Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Introduction to Quantum Computing : A quantum computer is a machine that performs
calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the
sub-atomic level.
Quantum computing is based on two features namely Superposition and Entanglement.
Superposition : It is the ability of a quantum system to exist in more than one state at the
same time. It is associated with quantum systems, i.e., small objects such as nuclei, electrons,
elementary particles, and photons, for which wave-particle duality and other non-classical
effects are observed.
Entanglement : It is the ability of a pair to exist in a single quantum state. Quantum
entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when multiple qubits are correlated with
each other.
Moore’s law: it states that roughly every two years, the number of transistors on microchips
will double. The law claims that for every two years the speed and capability of computers
will increase and the cost is halved. It also implies that the computers, machines using
computers become smaller, faster and cheaper with time.
End of Moore’s law :
Moores law is said to be
breaking down, according
to theoretical physicist
Michio Kaku.
Engineers are unable to
keep pushing the limit on
smaller transistors, and
thus, computer systems
may have reached their
limit in transistor capacity
and power. Hence, industry leaders are asserting that Moore’s Law has come to an end, and
computers will no longer have many more transistors every year.
One of the major concerns associated with the end of Moore's Law is the fact that more
computing resources and power is necessary for the continued evolution of advanced
technologies, such as advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI), self driving cars, IoT (Internet of
Things) technology, and more robust cloud systems.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Differences between Classical Computing and Quantum Computing:

Classical Computing Quantum Computing
1. It is based on the classical phenomenon of 1. It is based on the phenomenon of
electrical circuits being in a single state at a Quantum Mechanics, such as superposition
given time, either on or off. and entanglement, the phenomenon where it
is possible to be in more than one state at a
time.
2. Information storage and manipulation is 2. Information storage and manipulation is
based on “bit”. based on Quantum Bit or “qubit”.
3. The circuit behavior is governed by 3. The circuit behavior is governed by
classical physics. quantum physics or quantum mechanics.
4. It uses binary codes i.e. bits 0 or 1 to 4. Quantum computing use Qubits i.e. 0, 1
represent information. and superposition state of both 0 and 1 to
represent information.
5. CMOS transistors are the basic building 5. SQUID or Quantum Transistors are the
blocks of conventional computers. basic building blocks of quantum
computers.
6. In conventional computers, data 6. In quantum computers, data processing is
processing is done in Central Processing done in Quantum Processing Unit or QPU,
Unit or CPU. which consists of a number of
interconnected qubits.

Qubit: In quantum computing, a qubit or quantum bit is a basic unit of quantum information.
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in any one of the two states denoted by |0>
and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as qubit. |0> and |1> are called as the basis or basis
vectors.
A qubit |q> can be represented as a linear combination of |0> and |1> as shown below. This is
the superposition of |0> and |1>.
|q> = α|0> + β|1>
Here α and β are complex numbers and are amplitudes of |0> and |1>.
α2 + β2 = 1
Properties of qubits: qubits can present superposition entanglement properties .
Superposition : It is the ability of a quantum system to exist in more than one state at the
same time. It is associated with quantum systems, i.e., small objects such as nuclei, electrons,
elementary particles, and photons, for which wave-particle duality and other non-classical
effects are observed.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Entanglement : It is the ability of a pair to exist in a single quantum state. Quantum

entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when multiple qubits are correlated with
each other.
Quantum Interference: It is the behavior of a qubit due to superposition to influence the
probability of it collapsing in one way or the other. Quantum computers are designed and built
to reduce interference as much as possible and ensure the most accurate results.
Geometrical representation of qubit: The state of a qubit can be represented in Bloch
sphere. It is a sphere of unit radius and is represented by
|Ψ> = Cos(θ/2)|0> + eiφSin(θ/2)|1>
1. For φ = 0 and θ = 0 the state |Ψ> corresponds to |0> and
along positive Z axis.
2. For φ = 0 and θ = 1800 the state |Ψ> corresponds to |1>
and along negative Z axis.
3. For φ = 900 and θ = 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a
1
superposition state (|0> + i|1>) and along positive Y
√2
axis.
4. For φ = - 900 and θ = 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a superposition state
1
(|0> - i|1>) and along negative Y axis.
√2
1
5. For φ = 00 and θ = 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a superposition state (|0> + |1>)
√2
and along positive X axis.
1
6. For φ = 00 and θ = - 900 the state |Ψ> corresponds to a superposition state (|0> - |1>)
√2
and along negative X axis.
A single-qubit has two computational basis states. In the z-basis these are ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩.
A two-qubit system has 4 computational basis states denoted as ∣00⟩, ∣01⟩, ∣10⟩, ∣11⟩.
A multi-qubit system of N qubits has 2N computational basis states denoted
as ∣00...00⟩, ∣00⋯01⟩, ∣00⋯10⟩ ... ∣11⋯11⟩.
A qubit |q> can be represented as the superposition of |0> and |1>.
|q> = α|0> + β|1>
1 0
In matrix form the states |0> and |1> can be represented as |0> = ( ) and |1> = ( )
0 1
Representation of wave function in vector notation: State of a system can be represented
by certain vectors called Ket vectors or Bra vectors. Ket vector is denoted by the symbol | >
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and bra vector is denoted by the symbol < | . Bra vector is the conjugate of ket vector.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Eg : If ‘q’ is the state of a system then in ket vector it is represented as |q> and in bra vector
it is represented as < q|.
let |a> and |b> are two kets , then their linear combination |q> = C1|a> + C2|b> is also a ket
vector.
The Conjugate of ket vector |q> = C1|a> + C2|b> is a bra vector and is represented as
<q|= C1*<a|+C2*<b|
where the C1* and C2* are the conjugates of C1 and C2 .
if |Ψ1> and |Ψ2> are the two state vectors then their scalar product can be written as
+∞
< Ψ1|Ψ2> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)2(x)𝒅𝒙 . here 1*(x) is the conjugate transpose of 1.

