud provider fully
manages starting and stopping virtual machines as necessary to serve requests. Requests are billed by an
abstract measure of the resources required to satisfy the request, rather than per virtual machine per hour.[67]
Despite the name, serverless computing does not actually involve running code without servers.[67] The
business or person using the system does not have to purchase, rent or provide servers or virtual machines
for the back-end code to run on.

Function as a Service (FaaS) is a remote procedure call hosted as a service, leveraging serverless computing
to deploy individual functions in the cloud that run in response to specific events.[68] Some consider FaaS
to fall under the umbrella of serverless computing, while others use the terms interchangeably.[69]

Deployment models
The deployment of services to the cloud is referred to as cloud migration.

Reverse cloud migration, also known as cloud repatriation, refers to moving cloud-based workloads back to
on-premises infrastructures including enterprise data centers, colocation providers, and managed service
providers. Cloud repatriation occurs due to security concerns, costs, performance issues, compatibility
problems, and uptime concerns.[70][71]

Private
Private cloud is cloud infrastructure
operated solely for a single
organization, whether managed
internally or by a third party, and hosted
either internally or externally.[6]
Undertaking a private cloud project
requires significant engagement to
virtualize the business environment, and
requires the organization to reevaluate
decisions about existing resources. It
can improve business, but every step in
the project raises security issues that
Cloud computing types
must be addressed to prevent serious
vulnerabilities. Self-run data centers[72]
are generally capital intensive. They have a significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space,
hardware, and environmental controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional
capital expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage
them" and thus do not benefit from less hands-on management,[73] essentially "[lacking] the economic
model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept".[74][75]

Public
Cloud services are considered "public" when they are delivered over the public Internet, and they may be
offered as a paid subscription, or free of charge.[76] Architecturally, there are few differences between
public- and private-cloud services, but security concerns increase substantially when services (applications,
storage, and other resources) are shared by multiple customers. Most public-cloud providers offer direct-
connection services that allow customers to securely link their legacy data centers to their cloud-resident
applications.[20][77]

Several factors like the functionality of the solutions, cost, integrational and organizational aspects as well as
safety & security are influencing the decision of enterprises and organizations to choose a public cloud or
on-premises solution.[78]

Hybrid
Hybrid cloud is a composition of a public cloud and a private environment, such as a private cloud or on-
premises resources,[79][80] that remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of
multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation, managed
and/or dedicated services with cloud resources.[6] Gartner defines a hybrid cloud service as a cloud
computing service that is composed of some combination of private, public and community cloud services,
from different service providers.[81] A hybrid cloud service crosses isolation and provider boundaries so that
it cannot be simply put in one category of private, public, or community cloud service. It allows one to
extend either the capacity or the capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization
with another cloud service.
Varied use cases for hybrid cloud composition exist. For example, an organization may store sensitive client
data in house on a private cloud application, but interconnect that application to a business intelligence
application provided on a public cloud as a software service.[82] This example of hybrid cloud extends the
capabilities of the enterprise to deliver a specific business service through the addition of externally
available public cloud services. Hybrid cloud adoption depends on a number of factors such as data security
and compliance requirements, level of control needed over data, and the applications an organization
uses.[83]

Another example of hybrid cloud is one where IT organizations use public cloud computing resources to
meet temporary capacity needs that can not be met by the private cloud.[84] This capability enables hybrid
clouds to employ cloud bursting for scaling across clouds.[6] Cloud bursting is an application deployment
model in which an application runs in a private cloud or data center and "bursts" to a public cloud when the
demand for computing capacity increases. A primary advantage of cloud bursting and a hybrid cloud model
is that an organization pays for extra compute resources only when they are needed.[85] Cloud bursting
enables data centers to create an in-house IT infrastructure that supports average workloads, and use cloud
resources from public or private clouds, during spikes in processing demands.[86]

Others

Community
Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community with
common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether it is managed internally or by a third-
party, and hosted internally or externally, the costs are distributed among fewer users compared to a public
cloud (but more than a private cloud). As a result, only a portion of the potential cost savings of cloud
computing is achieved. [6]

Distributed
A cloud computing platform can be assembled from a distributed set of machines in different locations,
connected to a single network or hub service. It is possible to distinguish between two types of distributed
clouds: public-resource computing and volunteer cloud.

Public-resource computing – This type of distributed cloud results from an expansive

definition of cloud computing, because they are more akin to distributed computing than
cloud computing. Nonetheless, it is considered a sub-class of cloud computing.
Volunteer cloud – Volunteer cloud computing is characterized as the intersection of public-
resource computing and cloud computing, where a cloud computing infrastructure is built
using volunteered resources. Many challenges arise from this type of infrastructure, because
of the volatility of the resources used to build it and the dynamic environment it operates in. It
can also be called peer-to-peer clouds, or ad-hoc clouds. An interesting effort in such
direction is Cloud@Home, it aims to implement a cloud computing infrastructure using
volunteered resources providing a business-model to incentivize contributions through
financial restitution.[87]

Multi
Multicloud is the use of multiple cloud computing services in a single heterogeneous architecture to reduce
reliance on single vendors, increase flexibility through choice, mitigate against disasters, etc. It differs from
hybrid cloud in that it refers to multiple cloud services, rather than multiple deployment modes (public,
private, legacy).[88][89][90]

Poly
Poly cloud refers to the use of multiple public clouds for the purpose of leveraging specific services that
each provider offers. It differs from Multi cloud in that it is not designed to increase flexibility or mitigate
against failures but is rather used to allow an organization to achieve more than could be done with a single
provider.[91]

Big data
The issues of transferring large amounts of data to the cloud as well as data security once the data is in the
cloud initially hampered adoption of cloud for big data, but now that much data originates in the cloud and
with the advent of bare-metal servers, the cloud has become[92] a solution for use cases including business
analytics and geospatial analysis.[93]

HPC
HPC cloud refers to the use of cloud computing services and infrastructure to execute high-performance
computing (HPC) applications.[94] These applications consume a considerable amount of computing power
and memory and are traditionally executed on clusters of computers. In 2016 a handful of companies,
including R-HPC, Amazon Web Services, Univa, Silicon Graphics International, Sabalcore, Gomput, and
Penguin Computing offered a high-performance computing cloud. The Penguin On Demand (POD) cloud
was one of the first non-virtualized remote HPC services offered on a pay-as-you-go basis.[95][96] Penguin
Computing launched its HPC cloud in 2016 as an alternative to Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud,
which uses virtualized computing nodes.[97][98]

Architecture
Cloud architecture,[99] the systems architecture
of the software systems involved in the delivery of
cloud computing, typically involves multiple cloud
components communicating with each other over a
loose coupling mechanism such as a messaging
queue. Elastic provision implies intelligence in the
use of tight or loose coupling as applied to
mechanisms such as these and others.

