Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

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Diversity in the Sales Force: Problems and

Challenges

Lucette B. Comer, J. A. F. Nicholls & Leslie J. Vermillion

To cite this article: Lucette B. Comer, J. A. F. Nicholls & Leslie J. Vermillion (1998) Diversity in the
Sales Force: Problems and Challenges, Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 18:4,
1-20, DOI: 10.1080/08853134.1998.10754145

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 Diversity in the Sales Force: Problems and
Challenges
Lucette B. Comer, J. A. F. Nicholls and Leslie J. Vermillion

This review presents a knowledge assessment concerning diversity on the sales force. After briefly
discussing the present state of diversification of mainstream sales jobs, it identifies four social
determinants that may underlie problems non-traditional salespeople encounter (stereotypes,
devaluation, tokenism, communication style compatibility, and perceptions of selling careers). It
describes some road blocks that such salespeople face (involving such things as getting hired,
corporate networking, customer resistance, upward mobility, and supervisory support), and then
discusses the challenges confronted by management that are generated by these social determinants
and road blocks. Finally, it details needed research in the area.

As the world moves more and more toward a formerly a white male dominated field, has been
global market (e.g., Ohmae 1995), the United States enriched by a variety of non-traditional salespeople.
is becoming an increasingly diverse society filled This paper presents the components of a diver-
with people of different national origins, cultural sity model (Figure 1) and brings together the known
backgrounds, and personal preferences. What had literature about diversity in the selling situation.
previously been primarily a pseudo-European soci- Diversity is defined as increasing numbers of non-
ety has been augmented by immigrants from new traditional salespersonnel. Non-traditional
ethnic origins (Robinson, Landry, and Rooks 1998) salespersonnel are those individuals who differ in
who enrich the U.S. with their cultural heritages. significant ways from mainstream salespeople
This movement has had an effect on the composi- (white Anglo American males) such as race, gen-
tion of the workforce. The proportion of white male der, age, disability, education, sexual orientation,
workers has decreased, and the workforce now in- or religious affiliation (Wheeler 1996). We take the
cludes a mixture of people of various genders, races, position that the experiences of non-traditional
and ethnic origins. More than half of the U.S. salespeople when coming to the sales job are simi-
workforce now consists of minorities, immigrants, lar and follow a predictable path. This paper begins
and women (Fullerton 1989; Thomas 1990). Civil with a brief description of each ofthe major catego-
Rights legislation has opened doors to them that ries of non-traditional salespeople. Through a re-
had been traditionally closed. Professional sales, view of the literature, we detail what is known
about underlying social determinants and the road
blocks to success that they encounter. We then dis-
Lucette B. Comer (Ph.D., University ofMaryland) is Assistant
cuss coping mechanisms used by non-traditional
Professor in the Department of Consumer Sciences and Retailing salespeople in dealing with these problems, as well
of Purdue University. Her research interests include diversity in as the types of interventions (challenges) available
sales (women, Hispanics) and salesperson psychology/behavior
(traits, motivation, listening). Her publications have appeared in to managers. Finally, the need for information is
the Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, Indus- explored and suggestions made as to directions for
trial Marketing Management, and other marketing journals. She future research.
is currently serving as guest editor of the special issue on Diver-
sity in Sales.
J. A. F. Nicholls (DBA, Indiana University) is Professor of Present Status of Diversity on the
Marketing and Chair of the Department of Marketing and Busi-
ness Environment, Florida International University. His re- Sales Force
search interests include place-based marketing and microcom-
puter simulations. He has published in more than a score of In this section we present census data that give
journals. an indication of the present state and growth rate
Leslie Vermillion(MBA, Indiana State University) is a doctoral of non- traditional salespeople on U.S. sales forces.
candidate in the Department of Marketing and Business Envi-
ronment, Florida International University. His research inter-
ests include branding, relationship marketing, and sales force
management. He has 1,>"iven presentations at the Academy of Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management,
Marketing Sciences and other conferences. Volume XVIII, Number 4 (Fall 1998, Pages 1-20).
2 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Figure 1
A Model of Diversity in the Sales Force

Diversity

Leadenblp

We then briefly comment on the characteristics of have been staffed primarily by white males. Two of
the more prominent groups. them (real estate and advertising sales) are "par-
tially integrated," since women have always had a
The Changing Composition of the relatively strong foothold in them. The other two
Sales Force (retail sales and cashiers) are comparatively "low
status" jobs, historically staffed primarily by women
The assimilation of non-traditional groups into and minorities. There is growth in all categories
the sales force follows a predictable pattern. Initial except for that of saleswomen in low status jobs,
employment tends to be in low paying, low status where a decline is seen.
jobs (e.g., retail sales). As the group becomes better Perhaps more instructive is Table 2, which shows
acclimated to the U.S. occupational scene, its mem- the percentage increase for each group of sales-
bers begin to aspire to higher status positions. Evi- people in each job type in relation to the percentage
dence of this process is illustrated in Table 1, which increap·· of total salespeople. If a group is getting its
shows the growth rate of three types of non-tradi- fair share of the growth, the percentage growth will
tional salespeople (women, African Americans, and equal that of the sales force overall; if it is gaining
Hispanics) in eight categories of selling jobs be- ground, the percentage growth will be greater than
tween the years 1983 and 1995. We consider four of the overall rate. Hispanics, for example, have grown
these categories to be "mainstream" jobs (sales su- by a greater proportion than have total salespeople
pervisors and proprietors, sales of insurance, sales in all categories. The comparative increase in sales
of securities and financial services, and sales of of securities and financial services (354.5%), real
commodities, exclusive of retail). Historically, they estate (200.0%), and commodities (122. 7%) are truly
Fall1998 3

Table 1
Percentage increases of Women, African Americans, and Hispanics in Selling Jobs

1983 Percent of Total 1995 Percent of Total

Total African Total African
Sales Occupation Employed* Women American Hispanic Employed* Women American Hispanic

Supervisors & Proprietors 2,958 28.4 3.6 3.4 4,480 38.9 5.6 5.6
Insurance Sales 511 25.1 3.8 2.5 562 37.1 5.8 4.6
Real Estate Sales 570 48.9 1.3 1.5 718 50.7 3.4 4.5
Securities & Financial 212 23.6 3.1 1.1 397 31.3 5.7 5.0
Services Sales
Advertising & Related Sales 124 47.9 4.5 3.3 151 52.9 4.2 4.7
Sales Representatives, 1,442 15.1 2.1 2.2 1,529 21.2 2.7 4.9
Commodities, except Retail
Sales Representatives, 5,511 69.7 6.7 4.8 6,613 65.6 11.4 8.9
Retail & Personal Services
Cashiers 2,009 84.4 10.1 5.4 2,727 79.2 15.8 9.9

Source • U.S. Department of Commerce ( 1996), Statistical Abstract of the United States 1996.
·1n thousands.