Identity operator: It is an operator which leaves the function unchanged after operation.
i.e I |a> = |a>
1 0
In matrix representation it is written as I = ( )
0 1
It satisfies the condition UU* = U*U = I,
Here U* is the conjugate transpose of U.
Determination of I|0> and I|1> :
1 0 1 0
We know that in matrix form I = ( ) , |0> = ( ) and |1> = ( ) then
0 1 0 1
1 0 1
I|0> = ( )( )
0 1 0
1 0
=( )=I
0 1
1 0 0
lly I|1> = ( )( )
0 1 1
1 0
=( )=I
0 1
⸫ I|0> = I|1> = I
Pauli Matrices : These are set of 3, 2x2 matrices, which are unitary and Hermitian.
Hermitian means the conjugate transpose of a matrix itself is that matrix.
These represented as mentioned below.
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0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
σx = ( ) σy = ( ) σz = ( ).
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

And it can be proved that σx2 = σy2 = σz2 = I

Operation of Pauli matrices on 0 and 1 states:
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
When the Pauli –X matrix is operated on |0> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
When the Pauli –X matrix is operated on |1> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 −𝒊 𝟏 𝟎
When the Pauli –Y matrix is operated on |0> ( )( ) = ( )
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊
𝟎 −𝒊 𝟎 −𝒊
When the Pauli –Y matrix is operated on |1> ( )( ) = ( )
𝒊 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
When the Pauli –Z matrix is operated on |0> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
When the Pauli –Z matrix is operated on |1> ( )( ) = ( )
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
Conjugate and Transpose of a matrix : The conjugate of a matrix can be obtained by
replacing each element of the matrix by its complex conjugate .
𝟐+𝒊 −𝒊
Eg : If a matrix given by A = ( )
𝒊 𝟏
The conjugate of A can be found as mentioned below.
Conjugate of the element 2 + i is 2 – i
Conjugate of – i is +i
Conjugate of i is – i
Conjugate of 1 is 1
𝟐−𝒊 𝒊
⸫ The conjugate of A is Ᾱ = ( )
−𝒊 𝟏
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its rows into columns or columns into
rows. The transpose of the matrix is denoted by using the letter “T” in the superscript of
the given matrix. For example, if “A” is the given matrix, then the transpose of the matrix is
represented by A' or AT.
𝟐+𝒊 −𝒊
Eg : If a matrix A = ( ) then its Transpose matrix can be written as
𝒊 𝟏
𝟐+𝒊 𝒊
AT = ( )
−𝒊 𝟏
Unitary Matrix : It’s a complex matrix, the product of it and its conjugate transpose matrix
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is identity matrix.
Dr. Krishna Reddy B V SVCE, Bangalore – 57.
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

UU* = U*U = I
1 𝟐 −𝟐 + 𝒊
Eg : let U = ( )
3 𝟐+𝒊 𝟐
1 𝟐 𝟐−𝒊
Its conjugate transpose U* = ( )
3 −𝟐 − 𝒊 𝟐
1 𝟐 −𝟐 + 𝒊 1 𝟐 𝟐−𝒊
⸫ UU* = ( ) ( )
3 𝟐+𝒊 𝟐 3 −𝟐 − 𝒊 𝟐
1 𝟗 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
= ( )=( )
9 𝟎 𝟗 𝟎 𝟏
=I
lly U*U = I
So U is a Unitary matrix.
Representation of Row and Column Matrices: A row matrix is a type of matrix that has
a single row. But the number of columns could be more than one. Therefore, if the matrix is
in the order of 1 x n, then it is a row matrix. The elements are arranged in an order such that
they represent a single row in the matrix.