Cloud engineering
Cloud engineering is the application of Cloud computing sample architecture
engineering disciplines of cloud computing. It
brings a systematic approach to the high-level
concerns of commercialization, standardization and governance in conceiving, developing, operating and
maintaining cloud computing systems. It is a multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions from
diverse areas such as systems, software, web, performance, information technology engineering, security,
platform, risk, and quality engineering.

Market
According to International Data Corporation (IDC), global spending on cloud computing services has
reached $706 billion and is expected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2025.[100] Gartner estimated that global public
cloud services end-user spending would reach $600 billion by 2023.[101] According to a McKinsey &
Company report, cloud cost-optimization levers and value-oriented business use cases foresee more than $1
trillion in run-rate EBITDA across Fortune 500 companies as up for grabs in 2030.[102] In 2022, more than
$1.3 trillion in enterprise IT spending was at stake from the shift to the cloud, growing to almost $1.8 trillion
in 2025, according to Gartner.[103]

The European Commission's 2012 Communication identified several issues which were impeding the
development of the cloud computing market:[5]: Section 3

fragmentation of the digital single market across the EU

concerns about contracts including reservations about data access and ownership, data
portability, and change control
variations in standards applicable to cloud computing
The Communication set out a series of "digital agenda actions" which the Commission proposed to
undertake in order to support the development of a fair and effective market for cloud computing
services.[5]: Pages 6-14

List of clouds
Adobe Creative Cloud
Amazon Web Services
Google Cloud
IBM Cloud
Microsoft Azure
OpenStack
Oracle Cloud
Panorama9

Similar concepts
The goal of cloud computing is to allow users to take benefit from all of these technologies, without the
need for deep knowledge about or expertise with each one of them. The cloud aims to cut costs and helps
the users focus on their core business instead of being impeded by IT obstacles.[104] The main enabling
technology for cloud computing is virtualization. Virtualization software separates a physical computing
device into one or more "virtual" devices, each of which can be easily used and managed to perform
computing tasks. With operating system–level virtualization essentially creating a scalable system of
multiple independent computing devices, idle computing resources can be allocated and used more
efficiently. Virtualization provides the agility required to speed up IT operations and reduces cost by
increasing infrastructure utilization. Autonomic computing automates the process through which the user
can provision resources on-demand. By minimizing user involvement, automation speeds up the process,
reduces labor costs and reduces the possibility of human errors.[104]

Cloud computing uses concepts from utility computing to provide metrics for the services used. Cloud
computing attempts to address QoS (quality of service) and reliability problems of other grid computing
models.[104]

Cloud computing shares characteristics with:

Client–server model – Client–server computing refers broadly to any distributed application

that distinguishes between service providers (servers) and service requestors (clients).[105]
Computer bureau – A service bureau providing computer services, particularly from the
1960s to 1980s.
Grid computing – A form of distributed and parallel computing, whereby a 'super and virtual
computer' is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled computers acting in
concert to perform very large tasks.
Fog computing – Distributed computing paradigm that provides data, compute, storage and
application services closer to the client or near-user edge devices, such as network routers.
Furthermore, fog computing handles data at the network level, on smart devices and on the
end-user client-side (e.g. mobile devices), instead of sending data to a remote location for
processing.
Utility computing – The "packaging of computing resources, such as computation and
storage, as a metered service similar to a traditional public utility, such as electricity."[106][107]
Peer-to-peer – A distributed architecture without the need for central coordination.
Participants are both suppliers and consumers of resources (in contrast to the traditional
client-server model).
Cloud sandbox – A live, isolated computer environment in which a program, code or file can
run without affecting the application in which it runs.

See also
As a service Cloudlet
Block-level storage Computer cluster
Browser-based computing Cooperative storage cloud
Category:Cloud computing providers Decentralized computing
Category:Cloud platforms Desktop virtualization
Cloud broker Dew computing
Cloud collaboration Directory
Cloud-computing comparison Distributed data store
Cloud computing security Distributed database
Cloud gaming Distributed computing
Cloud management Distributed networking
Cloud-native computing e-Science
Cloud research Edge computing
Cloud robotics Edge device
Cloud storage
Cloud-to-cloud integration
 File system Knowledge as a service
Clustered file system Microservices
Distributed file system Mobile cloud computing
Distributed file system for cloud Multi-access edge computing
Fog computing Multisite cloud
Fog robotics Peer-to-peer
Green computing (environmentally Personal cloud
sustainable computing) Private cloud computing infrastructure
Grid computing Robot as a service
In-memory database Service-oriented architecture
In-memory processing Time-sharing
Internet of things Ubiquitous computing
IoT security device Virtual private cloud

Notes
a. The European Commission has observed that locations of data and processes "[do] not in
principle have to concern the user", but they may have "an important bearing on the
applicable legal environment".[5]
b. The VM startup time varies by VM type, location, OS and cloud provider.[27]