Table 2
Women, African Americans, and Hispanics in Selling Jobs
Percentage Growth from 1983 to 1995

Sales Occupation Total Employed* Women African Americans Hispanics

Supervisors & Proprietors 51.0% 37.0% 55.6% 64.7%

Insurance Sales 10.0% 47.8% 52.5% 84.0%
Real Estate Sales 25.9% 7.7% 61.5% 200.0%
Securities & Financial Services Sales 87.3% 32.6% 83.8% 354.5%
Advertising & Related Sales 21.2% 11.0% 1.7% 42.2%
Sales Representatives, Commodities, 6.0% 40.4% 25.6% 122.7%
except Retail
Sales Representatives, Retail & Personal 20.0% (5.9%) 70.1% 85.4%
Services
Cashiers 35.7% (18.1%) 56.4% 83.3%

•Percentage growth calculated from information in Table 1.

astonishing, suggesting a very rapid influx into these their fair share ofthe growth in sales of real estate,
fields. Mrican American salespeople have also ex- advertising, or financial services. Since two ofthese
ceeded total growth in all categories except adver- are "partially integrated" jobs, it may be that women
tising sales (1. 7%). This is encouraging and bodes have reached a steady state in them so that their
well for the future of the Mrican American in the numbers are relatively stable. Women show a pro-
sales force. portionate decrease in retail sales and as cashiers,
The growth of saleswomen is less dramatic. which is indeed encouraging for it suggests move-
Greater than average growth is seen in only two ment away from these "low status" jobs to more
types of selling: insurance (47.8%) and commodi- demanding types of selling.
ties (40.4%). Women are not, however, maintaining
4 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Today's Non-Traditional Salespeople Because of their linguistic ability, better educated

Hispanics are good candidates for jobs in
We focus on three primary groups of non-tradi- international sales, particularly in Spanish speaking
tional salespeople: (1) women, (2) Mrican Ameri- countries. As Latin America grows in importance in
cans, and (3) immigrants from Latin and Asian the international arena (e.g., Belli 1991), Hispanic
countries. A fourth, or general "catch all" category, Americans are being actively recruited by major
encompasses the remainder of non-traditional corporations with a view to theirpotentialleadership
sales personnel. in this market.
Women. The first non-traditional group to gain a Hispanic people may have a cultural predisposi-
foothold on the traditional sales force and the most tion for selling. Characterized by a tendency to
dominant to date is that of women. Historically, allocentrisrn (tendency to adopt group needs, objec-
women sold primarily to female customers tives and values, rather than those of the self) and
(Oppenheimer 1969), performing jobs in retail sales simpat(a (behaviors that promote smooth and pleas-
and direct sales of small ticket items (Corner and ant social relationships) (Marin and Marin 1991),
Jolson 1985). They also have been strong performers they are well suited for the interpersonal aspects of
in real estate sales, although white males continue the sales job. As salespeople, Hispanics tend to fo-
to be the dominant group (Gibson and Swan 1981- cus on relationship considerations (Corner and
82; The Journal 1986; Sales and Marketing Nicholls 1997), suggesting that Hispanic Ameri-
Management 1987). cans have a natural affinity for jobs in which it is
Women's sex-role prepares them very well for important to develop and maintain long term asso-
selling. Their characteristic nurturing and sensi- ciations with customers or where team selling is
tivity to others, equip them well for the interper- crucial.
sonal aspects of the job (Corner and Jolson 1991; A second potentially important immigrant group
Jolson and Corner 1992). Numerous anecdotal ac- is that of Asian Americans. To date, we have little
counts exist of saleswomen's effectiveness (Arnott information about the Asian American representa-
1995; Cole 1985; Figel 1983; Kelley 1991; Reardon tion on the sales force. No census data are available
1993; Krasnow 1986; Sales and Marketing Man- and virtually no research attention has focused on
agement 1987; The Journal 1986). Strengths that them. Sales is not a natural field for Asian Ameri-
have been claimed for them include their empathetic cans whose cultural background seemingly works
listening (Cole 1985; Figel1983; Skolnik 1985), their against them. Characterized by low tolerance for
strong work ethic (e.g., Cole 1985; Figel1983), their ambiguity, social anxiety, and external locus of con-
service orientation (Figel1983; Skolnik 1985), their trol (Leong 1985), they are comfortable in technical
organization (Figel 1983), their detail orientation, occupations such as engineering, and avoid those
their long range thinking (Linkerner 1989), and their that are interpersonally-intensive such as selling.
humanistic approach to moral reasoning (Dawson The assertiveness, independence, and adaptiveness
1992). needed to perform selling jobs elude the typical
African Americans. A second group is that of Asian American.
African Americans. To date, little research attention With the growth of Asian markets and the inter-
has been directed toward their experiences on the est in trade with Asian countries (e.g., West 1989),
sales force, although recently Lucas (1996) provided the cultural sensitivity of Asian Americans may be
vivid anecdotal evidence ofthe many problems they advantageous to American corporations. In com-
have encountered. Notable exceptions are work by parison with Anglo American salespeople, they are
Marshall, Stamps, and Moore (1998) and Jones and likely to be more sensitive to cultural idiosyncra-
his colleagues (1998). African Americans have been cies, better able to communicate with customers,
fighting prejudice and striving for equality in the and in a better position to provide useful feedback
American workforce for over a century. While to American employers about Asian customers. The
considerable progress has been made toward meeting potential for Asian Americans in the sales force has
their goal of occupational equality, there is still not yet been explored sufficiently. The Asian Ameri-
much work to be done (e.g., Lucas 1996). can salesperson is an important resource, still un-
Immigrant Ethnic Groups. The next group ofnon- tapped, but, we conclude, a key to the future.
traditional salespeople include immigrants from Other Groups. Persons from some less obvious
Latin and Asian countries. Hispanics are the fastest groups also contribute to the diversity on the sales
growing minority group on mainstream sales forces. force. Groups that have been identified as having
Fall1998 5

Womens sex-role prepares them very wellfor selling.