Eg : (𝒖𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑 … … . 𝒖𝒏)
A column matrix is a type of matrix that has only one column. The order of the column
matrix is represented by m x 1, thus the rows will have single elements, arranged in a way that
they represent a column of elements.
𝑣1
𝑣2
𝑣3
Eg:V =
.
.
(𝑣𝑛 )
𝑢1
𝑢2
𝑢3
Let U = , UT = (𝒖𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑 … … . 𝒖𝒏)
.
.
(𝑢𝑛 )
The inner product of these two matrices is given as
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing
𝑣1
𝑣2
𝑣3
UTV = (𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 … … . 𝑢𝑛) = u1v1 +u2v2+u3v3+….unvn
.
.
(𝑣𝑛)
UTV =<U|V> = ∑ni=1 UiT Vi
Inner Product: It is the scalar product or dot product between two vectors.

The scalar product of two state vectors |1> and |2> is

+∞
< 1 | 2> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)2(x)𝒅𝒙

If the scalar product of the two vectors is zero then the two vectors are orthogonal and the
property is called orthogonality.
+∞
< 1 | 2> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)2(x)𝒅𝒙 = 0

If the scalar product of a vector with itself is unity then then it is said to be normalized and
the property is called Normalization.
+∞
< 1 | 1> = ∫−∞ 1*(x)1(x)𝒅𝒙 = 1

A set of vectors is called orthonormal when every vector is normalized to 1 and for every 2
different vectors their inner product is 0.
Quantum Gates: Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have a degenerate
output. i.e. their original input state can be derived from their output state, uniquely. They
must be reversible.

There are quantum gates like single qubit, multi qubit quantum gates.
Single Qubit Quantum gates : Quantum Not Gate, Pauli – X, Y and Z Gates, Hadamard Gate,
Phase Gate (or S Gate), T Gate.
Quantum NOT gate : It transforms the |0> to |1> and |1> to |0>.
Incase of superposition state α|0>+β|1> to α|1>+β|0>, the roles of ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ are
interchanged.
0 1
In the Matrix form the NOT gate represented as X = ( )
1 0
α
In the vector notation if α|0>+β|1> is written as (β) , output from the quantum NOT gate is

α 0 1 α β
X(β) = ( ) (β) = ( )
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1 0 α
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

= α|1>+β|0>

α|0>+β|1>
X α|1>+β|0>
Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> |1>
|1> |0>
α|0>+β|1> α|1>+β|0>
Pauli’s X – Gate : This is similar to NOT gate.
0 1
The gate is defined as X =( )
1 0
It changes the |0> to |1> and |1> to |0> which acts as a NOT gate.
X|0> = |1> and X |1> = |0> or
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
( ) ( ) =( ) , ( ) ( ) =( )
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
The state α|0>+β|1> is transformed to α|1>+β|0>

α|0>+β|1> Pauli - α|1>+β|0>

X
Truth Table:

Input Output
|0> |1>
|1> |0>
α|0>+β|1> α|1>+β|0>

Pauli’s Y – Gate :
0 −𝑖
The gate is defined as Y =( )
𝑖 0
1 0 0 −𝑖
It changes the ( ) to ( ) and ( ) to ( )
0 𝑖 1 0
0 −𝑖
Y|0> = ( ) and Y |1> = ( ) or
𝑖 0
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0 1 1 0 0 1 0 −𝑖
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( ) ( ) =( ), ( ) ( ) =( )
1 0 0 𝑖 1 0 1 0
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

The state α|0>+β|1> is transformed to -iβ|0> + iα|1>

α|0>+β|1> Pauli - -iβ|0> + iα|1>

Y
Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> i i|1>|1>
|1> -i|0>
α|0>+β|1> -iβ|0> + iα|1>

Pauli’s – Z gate :
1 0
 The gate is defined as Z =( )
0 −1
1 0 0
 It unchanges the ( ) and ( ) changes to ( )
0 1 −1
 Z|0> = |0> and Z|1> = -|1>
1 0
 Z|0> = ( ) and Z|1> = ( ) or
0 −1
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
 ( ) ( ) =( ) , ( ) ( ) =( )
0 −1 0 0 0 −1 1 −1
The state α|0>+β|1> is transformed to α|0> - β|1>.

α|0>+β|1> Pauli - α|0> - β|1>

Z

Truth Table:

Input Output
|0> |0>|1>
|1> -|1>
α|0>+β|1> α|0> - β|1>
Hadamard Gate :
 Simplest gate involves one qubit and also known as a square-root of NOT gate. Used
to put qubits into superposition.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

1 1 1
 𝐻= ( )
√2 1 −1
(|0>+|1>) (|0>-|1>)
 It transforms |0> to = and |1> to
√2 √2

 The state α|0>+β|1> will transformed as

1 1 1 α 1 α+β
( ) (β) = ( )
√2 1 −1 √2 α-β

α+β
H
1
α|0>+β|1> ( )
√2 α-β

Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> (|0>+|1>)
√2
1>
|1> (|0>-|1>)
√2
α|0>+β|1> 1 α+β
( )
√2 α-β

Two Hadamard gates used in succession can be used as a NOT gate.