References
1. Ray, Partha Pratim (2018). "An Introduction to Dew Computing: Definition, Concept and
Implications - IEEE Journals & Magazine" (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FACCESS.2017.27750
42). IEEE Access. 6: 723–737. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2775042 (https://doi.org/10.110
9%2FACCESS.2017.2775042). S2CID 3324933 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3
324933).
2. Montazerolghaem, Ahmadreza; Yaghmaee, Mohammad Hossein; Leon-Garcia, Alberto
(September 2020). "Green Cloud Multimedia Networking: NFV/SDN Based Energy-Efficient
Resource Allocation" (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9044834). IEEE Transactions on
Green Communications and Networking. 4 (3): 873–889. doi:10.1109/TGCN.2020.2982821
(https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTGCN.2020.2982821). ISSN 2473-2400 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/2473-2400). S2CID 216188024 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21618802
4). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201209101153/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/docu
ment/9044834/) from the original on 2020-12-09. Retrieved 2020-12-06.
3. Wray, Jared (2014-02-27). "Where's The Rub: Cloud Computing's Hidden Costs" (https://ww
w.forbes.com/sites/centurylink/2014/02/27/wheres-the-rub-cloud-computings-hidden-costs/).
Forbes. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140714195608/http://www.forbes.com/sites/
centurylink/2014/02/27/wheres-the-rub-cloud-computings-hidden-costs/) from the original on
2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
4. "Are rainy days ahead for cloud computing?" (https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cd114lllyp6
o). BBC News. 2024-06-27. Retrieved 2024-06-28.
5. European Commission, Unleashing the Potential of Cloud Computing in Europe (https://eur-l
ex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2012:0529:FIN:EN:PDF), COM(2012)
529 final, page 3, published 27 September 2012, accessed 26 April 2024
 6. Mell, Peter; Timothy Grance (September 2011). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing
(Technical report). National Institute of Standards and Technology: U.S. Department of
Commerce. doi:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-145 (https://doi.org/10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-145).
Special publication 800-145.
7. White, J. E. (1971). "Network Specifications for Remote Job Entry and Remote Job Output
Retrieval at UCSB" (https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc105). tools.ietf.org. doi:10.17487/RFC0105 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC0105). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201603300842
06/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc105) from the original on 2016-03-30. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
8. Levy, Steven (April 1994). "Bill and Andy's Excellent Adventure II" (http://archive.wired.com/w
ired/archive/2.04/general.magic_pr.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015100203
3751/http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/2.04/general.magic_pr.html) 2015-10-02 at the
Wayback Machine. Wired.
9. Mosco, Vincent (2015). To the Cloud: Big Data in a Turbulent World (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=YwbvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15). Taylor & Francis. p. 15. ISBN 9781317250388.
10. "Announcing Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2) – beta" (https://aws.amazon.co
m/about-aws/whats-new/2006/08/24/announcing-amazon-elastic-compute-cloud-amazon-ec
2---beta/). 24 August 2006. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140813195808/http://aw
s.amazon.com/about-aws/whats-new/2006/08/24/announcing-amazon-elastic-compute-clou
d-amazon-ec2---beta/) from the original on 13 August 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
11. Qian, Ling; Lou, Zhigou; Du, Yujian; Gou, Leitao. "Cloud Computing: An Overview" (https://w
ww.researchgate.net/publication/221276709). Retrieved 19 April 2021.
12. "Windows Azure General Availability" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140511230956/http://bl
ogs.technet.com/b/microsoft_blog/archive/2010/02/01/windows-azure-general-availability.as
px). The Official Microsoft Blog. Microsoft. 2010-02-01. Archived from the original (http://blog
s.technet.com/b/microsoft_blog/archive/2010/02/01/windows-azure-general-availability.aspx)
on 2014-05-11. Retrieved 2015-05-03.
13. "Announcing General Availability of AWS Outposts" (https://aws.amazon.com/about-aws/wh
ats-new/2019/12/announcing-general-availability-of-aws-outposts/). Amazon Web Services,
Inc. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210121002254/https://aws.amazon.com/about-
aws/whats-new/2019/12/announcing-general-availability-of-aws-outposts/) from the original
on 2021-01-21. Retrieved 2021-02-04.
14. "Remote work helps Zoom grow 169% in one year, posting $328.2M in Q1 revenue" (https://s
ocial.techcrunch.com/2020/06/02/remote-work-helps-zoom-grow-169-in-one-year-posting-32
8-2m-q1-revenue/). TechCrunch. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230117181041/htt
ps://techcrunch.com/2020/06/02/remote-work-helps-zoom-grow-169-in-one-year-posting-328
-2m-q1-revenue/) from the original on 2023-01-17. Retrieved 2021-04-27.
15. "What is Cloud Computing?" (https://aws.amazon.com/what-is-cloud-computing/). Amazon
Web Services. 2013-03-19. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130322083951/http://a
ws.amazon.com/what-is-cloud-computing/) from the original on 2013-03-22. Retrieved
2013-03-20.
16. Baburajan, Rajani (2011-08-24). "The Rising Cloud Storage Market Opportunity Strengthens
Vendors" (http://it.tmcnet.com/channels/cloud-storage/articles/211183-rising-cloud-storage-m
arket-opportunity-strengthens-vendors.htm). It.tmcnet.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20120617161919/http://it.tmcnet.com/channels/cloud-storage/articles/211183-rising-clo
ud-storage-market-opportunity-strengthens-vendors.htm) from the original on 2012-06-17.
Retrieved 2011-12-02.
17. Oestreich, Ken (2010-11-15). "Converged Infrastructure" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120
113094920/http://www.thectoforum.com/content/converged-infrastructure-0). CTO Forum.
Thectoforum.com. Archived from the original (http://www.thectoforum.com/content/converged
-infrastructure-0) on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
18. Simpson, Ted; Jason Novak, Hands on Virtual Computing, 2017, ISBN 1337515744, p. 451.
(https://books.google.com/books?id=wtdUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA451) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20230117181025/https://books.google.com/books?id=wtdUDgAAQBAJ&pg=P
A451) 2023-01-17 at the Wayback Machine
19. "Recession Is Good For Cloud Computing – Microsoft Agrees" (http://www.cloudave.com/lin
k/recession-is-good-for-cloud-computing-microsoft-agrees). CloudAve. 2009-02-12. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100814013751/http://www.cloudave.com/link/recession-is-go
od-for-cloud-computing-microsoft-agrees) from the original on 2010-08-14. Retrieved
2010-08-22.
20. "Defining 'Cloud Services' and "Cloud Computing" " (https://web.archive.org/web/201007220
74526/http://blogs.idc.com/ie/?p=190). IDC. 2008-09-23. Archived from the original (http://blo
gs.idc.com/ie/?p=190) on 2010-07-22. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
21. "State of the Art | e-FISCAL project" (http://www.efiscal.eu/state-of-the-art). www.efiscal.eu.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130127204905/http://www.efiscal.eu/state-of-the-ar
t) from the original on 2013-01-27. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
22. Farber, Dan (2008-06-25). "The new geek chic: Data centers" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0131104055614/http://news.cnet.com/8301-13953_3-9977049-80.html). CNET News.
Archived from the original (http://news.cnet.com/8301-13953_3-9977049-80.html) on 2013-
11-04. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
23. "Jeff Bezos' Risky Bet" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120627012051/http://www.businessw