special problems include older Americans (Cron, described saleswomen as providing less customer
Jackofsky, and Slocum 1993; Sullivan and Duplaga support than did comparable salesmen (Dian,
1997), the physically disadvantaged (Bellizzi and Easterling, and J avalgi 1997).
Hasty 1998), gays and lesbians (Adams 1996), and Occupational stereotypes are derived from gen-
even smokers (Gilbert, Hannan, and Lowe 1998). eral cultural stereotypes and tend to be negative.
While members of these groups face problems similar In the case of women, they have been grouped into
to the others, little is presently known about their three categories: selling ability, human relations
experiences on the sales force. No census data are ability, and motivation (Comer and Jolson 1991).
available and the evidence is primarily anecdotal. Occupational stereotypes about African Americans
Therefore, we confine our discussion to the three in sales are less well articulated, although clearly
major groups that are more readily identified by still present (Thomas and Wetlaufer 1997). African
gender, race, or ethnicity. American salespeople are acutely conscious of ste-
reotypic thinking and affirm that the issue of race
Social Determinants Underlying is always present in their interpersonal interac-
tions. They are vulnerable to "self-stereotyping,"
Diversity Problems which means that they tend to believe stereotypes
There are forces within our general cultural/so- about themselves and act accordingly (Steele and
cial system that encourage and sustain discrimina- Aronson 1995). This belief has damaging effects on
tory conditions within an organization. We discuss their self image, increases their stereotypic behav-
five of these: stereotypes, devaluation, tokenism, ior, and consequently detracts from their effective-
communication style compatibility, and perceptions ness in inter-racial selling situations.
of selling careers. There are also negative stereotypes about His-
panics (Tomkiewicz and Adeyemi-Bello 1997). In
Stereotypes particular, Hispanics are portrayed as having a
lower work ethic and as being more traditional than
One of the major contributory factors to discrimi- their non-Hispanic counterparts (Jones 1991). The
natory practices is stereotypic thinking. Stereotypes picture for Hispanics is brighter than for African
are widely held beliefs concerning people based on Americans since stereotyping about them seems to
their membership in a particular group. The dan- be diminishing among younger people (Wilson 1996).
ger of stereotyping is that individuals are perceived, Occupational stereotypes about Asian Americans
evaluated, and treated as members of groups rather suggest that they are more likely to succeed as
than as individuals with unique strengths and weak- engineers, computer scientists, or mathematicians
nesses. Kanuk (1978) first introduced concern about than as salespeople (Leong and Hayes 1990). At
stereotypes and attributed women's exclusion from present, there are too few Asian American sales-
industrial sales jobs to stereotypic thinking. Gibson, people to assess the way their stereotypes play out
Cochran, and Epley (1980-81) reported evidence of on a sales force. It is entirely possible that because
sex role stereotypes among real estate salespeople. of the generally positive nature of the stereotypes,
Swan and his colleagues reported that industrial Asian Americans would be favorably received by
purchasing agents rated saleswomen higher than customers and regarded as particular sources for
they did salesmen in stereotypically feminine sell- technical product information.
ing abilities and lower in stereotypically masculine
ones (Swan et al. 1984). Russ and McNeilly (1988) Devaluation
reported that potential sales managers (MBA stu-
dents) held stereotypic views about saleswomen's Devaluation refers to a general cultural tendency
assertiveness, while Comer and Jolson (1991) tied to underrate the performance of members of minor-
stereotypes to less effective selling performance. A ity groups. Considerable research attention has fo-
recent study reported an encouraging reversal of cused on the devaluation of the performance of
gender stereotypes. Industrial purchasing agents women (e.g., Lott 1985; Paludi and Strayer 1985;
6 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Top 1991). While the findings have been mixed, the they even try. Second, those who do test the waters,
overall evidence suggests a persistent trend toward tend to model their professional behavior after the
downplaying women's accomplishments (Swim dominant group. While in some instances this may
1993; Swim et al. 1989). Devaluation is likely to be desirable, other times it may be quite undesirable.
occur when women assume masculine qualities and For example, in the early days when few women held
operate in traditionally male job contexts (Eagly, management positions, women tended to use men as
Makhijani, and Klonsky 1992), or when they vio- role models. This may have worked against them in
late sex-role expectations by working in male-typed the long run because subordinates seem to prefer
jobs (Landy and Farr 1988; Nieva and Gutek 1980; female managers who conform to the female rather
Ragins and Sundstrom 1989), conditions that are than to the male model (Watson 1988).
characteristic of the traditionally male sales force. Mentors. Another problem is the lack of corporate
Evidence of devaluation of saleswomen's perfor- sponsors or mentors to help non-traditional
mance by male sales managers has been reported individuals through the organizational maze. Fugate,
in an industrial selling context (Comer 1992; Comer Decker, and Brewer (1988) point out the need for
and Drollinger 1997). To date, little objective evi- corporate sponsorship of women. Mrican Americans
dence is available about the devaluation of the ac- and Hispanics also feel the need for better corporate
complishments of Mrican Americans or Hispanics, mentoring (Thomas and Wetlaufer 1997). One
although members of these groups, themselves, be- Hispanic individual complained that he never had a
lieve that their mainstream managers subcon- white male mentor during his career, arguing that
sciously expect them to fail (Thomas and Wetlaufer such mentors are needed because they "pull you
1997). Unintentional subtle discrimination has, how- along" (Thomas and Wetlaufer 1997, p. 122). In any
ever, been reported in the performance evaluation organization with a distinct culture, newcomers
of Latinas (Bento 1997). need someone to invest in them.

Tokenism Communication Style Compatibility

The sheer number of non-traditional Many people believe that compatibility of com-
salespersonnel may make a difference in the way munication styles is a key to success in selling (Wil-
they are regarded on a sales force. When only one liams, Spiro, and Fine 1990), and salespeople are
or a handful of non-traditional individuals joins an routinely trained to recognize prospects' styles and
organization, they function as "tokens" and their to adapt their own behavior accordingly (Merrill
more traditional colleagues become a "dominant" and Reid 1981; Mok 1982; Wilson 1987). Cross cul-
group. This is the situation when the ratio of mem- tural selling adds another dimension to our under-
bers of the non-traditional group is less than 15% standing of communication styles. Different cultures
(Kanter 1977). Because of their relative rarity, "to- are characterized by different cultural values that
ken" personnel are highly visible and members of dictate acceptable ways for people to interact with
the dominant group tend to view them as non-tra- each other (Hofstede 1983). People feel most com-
ditional group members rather than as individuals. fortable when communicating in their own cultural
This situation leads to excessive stereotyping style. When salesperson and customer do not share
(Bhatnagar 1988; Kanter 1977; Spangler, Gordon, the same heritage, signals can be misinterpreted
and Pipkin 1978; Yoder 1985) and devaluation with disastrous results (Herbig and Kramer 1992).
(Kanter 1977). As the numbers of non-traditional As an example, since the Hispanic culture is char-
salespersonnel build up, negative stereotyping and acterized by allocentrism and simpatia (Marin and
devaluation seem to decrease (Comer and Drollinger Marin 1991), Hispanic salespeople tend to be rela-
1997). tionship oriented and friendly. When Hispanic sales-
Role Models. When non-traditional individuals people meet with Hispanic customers, there is con-
function as tokens, there are likely to be few, if any, siderable social interaction and discussion of fam-
people with similar backgrounds in their ily. The culture is also characterized by closer spa-
organizations to serve as role models. This has two cial distance between people (Hall 1969; Marin and
negative consequences. First, lacking the example of Marin 1991) so that acceptable personal space is
someone with whom they can identify, non- much narrower than is usual in the American busi-
traditional candidates for sales positions may not ness culture. Hispanic businesspeople greet each
perceive success is possible and thus give up before other by touching, hugging, and even kissing. Ameri-
Fall1998 7