H H
State State State
|0> |0> + |1> |1>
H = (X+Z)/√2 is the relation between Hadamard gate and Pauli Gates.
Phase Gate(S-gate):
1 0
 It is represented as ( ).
0 𝑖
 When it is operated on |0> the output is |0> only.
1 0 1 0 1 1
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 ( ) |0> = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = |0>
0 𝑖 0 𝑖 0 0
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

 When it is operated on |1> the output is i|1> only.

1 0 1 0 0 0
 ( ) |1> = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = i|1>
0 𝑖 0 𝑖 1 𝑖
 When it is operated on α|0>+β|1> the output is
1 0 1 0 α α
 ( ) α|0>+β|1> = ( ) (β) = (iβ) = α|0>+iβ|1>
0 𝑖 0 𝑖

Truth Table:
α|0>+β|1>
S α|0> +iβ|1>

Input Output
|0> |0>|1>
|1> i|1>
α|0>+β|1> α|0>+iβ|1>
T – Gate:
1 0
 It is represented as T = ( (𝑖𝜋/4) ).
0 𝑒
𝜋
 Also called as 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠
8

exp(-𝑖𝜋/8) 0
 T = exp(𝑖𝜋/8) ( )
0 exp(𝑖𝜋/8)
 When it is operated on |0> the output is |0> only.
1 0 1 0 1 1
 ( (𝑖𝜋/4) )|0> =( (𝑖𝜋/4) ) ( ) = ( ) = |0>
0 𝑒 0 𝑒 0 0
 When it is operated on |1> the output is exp(𝑖𝜋/4)|1>.
1 0 1 0 0 0
 ( (𝑖𝜋/4) )|1> =( (𝑖𝜋/4) ) ( ) = ( (𝑖𝜋/4) ) = 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)|1>
0 𝑒 0 𝑒 1 𝑒
 When it is operated on α|0>+β|1> the output is
1 0 1 0 α α (𝑖𝜋/4)
(
0 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4) )α|0>+β|1> = (
0 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4) ) ( β ) = ( 𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)
β) = α|0>+𝑒 β|1>

α|0>+β|1>
T α|0>+𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)β|1>
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Truth Table:
Input Output
|0> |0>|1>
|1> exp(𝑖𝜋/4)|1>
α|0>+β|1> α|0>+𝑒 (𝑖𝜋/4)β|1>

Controlled Gate: The gate which has two input qubits namely control and target.
 If the control qubit is 0, then the target qubit is not altered.
 If the control qubit is 1, then the target qubit is transformed.
 The control qubit remains unaltered in both the cases.
Control |0> |0>

Target |1> |1>

Control |1> |1>

Target |0> |1>

|1> |0>

Truth Table:

Input Output
|00> |00>
|01> |01>
|10> |11>
|11> |10>

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Matrix form : ( )
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
Controlled Not gate : This is similar to Controlled gate . A gate which operates on two
qubits.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

The CN gate has a similar behavior to the XOR gate with some extra information to make it
reversible.
Control |0> |0>

Target |1> |1>

Control |1> |1>

Target |0> |1>

|1> |0>

Truth Table:
Input Output
|00> |00>
|01> |01>
|10> |11>
|11> |10>
The action of C NOT gate can be written as

1 0 0 0 |00> |00>
0 1 0 0 |01> |01>
( ) =
0 0 0 1 |10> |11>
0 0 1 0 ( |11> ) ( |10> )
Swap Gate : simple quantum circuit containing three quantum gates. It is read from left to
right. It swaps the inputs and gives as output.

In the Matrix form

1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
U swap= ( )
0 1 0 0
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0 0 0 1
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Controlled Z gate : another example of controlled gate. If ‘A’ is true then do ‘B’.
In matrix form
1 0 0 0
UZ=(
0 1 0 0
) Z
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1
Truth Table:

Input Output
|00> |00>
|01> |01>
|10> |10>
|11> -|11>
Toffoli Gate : it is a reversible gate, having three inputs (a,b,c) and three outputs (a’,b’,c’). In
the inputs first two bits(a,b) are control bits. Third bit (c) is target bit. ‘C’ is inverted when
both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are 1 otherwise unaffected.

a a
b b
Truth Table :
c c
a b c a’ b’ c’
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing

Matrix form of Toffoli Gate:

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
U T=
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
(𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎)

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