eek.com/magazine/content/06_46/b4009001.htm). Business Week. Archived from the
original (http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_46/b4009001.htm) on 2012-
06-27. Retrieved 2008-08-21.
24. He, Sijin; Guo, L.; Guo, Y.; Ghanem, M. (June 2012). "Improving Resource Utilisation in the
Cloud Environment Using Multivariate Probabilistic Models". 2012 IEEE Fifth International
Conference on Cloud Computing. 2012 2012 IEEE 5th International Conference on Cloud
Computing (CLOUD). pp. 574–581. doi:10.1109/CLOUD.2012.66 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2
FCLOUD.2012.66). ISBN 978-1-4673-2892-0. S2CID 15374752 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:15374752).
25. He, Qiang, et al. "Formulating Cost-Effective Monitoring Strategies for Service-based
Systems." (2013): 1–1.
26. King, Rachael (2008-08-04). "Cloud Computing: Small Companies Take Flight" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20100807234154/http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/aug20
08/tc2008083_619516.htm). Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.businessweek.com/technology/content/aug2008/tc2008083_619516.htm) on 2010-08-07.
Retrieved 2010-08-22.
27. Mao, Ming; M. Humphrey (2012). "A Performance Study on the VM Startup Time in the
Cloud". 2012 IEEE Fifth International Conference on Cloud Computing. p. 423.
doi:10.1109/CLOUD.2012.103 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCLOUD.2012.103). ISBN 978-1-
4673-2892-0. S2CID 1285357 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1285357).
28. Bruneo, Dario; Distefano, Salvatore; Longo, Francesco; Puliafito, Antonio; Scarpa, Marco
(2013). "Workload-Based Software Rejuvenation in Cloud Systems". IEEE Transactions on
Computers. 62 (6): 1072–1085. doi:10.1109/TC.2013.30 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTC.201
3.30). S2CID 23981532 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23981532).
29. Kuperberg, Michael; Herbst, Nikolas; Kistowski, Joakim Von; Reussner, Ralf (1 January
2011). Defining and Quantifying Elasticity of Resources in Cloud Computing and Scalable
Platforms (https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000023476). Karlsruher Institut für
Technologie. doi:10.5445/IR/1000023476 (https://doi.org/10.5445%2FIR%2F1000023476)
(inactive 2024-02-28). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130406155607/http://digbib.u
bka.uni-karlsruhe.de/volltexte/1000023476) from the original on 6 April 2013. Retrieved
12 December 2023.
30. "Economies of Cloud Scale Infrastructure" (https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/202110
27/nfDsY3f4nVI). Cloud Slam 2011. Archived from the original (https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=nfDsY3f4nVI) on 2021-10-27. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
31. He, Sijin; L. Guo; Y. Guo; C. Wu; M. Ghanem (March 2012). "Elastic Application Container: A
Lightweight Approach for Cloud Resource Provisioning". 2012 IEEE 26th International
Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications. 2012 IEEE 26th
International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA).
pp. 15–22. doi:10.1109/AINA.2012.74 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FAINA.2012.74). ISBN 978-
1-4673-0714-7. S2CID 4863927 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4863927).
32. Marston, Sean; Li, Zhi; Bandyopadhyay, Subhajyoti; Zhang, Juheng; Ghalsasi, Anand (2011-
04-01). "Cloud computing – The business perspective". Decision Support Systems. 51 (1):
176–189. doi:10.1016/j.dss.2010.12.006 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dss.2010.12.006).
33. Why Cloud computing scalability matters for business growth (https://symphony-solutions.co
m/insights/cloud-computing-scalability) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190
542/https://symphony-solutions.com/insights/cloud-computing-scalability) 2021-07-09 at the
Wayback Machine, Symphony Solutions, 2021
34. Nouri, Seyed; Han, Li; Srikumar, Venugopal; Wenxia, Guo; MingYun, He; Wenhong, Tian
(2019). "Autonomic decentralized elasticity based on a reinforcement learning controller for
cloud applications". Future Generation Computer Systems. 94: 765–780.
doi:10.1016/j.future.2018.11.049 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.future.2018.11.049).
S2CID 59284268 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59284268).
35. Mills, Elinor (2009-01-27). "Cloud computing security forecast: Clear skies" (https://www.cne
t.com/news/cloud-computing-security-forecast-clear-skies/). CNET News. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20200128225657/https://www.cnet.com/news/cloud-computing-security-f
orecast-clear-skies/) from the original on 2020-01-28. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
36. Marko, Kurt; Bigelow, Stephen J. (10 Nov 2022). "The pros and cons of cloud computing
explained" (https://www.techtarget.com/searchcloudcomputing/tip/Explore-the-pros-and-cons
-of-cloud-computing). TechTarget.
37. Bratton, Benjamin H. (2015). The stack: on software and sovereignty. Software studies.
Cambridge, Mass. London: MIT press. ISBN 978-0-262-02957-5.
38. Bridle, James (2019). New dark age: technology and the end of the future. Verso.
39. Shurma, Ramesh (8 Mar 2023). "The Hidden Costs Of Cloud Migration" (https://www.forbes.
com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2023/03/08/the-hidden-costs-of-cloud-migration). Forbes.
40. Ryan, Mark D. (January 2011). "Cloud Computing Privacy Concerns on Our Doorstep" (http
s://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2011/1/103200-cloud-computing-privacy-concerns-on-our-door
step/fulltext). cacm.acm.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211228121443/https://c
acm.acm.org/magazines/2011/1/103200-cloud-computing-privacy-concerns-on-our-doorste
p/fulltext) from the original on 2021-12-28. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
41. Indu, I.; Anand, P.M. Rubesh; Bhaskar, Vidhyacharan (August 1, 2018). "Identity and access
management in cloud environment: Mechanisms and challenges" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2
Fj.jestch.2018.05.010). Engineering Science and Technology. 21 (4): 574–588.
doi:10.1016/j.jestch.2018.05.010 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jestch.2018.05.010).
42. "Google Drive, Dropbox, Box and iCloud Reach the Top 5 Cloud Storage Security Breaches
List" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151123032912/https://psg.hitachi-solutions.com/credeo
n/blog/google-drive-dropbox-box-and-icloud-reach-the-top-5-cloud-storage-security-breache
s-list). psg.hitachi-solutions.com. Archived from the original (https://psg.hitachi-solutions.com/
credeon/blog/google-drive-dropbox-box-and-icloud-reach-the-top-5-cloud-storage-security-b
reaches-list) on 2015-11-23. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
43. Maltais, Michelle (26 April 2012). "Who owns your stuff in the cloud?" (http://articles.latimes.c
om/2012/apr/26/business/la-fi-tech-savvy-cloud-services-20120426). Los Angeles Times.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130120124852/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/apr/
26/business/la-fi-tech-savvy-cloud-services-20120426) from the original on 2013-01-20.
Retrieved 2012-12-14.
44. "Security of virtualization, cloud computing divides IT and security pros" (https://www.networ
kworld.com/article/772953/virtualization-security-of-virtualization-cloud-computing-divides-it-
and-security-pros.html). Network World. 2010-02-22. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0240426183953/https://www.networkworld.com/article/772953/virtualization-security-of-virtu
alization-cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html) from the original on 2024-04-26.
Retrieved 2010-08-22.
45. "The Bumpy Road to Private Clouds" (http://www.computerworld.com/article/2549867/data-c
enter/the-bumpy-road-to-private-clouds.html). 2010-12-20. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20141015113110/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2549867/data-center/the-bump