can Anglo customers may feel uncomfortable and This negative perception may have originated with
suspicious of overly friendly Hispanics who come their parents. Upwardly mobile minorities do not
too close physically. As a result, they instinctively encourage their children to seek careers in sales,
reject Hispanic salespeople's overtures. The inevi- rather they direct their aspirations toward the
table result is that Hispanic salespeople perceive professions (e.g., medicine, law, engineering). For
American customers to be unfriendly and revert to example, African Americans perceive sales jobs as
excessively formal behavior, losing the natural ad- "easy to get" but not as opportunities to advance into
vantage of their relationship ability (Comer and management. Asian Americans typically get their
Nicholls 1997). Thus, misunderstandings arise from start as entrepreneurs (Robinson, Landry, and Rooks
incompatible cultural styles getting in the way of 1998) where they function to a large extent as
effective business relationships. Similar arguments salespeople. They may not perceive selling as a way
could be made about the compatibility of African to rise above the status quo. To them, sales jobs may
American, Asian American, and even female be suitable for recent immigrants but not sufficiently
salespeople's communication styles. Indeed, cultur- mainstream or upscale for their children.
ally based differences in conversational styles may
even interfere with effective cross-gender selling Indicators of Problems
(e.g., Wiesendanger 1991).
Problems will arise within organizations in tran-
Perceptions of Selling Careers sition. These can be detected through examination
of various indicators that suggest the degree to
Non-traditional individuals may simply not be which (1) supervisory support is equitable, and (2)
interested in selling as a career. There is some evi- individuals are comfortable with their jobs. Changes
dence of reluctance by African Americans to seek in these indicators provide clues about the relative
out selling jobs. A survey of sales executives reports effectiveness with which non-traditional salespeople
that more than 50% of responding managers attrib- have assimilated into an organization.
uted the low representation by blacks in their sales
forces to either a lack of qualified applicants (13%) Equitable Supervisory Support
or having no applicants at all (40%) (Lucas 1996).
This apparent disinterest may be attributable ei- Problems in supervisory support will show up as
ther to a sense of the job not being suitable or to a inequitable territory assignments, evaluations, and
generally negative perception of selling as a career. compensation. A comparison of mainstream and
Appropriateness. Members of non-traditional non-traditional salespersonnel in these areas will
groups may not apply for selling jobs because they demonstrate with relative objectivity whether su-
simply do not perceive them as career options. This pervisory treatment is equitable.
may be a consequence of a lack of role models from Territory Assignments. Territory assignments may
their own cultural background. Lucas ( 1996) reported be one such indicator. Assignments of non-traditional
that African American children, whose fathers had salespersonnel may be different from those of
been excluded from mainstream sales jobs for mainstream individuals, possibly because of efforts
discriminatory reasons, did not consider them to "match" them to particular customers. Inequities
appropriate. Similarly, women who closely adhere may result. As an example, Finn and Moncrief
to their traditional gender role may not realize that ( 1985) found evidence of saleswomen being assigned
jobs in industrial sales are options forth em. Evidence to significantly smaller territories than were their
in support of this is given by Comer and Jolson male counterparts, while at the same time being
(1985), who found that the preference for traditionally required to achieve higher quotas, a formula
male selling jobs is connected to the degree of guaranteed to place them at a disadvantage.
masculinity reported by the woman. Performance Evaluations. Performance
Negative Image of Selling. The stigma that college evaluations may be another indicator. While objective
students traditionally place on selling careers (e.g., performance measures are relatively unbiased (e.g.,
Swan and Atkins 1980-81) is particularly noticeable sales volume; percent of quota), many industries
among these groups. Most of their experience has rely on a number of subjective measures (Behrman
been with low status jobs, so that they perceive all and Perrault 1982; Jackson, Keith, and Schlacter
forms of "selling'' as equally undesirable careers. 1983). Subjective evaluations are prone to bias which
8 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

• • • compatibility of communication styles is a key to

success in selling . ...

may work to the disadvantage of non-traditional faction, but reported greater satisfaction with pay
salespeople. As an illustration, an early study and promotion opportunities among men, suggest-
reported that pharmaceutical saleswomen received ing that the inequitable treatment may now be con-
lower subjective evaluations from their supervisors fined to these areas (McNeilly and Goldsmith 1991).
than did comparable men (Swan and Futrell1978). Some gender differences were still reported, how-
Around the same time, another study of the same ever, in the way dissatisfaction translates into the
industry using self-ratings of performance quality, intention to leave the job. Possibly this may stem
reported no gender differential in ratings (Busch from unrealistic expectations of female sales re-
and Bush 1978). Taken together, these two studies cruits (Kennedy and Lawton 1992), leading to a
suggest the presence of bias in managers' ratings. different type of dissatisfaction and resultant turn-
Compensation Level. A final indicator is over. Taken together, the forgoing suggest progress
compensation level. There is considerable historical by women in successfully assimilating into selling
evidence of pay differentials in the general workforce organizations.
based on gender (Bergmann 1986; Bodeger 1985;
Perkins 1993; The Economist 1998), as well as race Road Blocks to the Success of Non-
(Greene 1993; Koretz 1995; Margo 1995), and
Traditional Salespeople
ethnicity (Reimers 1983). It has been argued that
commission compensation renders sales jobs less In the process of gaining a foothold on the tradi-
likely than other types of jobs to show earning tional sales force, non-traditional salespeople en-
differentials (Sales and Marketing Management counter special problems that work against them.
1988; Stern 1978). A recent study, however, reported We identify four road blocks: getting hired, corpo-
the presence of a pay differential between salesmen rate networking, customer relations, upward mo-
and saleswomen that persisted even when controlling bility, and supervisory support.
for the potential contributing factors of performance
evaluations, education, and length of time on job Road Block Number 1: Getting Hired
(Dion, Easterling, and Javalgi 1997).
The initial roadblock faced by non-traditional
Salespeople's Comfort Level salespeople is getting the job in the first place. His-
torically, there has been a pattern of discrimination
Salespeople's comfort level can provide another on mainstream selling jobs. This appears to have
indicator of the presence of problems. Excessive persisted despite EEO legislation (Shepherd and
role stress and/or dissatisfaction suggest that non- Heartfield 1991). An early study by Jolson (1983)
traditional salespeople are not assimilating com- reported clear evidence of a tendency on the part of
fortably into the organization. Some early research sales managers to "screen out" African American
reported that pioneering pharmaceutical sales- and female applicants in favor of equally qualified
women were troubled with excessive role ambigu- white males. A recent study found no evidence of
ity and conflict (Swan, Futrell, and Todd 1978). As this tendency among African American applicants
women have established themselves on these jobs, (Marshall, Stamps, and Moore 1998).
these problems appear to have subsided. Indeed, Those who wish to exclude non-traditional indi-
recent research found fewer problems with role viduals from entering mainstream selling positions
stress among saleswomen than among salesmen generally rationalize their position with what they
(Siguaw and Honeycutt 1995). Early studies also consider to be valid reasons. Unfortunately, the jus-
reported relatively low job satisfaction among sales- tifications tend to be based upon group stereotypes.
women (Swan, Futrell, and Todd 1978). Recent evi- In the case of women, the arguments have been
dence found no gender difference in overall satis- well articulated, including such things as: (1) un-
Fall1998 9