y-road-to-private-clouds.html) from the original on 2014-10-15. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
46. Kanaker, Hasan; Karim, Nader Abdel; Awwad, Samer A. B.; Ismail, Nurul H. A.; Zraqou,
Jamal; Ali, Abdulla M. F. Al (2022-12-20). "Trojan Horse Infection Detection in Cloud Based
Environment Using Machine Learning" (https://online-journals.org/index.php/i-jim/article/vie
w/35763). International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies. 16 (24): 81–106.
doi:10.3991/ijim.v16i24.35763 (https://doi.org/10.3991%2Fijim.v16i24.35763). ISSN 1865-
7923 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1865-7923). S2CID 254960874 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:254960874).
47. Duan, Yucong; Fu, Guohua; Zhou, Nianjun; Sun, Xiaobing; Narendra, Nanjangud; Hu, Bo
(2015). "Everything as a Service (XaaS) on the Cloud: Origins, Current and Future Trends".
2015 IEEE 8th International Conference on Cloud Computing. IEEE. pp. 621–628.
doi:10.1109/CLOUD.2015.88 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCLOUD.2015.88). ISBN 978-1-
4673-7287-9. S2CID 8201466 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8201466).
48. Amies, Alex; Sluiman, Harm; Tong, Qiang Guo; Liu, Guo Ning (July 2012). "Infrastructure as
a Service Cloud Concepts" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120915124741/http://www.ibmpr
essbooks.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=9780133066845). Developing and Hosting
Applications on the Cloud. IBM Press. ISBN 978-0-13-306684-5. Archived from the original
(http://www.ibmpressbooks.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=9780133066845) on 2012-09-
15. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
49. Nelson, Michael R. (2009). "The Cloud, the Crowd, and Public Policy" (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/43314918). Issues in Science and Technology. 25 (4): 71–76. JSTOR 43314918 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/43314918). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220910171012/
https://www.jstor.org/stable/43314918) from the original on 2022-09-10. Retrieved
2022-09-10.
50. Boniface, M.; et al. (2010). Platform-as-a-Service Architecture for Real-Time Quality of
Service Management in Clouds. 5th International Conference on Internet and Web
Applications and Services (ICIW). Barcelona, Spain: IEEE. pp. 155–160.
doi:10.1109/ICIW.2010.91 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICIW.2010.91).
51. "Integration Platform as a Service (iPaaS)" (http://www.gartner.com/it-glossary/information-pl
atform-as-a-service-ipaas). Gartner IT Glossary. Gartner. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20150729050824/http://www.gartner.com/it-glossary/information-platform-as-a-service-ipa
as) from the original on 2015-07-29. Retrieved 2015-07-20.
52. Gartner; Massimo Pezzini; Paolo Malinverno; Eric Thoo. "Gartner Reference Model for
Integration PaaS" (http://www.gartner.com/id=1729256). Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20130701033411/http://www.gartner.com/id=1729256) from the original on 1 July 2013.
Retrieved 16 January 2013.
53. Loraine Lawson (3 April 2015). "IT Business Edge" (http://www.itbusinessedge.com/blogs/int
egration/liaisons-data-platform-as-a-service-includes-data-mapping.html). Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20150707171204/http://www.itbusinessedge.com/blogs/integration/liaiso
ns-data-platform-as-a-service-includes-data-mapping.html) from the original on 7 July 2015.
Retrieved 6 July 2015.
54. Enterprise CIO Forum; Gabriel Lowy. "The Value of Data Platform-as-a-Service (dPaaS)" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20150419045605/http://www.enterprisecioforum.com/en/blogs/gab
riellowy/value-data-platform-service-dpaas). Archived from the original (http://www.enterprise
cioforum.com/en/blogs/gabriellowy/value-data-platform-service-dpaas) on 19 April 2015.
Retrieved 6 July 2015.
55. "Definition of: SaaS" (https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/56112/saas). PC Magazine
Encyclopedia. Ziff Davis. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140714175059/http://ww
w.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/56112/saas) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved
14 May 2014.
56. Hamdaqa, Mohammad. A Reference Model for Developing Cloud Applications (http://www.st
argroup.uwaterloo.ca/~mhamdaqa/publications/A%20REFERENCEMODELFORDEVELOP
INGCLOUD%20APPLICATIONS.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2012100
5002903/http://www.stargroup.uwaterloo.ca/~mhamdaqa/publications/A%20REFERENCEM
ODELFORDEVELOPINGCLOUD%20APPLICATIONS.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2012-
10-05. Retrieved 2012-05-23.
57. Chou, Timothy. Introduction to Cloud Computing: Business & Technology (https://www.scrib
d.com/doc/64699897/Introduction-to-Cloud-Computing-Business-and-Technology). Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20160505045711/https://www.scribd.com/doc/64699897/Introdu
ction-to-Cloud-Computing-Business-and-Technology) from the original on 2016-05-05.
Retrieved 2017-09-09.
58. "HVD: the cloud's silver lining" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121002231021/http://www.intr
insictechnology.co.uk/FileUploads/HVD_Whitepaper.pdf) (PDF). Intrinsic Technology.
Archived from the original (http://www.intrinsictechnology.co.uk/FileUploads/HVD_Whitepap
er.pdf) (PDF) on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
59. Sun, Yunchuan; Zhang, Junsheng; Xiong, Yongping; Zhu, Guangyu (2014-07-01). "Data
Security and Privacy in Cloud Computing" (https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2014%2F190903).
International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. 10 (7): 190903.
doi:10.1155/2014/190903 (https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2014%2F190903). ISSN 1550-1477
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1550-1477). S2CID 13213544 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:13213544).
60. "Use OneDrive with Office" (https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/use-onedrive-with-offic
e-b1c976de-ef52-4d53-950f-d48f2c6427df). Microsoft Support. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20221015223322/https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/use-onedrive-with-office
-b1c976de-ef52-4d53-950f-d48f2c6427df) from the original on 2022-10-15. Retrieved
2022-10-15.
61. Carney, Michael (2013-06-24). "AnyPresence partners with Heroku to beef up its enterprise
mBaaS offering" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130627191306/http://pandodaily.com/2013/
06/24/anypresence-partners-with-heroku-to-beef-up-its-enterprise-mbaas-offering/).
PandoDaily. Archived from the original (http://pandodaily.com/2013/06/24/anypresence-partn
ers-with-heroku-to-beef-up-its-enterprise-mbaas-offering/) on 2013-06-27. Retrieved 24 June
2013.
62. Alex Williams (11 October 2012). "Kii Cloud Opens Doors For Mobile Developer Platform
With 25 Million End Users" (https://techcrunch.com/2012/10/11/kii-cloud-opens-doors-for-mo
bile-developer-platform-with-25-million-end-users/). TechCrunch. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20121015234739/http://techcrunch.com/2012/10/11/kii-cloud-opens-doors-for-m
obile-developer-platform-with-25-million-end-users/) from the original on 15 October 2012.
Retrieved 16 October 2012.
63. Aaron Tan (30 September 2012). "FatFractal ups the ante in backend-as-a-service market"
(http://www.techgoondu.com/2012/09/30/fatfractal-ups-the-ante-in-backend-as-a-service/).
Techgoondu.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121010050730/http://www.techg
oondu.com/2012/09/30/fatfractal-ups-the-ante-in-backend-as-a-service/) from the original on
10 October 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
64. Dan Rowinski (9 November 2011). "Mobile Backend As A Service Parse Raises $5.5 Million
in Series A Funding" (http://readwrite.com/2011/11/09/mobile-backend-as-a-service-pa).
ReadWrite. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121101025650/http://readwrite.com/201
1/11/09/mobile-backend-as-a-service-pa) from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved
23 October 2012.
65. Pankaj Mishra (7 January 2014). "MobStac Raises $2 Million in Series B To Help Brands
Leverage Mobile Commerce" (https://techcrunch.com/2014/01/07/mobstac-raises-2-million-i
n-series-b-to-help-brands-leverage-mobile-commerce/). TechCrunch. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20140515205130/http://techcrunch.com/2014/01/07/mobstac-raises-2-million
-in-series-b-to-help-brands-leverage-mobile-commerce/) from the original on 15 May 2014.
Retrieved 22 May 2014.
66. "built.io Is Building an Enterprise MBaas Platform for IoT" (http://blog.programmableweb.co
m/2014/03/03/built-io-is-building-an-enterprise-mbaas-platform-for-iot/). programmableweb.
2014-03-03. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140306232616/http://blog.programmab
leweb.com/2014/03/03/built-io-is-building-an-enterprise-mbaas-platform-for-iot/) from the
original on 2014-03-06. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
67. Miller, Ron (24 Nov 2015). "AWS Lambda Makes Serverless Applications A Reality" (https://t
echcrunch.com/2015/11/24/aws-lamda-makes-serverless-applications-a-reality/).
TechCrunch. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190523224207/https://techcrunch.co
m/2015/11/24/aws-lamda-makes-serverless-applications-a-reality/) from the original on 23
May 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2016.
68. "bliki: Serverless" (https://www.martinfowler.com/bliki/Serverless.html). martinfowler.com.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180505065623/https://www.martinfowler.com/bliki/S
erverless.html) from the original on 2018-05-05. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
69. Sbarski, Peter (2017-05-04). Serverless Architectures on AWS: With examples using AWS
Lambda (1st ed.). Manning Publications. ISBN 9781617293825.
70. McManus, Sean (June 27, 2024). "Are rainy days ahead for cloud computing?" (https://www.
bbc.com/news/articles/cd114lllyp6o). www.bbc.com. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
71. Linthicum, David (9 February 2024). "Cloud repatriation: Why companies are leaving the
cloud" (https://www.infoworld.com/article/3712861/why-companies-are-leaving-the-cloud.ht
ml). InfoWorld. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
72. "Self-Run Private Cloud Computing Solution – GovConnection" (http://www.govconnection.c
om/IPA/PM/Info/Cloud-Computing/Self-Run-Private-Cloud.htm). govconnection.com. 2014.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140406092811/http://www.govconnection.com/IPA/
PM/Info/Cloud-Computing/Self-Run-Private-Cloud.htm) from the original on April 6, 2014.
Retrieved April 15, 2014.
73. "Private Clouds Take Shape – Services – Business services – Informationweek" (https://arch
ive.today/20120909095216/http://www.informationweek.com/services/business/private-cloud
s-take-shape/209904474). 2012-09-09. Archived from the original (http://www.informationwe
ek.com/services/business/private-clouds-take-shape/209904474) on 2012-09-09.
74. Haff, Gordon (2009-01-27). "Just don't call them private clouds" (https://www.cnet.com/news/j
ust-dont-call-them-private-clouds/). CNET News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2014
1227001927/http://www.cnet.com/news/just-dont-call-them-private-clouds/) from the original
on 2014-12-27. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
75. "There's No Such Thing As A Private Cloud – Cloud-computing -" (https://archive.today/2013
0126064248/http://www.informationweek.com/cloud-computing/theres-no-such-thing-as-a-pri
vate-cloud/229207922). 2013-01-26. Archived from the original (http://www.informationweek.
com/cloud-computing/theres-no-such-thing-as-a-private-cloud/229207922) on 2013-01-26.
76. Rouse, Margaret. "What is public cloud?" (http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definit
ion/public-cloud). Definition from Whatis.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201410
16022343/http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/public-cloud) from the
original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
77. "FastConnect | Oracle Cloud Infrastructure" (https://cloud.oracle.com/en_US/fastconnect).
cloud.oracle.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171115232022/https://cloud.oracl
e.com/en_US/fastconnect) from the original on 2017-11-15. Retrieved 2017-11-15.
78. Schmidt, Rainer; Möhring, Michael; Keller, Barbara (2017). "Customer Relationship
Management in a Public Cloud environment - Key influencing factors for European
enterprises" (https://doi.org/10.24251%2FHICSS.2017.513). HICSS. Proceedings of the 50th
Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (2017).
doi:10.24251/HICSS.2017.513 (https://doi.org/10.24251%2FHICSS.2017.513).
hdl:10125/41673 (https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F41673). ISBN 9780998133102.
79. "What is hybrid cloud? - Definition from WhatIs.com" (https://searchcloudcomputing.techtarg
et.com/definition/hybrid-cloud). SearchCloudComputing. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20190716045359/https://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/hybrid-cloud)
from the original on 2019-07-16. Retrieved 2019-08-10.
80. Butler, Brandon (2017-10-17). "What is hybrid cloud computing? The benefits of mixing
private and public cloud services" (https://www.networkworld.com/article/3233132/what-is-hy
brid-cloud-computing.html). Network World. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190811
183947/https://www.networkworld.com/article/3233132/what-is-hybrid-cloud-computing.html)
from the original on 2019-08-11. Retrieved 2019-08-11.
81. "Mind the Gap: Here Comes Hybrid Cloud – Thomas Bittman" (http://blogs.gartner.com/thom
as_bittman/2012/09/24/mind-the-gap-here-comes-hybrid-cloud/). Thomas Bittman. 24
September 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150417185305/http://blogs.gartne
r.com/thomas_bittman/2012/09/24/mind-the-gap-here-comes-hybrid-cloud/) from the original
on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
82. "Business Intelligence Takes to Cloud for Small Businesses" (http://www.cio.com/article/753
708/Business_Intelligence_Takes_to_Cloud_for_Small_Businesses). CIO.com. 2014-06-04.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140607002519/http://www.cio.com/article/753708/B
usiness_Intelligence_Takes_to_Cloud_for_Small_Businesses) from the original on 2014-06-
07. Retrieved 2014-06-04.
83. Désiré Athow (24 August 2014). "Hybrid cloud: is it right for your business?" (https://www.tec
hradar.com/news/internet/cloud-services/hybrid-cloud-is-it-right-for-your-business-1261343).
TechRadar. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170707094750/http://www.techradar.co
m/news/internet/cloud-services/hybrid-cloud-is-it-right-for-your-business-1261343) from the
original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
84. Metzler, Jim; Taylor, Steve. (2010-08-23) "Cloud computing: Reality vs. fiction" (http://www.ne
tworkworld.com/newsletters/frame/2010/082310wan1.html) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20130619095824/http://www.networkworld.com/newsletters/frame/2010/082310wan1.
html) 2013-06-19 at the Wayback Machine, Network World.
85. Rouse, Margaret. "Definition: Cloudbursting" (http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/de
finition/cloud-bursting) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130319074247/http://searchc
loudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/cloud-bursting) 2013-03-19 at the Wayback
Machine, May 2011. SearchCloudComputing.com.
86. "How Cloudbursting "Rightsizes" the Data Center" (http://insights.dice.com/2012/06/21/how-
cloudbursting-rightsizes-the-data-center/). 2012-06-22. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20161019150709/http://insights.dice.com/2012/06/21/how-cloudbursting-rightsizes-the-dat
a-center/) from the original on 2016-10-19. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
87. Cunsolo, Vincenzo D.; Distefano, Salvatore; Puliafito, Antonio; Scarpa, Marco (2009).
"Volunteer Computing and Desktop Cloud: The Cloud@Home Paradigm". 2009 Eighth IEEE
International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications. pp. 134–139.