willingness or inability to travel, (2) lack of organi- Support Networks. Today's selling environment
zational power, (3) pressures due to tokenism, (4) suggests additional problems stemming from
lag in higher education, (5) assumptions concern- difficulties in networking. Total quality management
ing motherhood, and (6) sex role stereotyping (Gable CTQM) empowers salespeople with the responsibility
and Reed 1987). As women gained a foothold on of ensuring the effective processing of customers'
mainstream sales jobs and their ability became ap- orders. To accomplish this, they must develop and
parent, many of these issues have dissipated, hav- maintain smooth working relationships with
ing been debunked in one way or another (e.g., "internal customers" or key personnel inside the
Dubinsky et al. 1993; Schul and Wren 1992). Argu- company(Garvin 1988;Juran 1988). Communication
ments against the admission of other minorities among salespeople and others involved in the total
are less well articulated (perhaps in deference to selling process is critical to the quality of the complete
today's politically correct environment), yet they sale (Wotruba 1996). Salespeople who have difficulty
still may be present under the surface. in informal networking will be at a disadvantage.
The primary reservation ofbusiness about hiring
non-traditional personnel is their lack of education Road Block Number 3: Customer
(Kanter 1991). Presumably as each group achieves
higher educational levels, as their numbers build
Relations
up in the organizations, and as they move beyond One of the most serious problems that any non-
"token" status and prove themselves on the job, this traditional group must face is resistance from cus-
excuse should dissipate. An encouraging recent re- tomers. This is of concern to management because
port from the U.S. Census Department indicates of the key role salespeople play in creating and
that the proportion of women completing college maintaining business relationships.
has topped that of men, that Mrican Americans are Resistance. Customers sometimes object to dealing
showing a dramatic improvement in their educa- with non-traditional salespeople for discriminatory
tional attainment, and that the Hispanic popula- reasons. Early research suggested that customer
tion has experienced educational gains, even though acceptance would be a problem for the female
it still lags behind the others (Miami Herald 1998). salesperson (Swan and Futrell 1978), and the
anecdotal literature gives ample descriptions of
Road Block Number 2: Corporate women's difficulty in gaining acceptance by their
Networking male customers (Business Week 1979; Kelley 1991;
Linkemer 1989; Niles 1978). African American
Non-traditional salespeople may experience diffi- salespeople have encountered problems ranging from
culties in informal relationships within their own awkwardness in initial person-to-person meetings
companies. (after telephone contacts), to loss ofthe sale, to overt
Peer Networking. Networking with peers is part of messages that "black salespeople are not welcome"
a salesperson's socialization to the sales job (Dubinsky (Lucas 1996). Hispanics also report experiencing
et al. 1986), but non-traditional salespersonnel have resistance from Anglo American customers. Reasons
difficulty penetrating the networks. These networks underlying this involve such things as racial
frequently center around activities that by their characteristics (Indian ancestry), language
very nature are exclusionary to non-traditional difficulties/accent (e.g., DeShields, Kara, and Kaynak
salespeople. Women have been reported as having 1996; Tsalikis, DeShields, and LaTour 1991), and
difficulty in breaking into the male buddy networks Spanish surname (Comer and Nicholls 1997).
that engage in male-centered activities, e.g., golf, Recent research shows that customer resistance
fishing, hunting (Duff-Bloom 1996; Sales and to African Americans may not be as serious as pre-
Marketing Management 1988). Mrican Americans viously felt. One survey reported that 75% of re-
report being excluded by white colleagues in such sponding sales and marketing executives did not
activities as golf outings at "restricted" country perceive that the race of the salesperson would af-
clubs (Thomas and Wetlaufer 1997). Exclusion from fect the likelihood of customers' buying, and only
informal networks with mainstream salespeople is 6% reported knowing a purchasing professional who
harmful to the progress of such salespeople who does not like to buy from an Mrican American (Lucas
miss out on much informal training that occurs 1996). Despite this, numerous instances of implicit
during socializing. prejudice have been reported by black salespeople.
10 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

It is possible that discrimination against African ladder to higher management positions. Facilitat-
Americans is so embedded that white Americans do ing upward mobility is important since: (1) in order
not realize the degree to which they are prejudiced to achieve functional diversity, non-traditional man-
or recognize it in its various forms. In contrast, agers must be nurtured and developed, (2) non-
black Americans may have become super-sensitive traditional managers are in the best position to
to the presence of bias, even when it is not in- serve as role models and to provide mentoring sup-
tended. Customer acceptance is a major problem port for other non-traditional individuals, and (3)
for American blacks. Discrimination may haunt all non-traditional groups agree that upward mo-
those who are seeking a selling career (Lucas 1996). bility is the major obstacle they face on mainstream
Customer acceptance of saleswomen appears to sales forces.
be favorable. Lundstrom and Ashworth (1983) re- The existence of a "glass ceiling" is well docu-
ported a minimum of resistance to female automo- mented (Tavakolian 1993; The Economist 1998; U.S.
bile salespeople. Industrial purchasing agents have Department of Labor 1991) and is a major corpo-
rated saleswomen significantly superior to sales- rate problem. Many capable minority and female
men in eight of 23 attributes involving "service ori- personnel are unable to realize their potential and
entation" and "follow through," although men had leave the organization because of career plateauing
the edge on four (Swan et al. 1984). By the early (Thomas 1990). Promotion has always been more
1990s, few gender differences in customers' percep- difficult for women than attaining entry level posi-
tions remained (Cook and Corey 1991). In 1997, tions (Alimo-Metcalf1993; Skolnik 1985; Tavokolian
industrial purchasing agents did not perceive any 1993); even when women perform well on indus-
gender differences in overall selling performance trial sales forces, they are not being promoted into
(Dion, Easterling, and Javalgi 1997). management positions (Lublin 1996). A 1995 study
Harassment. Because of the unequal power by Catalyst reported that only 4% of the 1,200
distribution between salesperson and customer, women at the vice president level or higher were in
salespeople are vulnerable to various kinds of sales and marketing (Townsend 1996), while a 1996
discourtesies and demeaning treatment from report suggested that management's lack of con-
customers. Sexual harassment is a particularly cern for retaining and promoting industrial sales-
insidious form experienced by female salespeople women has led to a sense of futility among them
(Byrne 1996; Fine, Shepherd, and Josephs 1994; (Marchetti 1996). While there has been progress,
Owens-Swift and Kent 1994). Indeed, Carter and white males still predominate at the highest levels
Bryant(1980) argued that unwanted sexual advances of corporations (The Economist 1998).
were one of the most vexing problems that women Part of the reluctance to promote non-traditional
encountered in traditionally male areas of selling. individuals is based on concern that mainstream
Even when women achieve high level management subordinates may not accept their leadership. In-
positions, they sometimes encounter sexual advances deed, one of the first women to be promoted to sales
from customers (Magretta 1997). The higher the management was confronted with the immediate
woman climbs in the organization and the more resignation in protest by all her (male) salespeople
likely the harasser can impact business outcomes, (Jolson et al. 1997; Scanlan 1977). Some saleswomen
the more complex the issues involved. Harassment prefer the leadership of men (Futrell 1984), and
does not have to be sexual. Making derogatory or thus reject efforts by their female managers to men-
bigoted remarks to minority salespeople constitutes tor them (Comer et al. 1995). There is evidence that
a different form of harassment. This kind of abusive the way salespeople respond to leadership styles
behavior has received less attention, but is none- depends on the gender of both salesperson and man-
the-less emotionally damaging to the salesperson. ager (Comer et al. 1995; Futrell 1984; Petty and
Miles 1977; Rosen and Jerdee 1973). Indeed, the
Road Block Number 4: Upward road to management for women is paved with "pot-
Mobility (Glass Ceilings) holes, ruts, and other obstacles" (Dubinsky et al.
1996, p. 48). It is possible that the tendency for
Even when non-traditional individuals success- female sales managers to surround themselves with
fully gain positions and excel on mainstream sales cadres (Lagace 1990) may arise in a desire to insu-
forces, it is difficult for them to climb the corporate late themselves with supportive people.
Fall1998 11