doi:10.1109/NCA.2009.41 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FNCA.2009.41). S2CID 15848602 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15848602).
88. Rouse, Margaret. "What is a multi-cloud strategy" (http://searchcloudapplications.techtarget.c
om/definition/multi-cloud-strategy). SearchCloudApplications. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20140705144927/http://searchcloudapplications.techtarget.com/definition/multi-cloud
-strategy) from the original on 5 July 2014. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
89. King, Rachel. "Pivotal's head of products: We're moving to a multi-cloud world" (https://www.
zdnet.com/article/pivotals-head-of-products-were-moving-to-a-multi-cloud-world/). ZDnet.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140704070709/http://www.zdnet.com/pivotals-head
-of-products-were-moving-to-a-multi-cloud-world-7000030737/) from the original on 4 July
2014. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
90. Multcloud manage multiple cloud accounts (http://www.groovypost.com/reviews/multcloud-m
anage-multiple-cloud-accounts/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230117181025/htt
ps://www.groovypost.com/reviews/multcloud-manage-multiple-cloud-accounts/) 2023-01-17
at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 06 August 2014
91. Gall, Richard (2018-05-16). "Polycloud: a better alternative to cloud agnosticism" (https://hu
b.packtpub.com/polycloud-a-better-alternative-to-cloud-agnosticism/). Packt Hub. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20191111115325/https://hub.packtpub.com/polycloud-a-better-
alternative-to-cloud-agnosticism/) from the original on 2019-11-11. Retrieved 2019-11-11.
92. Roh, Lucas (31 August 2016). "Is the Cloud Finally Ready for Big Data?" (http://dataconomy.
com/2016/08/cloud-ready-for-big-data/). dataconomy.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20180130091506/http://dataconomy.com/2016/08/cloud-ready-for-big-data/) from the
original on 30 January 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
93. Yang, C.; Huang, Q.; Li, Z.; Liu, K.; Hu, F. (2017). "Big Data and cloud computing: innovation
opportunities and challenges" (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17538947.2016.1239771).
International Journal of Digital Earth. 10 (1): 13–53. Bibcode:2017IJDE...10...13Y (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017IJDE...10...13Y). doi:10.1080/17538947.2016.1239771 (https://d
oi.org/10.1080%2F17538947.2016.1239771). S2CID 8053067 (https://api.semanticscholar.o
rg/CorpusID:8053067).
94. Netto, M.; Calheiros, R.; Rodrigues, E.; Cunha, R.; Buyya, R. (2018). "HPC Cloud for
Scientific and Business Applications: Taxonomy, Vision, and Research Challenges". ACM
Computing Surveys. 51 (1): 8:1–8:29. arXiv:1710.08731 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.08731).
doi:10.1145/3150224 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3150224). S2CID 3604131 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:3604131).
95. Eadline, Douglas. "Moving HPC to the Cloud" (http://www.admin-magazine.com/HPC/Article
s/Moving-HPC-to-the-Cloud). Admin Magazine. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190
330200839/http://www.admin-magazine.com/HPC/Articles/Moving-HPC-to-the-Cloud) from
the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
 96. "Penguin Computing On Demand (POD)" (https://pod.penguincomputing.com/). Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20180309045136/https://pod.penguincomputing.com/) from the
original on 9 March 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
97. Niccolai, James (11 August 2009). "Penguin Puts High-performance Computing in the
Cloud" (http://www.pcworld.com/article/170045/article.html). PCWorld. IDG Consumer &
SMB. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160819051701/http://www.pcworld.com/articl
e/170045/article.html) from the original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
98. "HPC in AWS" (https://aws.amazon.com/hpc/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201712
01181150/https://aws.amazon.com/hpc/) from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved
23 January 2018.
99. "Building GrepTheWeb in the Cloud, Part 1: Cloud Architectures" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20090505200217/http://developer.amazonwebservices.com/connect/entry.jspa?externalID
=1632&categoryID=100). Developer.amazonwebservices.com. Archived from the original (htt
p://developer.amazonwebservices.com/connect/entry.jspa?externalID=1632&categoryID=10
0) on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
100. "IDC Forecasts Worldwide "Whole Cloud" Spending to Reach $1.3 Trillion by 2025" (https://
www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS48208321). Idc.com. 2021-09-14. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20220729205418/https://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS
48208321) from the original on 2022-07-29. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
101. "Gartner Forecasts Worldwide Public Cloud End-User Spending to Reach Nearly $500
Billion in 2022" (https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2022-04-19-gartner-fo
recasts-worldwide-public-cloud-end-user-spending-to-reach-nearly-500-billion-in-2022).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220725062816/https://www.gartner.com/en/newsro
om/press-releases/2022-04-19-gartner-forecasts-worldwide-public-cloud-end-user-spending
-to-reach-nearly-500-billion-in-2022) from the original on 2022-07-25. Retrieved 2022-07-25.
102. "Cloud's trillion-dollar prize is up for grabs" (https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/m
ckinsey-digital/our-insights/clouds-trillion-dollar-prize-is-up-for-grabs). McKinsey. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20220725062821/https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/
mckinsey-digital/our-insights/clouds-trillion-dollar-prize-is-up-for-grabs) from the original on
2022-07-25. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
103. "Gartner Says More Than Half of Enterprise IT Spending in Key Market Segments Will Shift
to the Cloud by 2025" (https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2022-02-09-gar
tner-says-more-than-half-of-enterprise-it-spending). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
220725062759/https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2022-02-09-gartner-sa
ys-more-than-half-of-enterprise-it-spending) from the original on 2022-07-25. Retrieved
2022-07-25.
104. HAMDAQA, Mohammad (2012). Cloud Computing Uncovered: A Research Landscape (htt
p://www.stargroup.uwaterloo.ca/~mhamdaqa/publications/Cloud_Computing_Uncovered.pd
f) (PDF). Elsevier Press. pp. 41–85. ISBN 978-0-12-396535-6. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20130619150209/http://www.stargroup.uwaterloo.ca/~mhamdaqa/publications/Clou
d_Computing_Uncovered.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2013-06-19. Retrieved
2013-03-19.
105. "Distributed Application Architecture" (http://java.sun.com/developer/Books/jdbc/ch07.pdf)
(PDF). Sun Microsystem. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110406121920/http://java.
sun.com/developer/Books/jdbc/ch07.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2011-04-06. Retrieved
2009-06-16.
106. Vaquero, Luis M.; Rodero-Merino, Luis; Caceres, Juan; Lindner, Maik (December 2008). "A
break in the clouds: Towards a cloud definition" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1496091.149610
0). ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review. 39 (1): 50–55.
doi:10.1145/1496091.1496100 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1496091.1496100).
S2CID 207171174 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207171174).
107. Danielson, Krissi (2008-03-26). "Distinguishing Cloud Computing from Utility Computing" (ht
tp://www.ebizq.net/blogs/saasweek/2008/03/distinguishing_cloud_computing/). Ebizq.net.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171110162550/http://www.ebizq.net/blogs/saaswee
k/2008/03/distinguishing_cloud_computing/) from the original on 2017-11-10. Retrieved
2010-08-22.

Further reading
Millard, Christopher (2013). Cloud Computing Law (https://global.oup.com/academic/produc
t/cloud-computing-law-9780198716662?cc=gb&lang=en&). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-967168-7.
Weisser, Alexander (2020). International Taxation of Cloud Computing (https://archive-ouvert
e.unige.ch/unige:142710). Editions Juridiques Libres, ISBN 978-2-88954-030-3.
Singh, Jatinder; Powles, Julia; Pasquier, Thomas; Bacon, Jean (July 2015). "Data Flow
Management and Compliance in Cloud Computing" (https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handl
e/1810/255049). IEEE Cloud Computing. 2 (4): 24–32. doi:10.1109/MCC.2015.69 (https://do
i.org/10.1109%2FMCC.2015.69). S2CID 9812531 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
9812531).
Armbrust, Michael; Stoica, Ion; Zaharia, Matei; Fox, Armando; Griffith, Rean; Joseph,
Anthony D.; Katz, Randy; Konwinski, Andy; Lee, Gunho; Patterson, David; Rabkin, Ariel (1
April 2010). "A view of cloud computing" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1721654.1721672).
Communications of the ACM. 53 (4): 50. doi:10.1145/1721654.1721672 (https://doi.org/10.11
45%2F1721654.1721672). S2CID 1673644 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16736
44).
Hu, Tung-Hui (2015). A Prehistory of the Cloud. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02951-3.
Mell, P. (2011, September). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing (http://csrc.nist.gov/publ
ications/nistpubs/800-145/SP800-145.pdf). Retrieved November 1, 2015, from National
Institute of Standards and Technology website

Media related to Cloud computing at Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cloud_computing&oldid=1232805302"