Mrican American salespeople also perceive the they explained saleswomen's apparent desensitiza-
glass ceiling but feel powerless to break through it. tion to unfair treatment from their managers. They
Part of this may be attributable to an "image prob- theorized that male salespeople develop close, fa-
lem" because they do not fit the mainstream corpo- miliar relationships with their managers but that
rate concept. In the words of one black woman, "the saleswomen do not.
person of color doesn't look quite right ... or is too We have less information about the relationships
dark skinned-somehow he or she just doesn't have between African American, Hispanic, or Asian
the right image" (Thomas and Wetlaufer 1997, p. American salespeople and their mainstream man-
122). Many examples exist of Mrican American agers, but it would be logical to assume that their
salespeople receiving excellent performance reviews managers experience similar discomfort because of
and awards (e.g., salesperson of the year) but sub- racial or ethnic dissimilarity. African American
sequently being passed over for promotion (Lucas salespeople have expressed a sense of isolation and
1996). As a result, African Americans do not regard estrangement from their managers and report a
sales jobs as pathways to management. This sense need for more support from them in adjusting to
offutility may have the undesirable result of some the white-dominated organization (Lucas 1996). His-
ofthe most qualified minority candidates never even panics have referred to cultural differences in the
applying to American companies. supervisory style of their mainstream managers.
Hispanics also perceive this impenetrable ceiling They miss the intimacy and interest in their per-
and some well-educated Hispanics avoid employ- sonal and family concerns that they receive from
ment with large American firms in favor of smaller other Hispanics (Comer and Nicholls 1997). Such
companies within their ethnic communities (Comer salespeople recognize and appreciate efforts by their
and Nicholls 1997). They may encounter less resis- American managers to adjust to their own (His-
tance than other minority groups, however, since panic) cultural communication style.
there is some evidence that Hispanic managers are It is difficult for mainstream managers to under-
perceived to possess leadership styles similar to stand the problems faced by non-traditional sales-
those of managers in general (Tomkiewicz and people. Since they have had no personal experience
Brenner 1996). This bodes well for their future in with the road blocks, they cannot empathize with
the sales field. Perhaps successful Hispanic busi- the emotions they generate, nor can they guide the
ness leaders, such as the late Roberto Goizueta, the fledgling salesperson through the corporate maze.
Cuban American Chairman of Coca-Cola, help to It has been argued that the best role modeVmentor
counteract negative stereotypes. for a female salesperson is a female sales manager,
since she has come up through the ranks herself
Road Block Number 5: Supervisory (Comer et al. 1995). The success of a non-tradi-
tional salesperson is heavily dependent upon the
Support ability of the manager to provide appropriate sup-
Given the numerous road blocks non-traditional port.
salespeople face, they need considerable supervi-
sory support. The support they receive from their Coping Mechanisms Adopted by Non-
mainstream managers may be inadequate. Indeed, Traditional Salespeople
ineffective relationships with supervisors is the fi-
nal road block they encounter. Working relation- How does the non-traditional salesperson cope
ships may be strained. For example, when women when encountering discriminatory treatment on the
first took positions on mainstream sales forces, their job? Some coping mechanisms include applying
male managers expressed considerable discomfort extra effort, attempting to mainstream themselves,
in supervising them (Futrell 1980), particularly in and networking with other members of their mi-
providing negative feedback. This discomfort may nority group.
be reflected in the tendency for male managers to
give more lenient punishment to female subordi- Extra Effort
nates for ethical infractions (Bellizzi and Hite 1989;
Bellizzi and Novell 1991). Schul, Remington, and Pioneering non-traditional salespeople sometimes
Berl (1990) hinted at the possibility of dysfunctional feel that they succeed only because they apply con-
relations in mixed sex supervisory situations when siderable extra effort. When women first began to
12 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

• • . managers need to realize that the goal of diversity is

NOT to focus on differences among salespeople ....

appear in traditionally male positions, it was be- portunities to meet others facing the same or simi-
lieved that for a woman to be perceived as equal to lar road blocks. The recent demise of NAPS is an
a man, she must work twice as hard (Hennig and indication of the progress of women. Such an orga-
Jardim 1977). Today's Mrican American salespeople nization is apparently no longer needed.
have a similar perception. They believe that those Today's Mrican American and Hispanic sales-
who "make it" in mainstream selling must work at people have a need to network with other non-tra-
least three times as hard as white males (Lucas ditional people. Such networking relieves their sense
1996). One African American salesman reported of isolation, provides opportunities to share knowl-
that to achieve success he had to work 80 hours a edge, and affords empathetic support from others
week and give up his entire social life. He suc- who have similar experiences. The National Black
ceeded by going beyond the norm in perfecting his MBA Association offers networking support forM-
persuasive skills, listening skills, and product knowl- rican Americans pursuing higher business degrees
edge in order to counteract problems stemming from and embarking upon business careers. The Society
any lack of rapport with his customers (Lucas 1996). of Hispanic MBAs offers similar support for His-
panics.
Mainstreaming
Challenges of Diversity to a Sales
Mainstreaming is one way to deal with the dis- Manager
criminatory treatment associated with visibility.
Some African Americans and Hispanics adopt Anglo The challenge posed by diversity is to establish
American communication styles and lifestyles. Some an environment that is conducive to the success of
Hispanic Americans perfect their accents and even non-traditional salespeople. This means that man-
change their names to eliminate any stigma associ- agers must (1) take steps to eradicate manifesta-
ated with their Spanish surnames (Comer and tions of social determinants within the organiza-
Nicholls 1997). Some women may emphasize mas- tion, (2) remain alert to tell-tale signals of discrimi-
culine qualities (e.g., aggressiveness) and downplay natory treatment, and (3) take action to remove the
those more characteristic of their gender role (e.g., road blocks they encounter, or failing this, help
empathy). Some of these changes may be helpful, non-traditional salespeople over the hurdles.
but others may counteract the natural advantages
of their own cultural heritage. For example, in the Elimination of Social Determinants
case of women, feminine qualities may play a unique
and important role in the relationship aspects of Sales managers must be alert to the presence of
the sales job (Comer 1994; Jolson and Comer 1992); social factors that generate problems for non-tradi-
failure to take advantage of them would be unfortu- tional salespeople and take steps to remove them.
nate. Stereotyping. The largest and most insidious of
these is stereotyping. Elimination of stereotypic
Networking thinking would go a long way toward tearing down
the hurdles faced by non-traditional salespeople; by
Another way non-traditional salespeople cope is definition, such thinking is very difficult to eradicate.
by joining support networks with similar sales- Considerable research has been directed toward the
people. NAPS (the National Association of Profes- manner in which stereotypes perpetuate themselves
sional Saleswomen), now defunct, was organized in (Ashmore and DelBoca 1979; Bodenhausen 1987;
an effort to give members an arena in which to 1988; Devine 1989; Halpern 1985; Hepburn 1985).
meet and network (Pletcher 1978). NAPS provided Behavior of those who think stereotypically tends to
educational seminars, placement services, and op- cause others to respond stereotypically (Chen and
Fall1998 13

Bargh 1997;SnyderandSwann 1978;Snyder, Tanke styles. While non-traditional salespeople may need
and Berscheid 1977). Thus, they actually increases special training in adjusting their styles to those of
the amount of stereotypic behavior that is observed their mainstream customers, all salespersonnel
(Chen and Bargh 1997). It has been demonstrated would benefit from practical trainingin cross-cultural
that, within an organization, the behavior of even interaction. Role play exercises with partners from
one individual who conforms to negative stereotypes a variety of backgrounds would provide useful
increases stereotyping overall (Henderson-King and practice.
Nisbett 1996). Perception of Selling Careers. Managers might
In their quest to eliminate stereotypic thinking, also make efforts to reach out to young minority
managers might pay attention to the areas where people in the community who are potential candidates
stereotypes are most likely to arise. Many factors for selling jobs, providing information about
are associated with the presence of negative stereo- opportunities in selling careers and the kinds of
typing of saleswomen, including: education and futures associated with them. Their companies might
experience of the saleswoman (Comer and Drollinger become involved in sponsoring "adoption" programs
1997), sex role identity of the saleswoman (Comer at universities in which they provide minority
and Jolson 1991), gender of the manager (Comer students with scholarship assistance, internships,
1992; Comer and Drollinger 1997), liberal beliefs of and opportunities to network with the business
the manager (Russ and MeN eilly 1988), and sex community. Such programs go a long way towards
ratio of the job (Comer and Drollinger 1997). Diver- generating interest among promising minorities.
sity training might be directed to those managers
and salespeople who are most likely to stereotype Sensitivity to Indicators of Negative
others. Further, non-traditional salespeople should
be made aware of the damaging effects of confirm-
Impact
ing the stereotypes by their behavior; they might It would be wise of managers to remain alert to
benefit from explicit training in ways to avoid doing indicators, both objective and subjective, of pathol-
so. ogy within the organization. Monitoring territory
Devaluation. It is possible that managers assignments, evaluations, and compensation levels
unconsciously devalue the contributions of their assures them that there is no inequity among
non-traditional salespersonnel. Performance groups. If inequities are detected, they would then
standards that are equally clear to all salespeople be in a position to intervene and eliminate the un-
and their managers will help counteract this. derlying causes. Maintaining open communication
Evaluations ofboth mainstream and non-traditional with their non-traditional salespeople will keep
salespeople should be based on only objective managers alert to subjective indicators of problems.
evidence. It would be helpful for managers to engage Managers whose salespeople are having difficulty
in an ongoing dialogue with each non-traditional acquiring important job knowledge (e.g., experienc-
salesperson so that performance problems are ing job ambiguity) might then examine their train-
identified when they arise and solutions sought ing programs and informal networks.
before the problems become insurmountable.
Tokenism. The adverse effects of tokenism can Removal of Road Blocks
only be eliminated by increasing the numbers of
non-traditional salespeople. While affirmative action Managers who actively recruit non-traditional
laws are presently being discredited (e.g., Ferguson salespeople have the additional responsibility of
1995; Harwood 1996; Newman 1997; Thomas 1990; helping them overcome the road blocks.
Thomas and Wetlaufer 1997), their underlying Getting Hired. It is important to ensure that
premise is still important. Only where there are qualified non-traditional applicants are not being
sufficient members of any non-traditional group will overlooked in the recruiting process. Clear and
the most capable members be able to realize their objective guidelines help recruiters identify the most
potential. Thus, it would be desirable to continue qualified individuals, regardless of minority/gender/
efforts to increase the proportion of qualified non- ethnic status (Shepherd and Heartfield 1991).
traditional salespeople in sales organizations. Providing subsequent feedback to recruiters about
Communication Style Compatibility. The definition the success or failure of new hires would help them
of adaptive selling needs to be expanded to include stay on target.
adaptivity to a variety of cultural communication
14 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Corporate Networking. Managers cannot mandate work with both mainstream and non-traditional
that their subordinates socialize with each other subordinates in the most effective ways. Concurrent
outside the working environment. However, they diversity training for mainstream subordinates
can encourage their non-traditional salespeople to would prepare them for the leadership of their
be proactive in taking advantage of networking minority manager. Importantly, non-traditional
opportunities. As an example, one African American, sales managers need to be certain that they have the
having been excluded from golf outings, joined his confidence and visible support of top management.
company tennis association and increased his Supervisory Support. The salesperson/supervisor
informal contacts in that way(Thomas and Wetlaufer relationship can make or break the salesperson, and
1997). Managers can make certain that the social dysfunctional relationships serve to exacerbate stress
events they sponsor will interest and include both (Lapidus, Roberts, and Chonko 1997; Rich 1997). To
traditional and non-traditional salespeople. They make the relationship work, sales managers must
can also facilitate access to networking groups within make efforts to view each salesperson as an individual
the company and encourage their non-traditional with distinctive strengths and weaknesses apart
salespeople to join professional associations, both of from any group membership. Too often, managers
traditional groups (e.g., Sales and Marketing adopt a "sink or swim" attitude, placing the burden
Executives, American Marketing Association) and of adjustment on the newcomers (Thomas 1990) and
special networking groups specifically designed for abdicatingtheir own responsibility. Considering each
minority businesspeople. salesperson's unique situation and taking a proactive
Customer Relations. Customer resistance poses a stance in providing support will go a long way in
difficult problem for managers. Rejection by a ensuring effective working relationships.
customer can be both disconcerting to the salesperson
and bad for business. Lucas (1996) suggests several The Overall Mandate for Managers
ways to deal with this problem. One option is to drop
the offending account. Another is to substitute a Overall, managers need to realize that the goal of
mainstream salesperson. Perhaps the best option is diversity is NOT to focus on differences among sales-
for the manager to accompany the salesperson on people or even to combat discrimination (laudable
calls until both customer and salesperson are as that goal might be), but rather to establish a
comfortable working together. This has the sales force environment that will make it possible
advantage of preserving the business while also to take advantage of each individual's particular
providing the salesperson with a needed sense of strengths as he or she contribute to achieving the
supervisory support. No avenue is ideal, however, organizational selling goals. This is a tall order and
either for the business or for the self-concept of the it will take a very sensitive and far thinking man-
salesperson. A manager can only hope that similar ager to achieve it. It is essential that the sales
diversity mandates will be adopted by their customers manager be the focal point for these efforts.
so that any representative will be accepted for his/ Probably the number one underlying issue still
her competence. If the power of the selling company involves elimination of stereotypic thinking. This
is great enough, it will be able to mandate acceptance pervades most of the road blocks encountered by
of the non-traditional salesperson. salespeople. Eradicating such thinking will not be
Upward Mobility. Work needs to be done to ensure an easy task since stereotypes are self-perpetuat-
that promotions are attainable equitably for all ing and self-fulfilling. Diversity training will help,
qualified individuals. Impediments to promotion but sales managers must be sure they undergo the
need to be addressed. Corporate sponsors need to be training themselves and practice what they learn,
identified who have the ability to guide promising so they will be exemplary role models.
non-traditional salespeople through the corporate Perhaps the most important and the most diffi-
labyrinth. Further, in order to ensure their success cult road block to remove is the "glass ceiling" that
once promoted, the likelihood of resistance from stands between non-traditional individuals and
their mainstream subordinates needs to be management positions. Removing this ceiling must
confronted head on. Givingpromisingnon-traditional be given high priority since enabling them to rise
candidates leadership training in advance of into management positions will go a long way to
promotion might help. Such training could stress rectify the present state ofimbalance.
adaptivity in supervisory styles to prepare them to
Fall1998 15

The Promised Rewards-Looking to those of us who regard color of skin or religion as

irrelevant can buy some things more cheaply as
the Future a result. (pp. 109-110)
The requirements of facilitating diversity on a His arguments still ring true; sadly, they remain
sales force may seem an overwhelming task for a relevant.
mainstream American manager. The manager may
raise the question: is the potential reward worth
the necessary effort? The advantages of achieving
A Call for Research
diversity are considerable and go beyond one's moral In reviewing the research on diversity issues, it
and legal responsibility. Achieving diversity is good has become apparent that the major work to date
business (Doka 1996; Wheeler 1996). The changing has focused on female salespeople. With only a few
face of the workforce mandates its inevitability exceptions, no attention has been devoted to Mri-
(Bolick and Nestleroth 1988). Efforts by enlight- can American, Hispanic, or Asian American sales-
ened managers to make it work will reap differen- people. A few isolated studies have focused on less
tial advantages in the future (Shipper and Shipper obvious non-traditional groups (e.g., Cron,
1987). A diverse sales force means that salespeople Jackofsky, and Slocum 1993; Bellizzi and Hasty
will be available to work with customers ofvarious 1998).
cultural backgrounds, both inside and outside the It is clear that more research needs to be directed
United States. Mrican American salespeople will toward the management and effective use of women
sell to minority customers in the inner cities and on the sales force, but parallel studies should be
also reach those who have adapted to the white conducted on other important groups. We need to
American culture. Asian American salespeople will gather information over time to assess progress in
reach counterparts from their own national origins, eliminating the underlying determinants and road
and also contribute insights about selling to the blocks. We need dyadic research into the impact of
important Asian market. Hispanic salespeople will incompatible cultural communication styles on the
reach Hispanics in the U.S. and also play a role in sales interaction. Preliminary studies have focused
developing Latin American markets. Women and on first impressions (Jones et al. 1998), and on dy-
Hispanics will develop and maintain partnering re- adic similarities between salespeople and custom-
lations with other companies. Asian Americans will ers (e.g., Dwyer, Richard, and Shepherd 1998; Kang
bring their special predilections to the sales of tech- and Hillery 1998), but we need to probe deeper and
nical products. All will serve as role models for more specifically into various types of cross-cul-
America's youth, the potential candidates for sell- tural sales interactions.
ing positions. Equally important is research into managerial
In 1962, Milton Friedman, the Nobel Prize-win- interventions that will help to eliminate the deter-
ning economist, laid out the economic costs of dis- minants and circumvent road blocks. This should
crimination: involve assessment of current diversity training
A businessman or an entrepreneur who expresses programs and of new ways to sensitize mainstream
preferences in his business activities that are personnel to the strengths contributed by non-tra-
not related to productive efficiency is at a disad- ditional groups. Of particular importance would be
vantage compared to other individuals who do research focused on methods to increase the ability
not. Such an individual is in effect imposing of non-traditional salespersonnel to break through
higher costs on himself than are other individu-
als who do not have such preferences. the glass ceilings, such as research into mentoring
(e.g., Fine and Pullins 1998), and corporate spon-
The same phenomena is of much wider scope. It sorship programs. The surface has only been
is often taken for granted that the person who scratched by efforts to date. Much work remains to
discriminates against others because of their be done.
race, religion, color, or whatever, incurs no costs
by doing so but simply imposes costs on others ..
.The man who objects to buying from or working Conclusion
alongside a Negro, for example, thereby limits
his range of choice. He will generally have to pay This paper has presented extant research into
a higher price for what he buys or receive a issues surrounding the integration ofnon-traditional
lower return for his work. Or, put the other way, personnel within the sales force. It has interpreted
16 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

research findings in the light of today's diversity Busch, Paul and Ronald F. Bush (1978), "Women Contrasted to
Men in the Industrial Sales Force: Job Satisfaction, Val-
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Carter, Robert N. and Milton R. Bryant (1980), "Women as
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