Control Systems Engineering

Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques

Dr.-Ing. Witthawas Pongyart
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
Learning Outcomes:
After completing this chapter the student will be able to:
• Define a root locus (Sections 8.1-8.2)
• State the properties of a root locus (Section 8.3)
• Sketch a root locus (Section 8.4)
• Find the coordinates of points on the root locus and their
associated gains (Sections 8.5-8.6)
• Use the root locus to design a parameter value to meet a transient
response specification for systems of order 2 and higher (Sections
8.7-8.8))
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
Case Study:
• Given the antenna azimuth position control system
shown on the front endpapers, you will be able to
find the preamplifier gain to meet a transient
response specification.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.1 Introduction:
• Root locus, a graphical presentation of the closed-loop poles as a
system parameter is varied, is a powerful method of analysis and
design for stability and transient response (Evans, 1948; 1950).
• Feedback control systems are difficult to comprehend from a
qualitative point of view, and hence they rely heavily upon
mathematics.
• The root locus covered in this chapter is a graphical technique that
gives us the qualitative description of a control system's
performance that we are looking for and also serves as a powerful
quantitative tool that yields more information than the methods
already discussed.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.1 Introduction: The control System Problem
• Whereas the poles of the open-loop transfer function are easily
found (typically, they are known by inspection and do not change
with changes in system gain), the poles of the closed-loop transfer
function are more difficult to find, and further, the closed-loop
poles change with changes in system gain.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.1 Introduction: The control System Problem
• For example, if G(s) = (s + 1)/[s(s + 2)] and H(s) = (s + 3)/(5 + 4),
• the poles of KG(s)H(s) are 0, - 2 , and -4. The zeros of KG(s)H(s) are -
1 and - 3.
• Now, T(s) = K(s + 1)(s + 4)/[s3 + (6 + K)s2+ (8 + 4K)s + 3K]. Thus, the
zeros of T(s) consist of the zeros of G(s) and the poles of H(s). The
poles of T(s) are not immediately known without factoring the
denominator, and they are a function of K.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.1 Introduction: The control System Problem
• Example
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.1 Introduction: The control System Problem
• Example
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.1 Introduction:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.1 Introduction:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.2 Defining the Root Locus:
• A video camera system similar to that shown in the figure can
automatically follow a subject.
• The tracking system consists of a dual sensor and a transmitter,
where one component is mounted on the camera, and the other worn
by the subject. An imbalance between the outputs of the two sensors
receiving energy from the transmitter causes the system to rotate the
camera to balance out the difference and seek the source of energy.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.2 Defining the Root Locus:
• The root locus technique can be used to analyze and design the
effect of loop gain upon the system's transient response and stability.
• Assume the block diagram representation of a tracking system as
shown in the diagram, where the closed-loop poles of the system
change location as the gain, K, is varied.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.2 Defining the Root Locus:
• As the gain, K, increases the closed-loop pole, which is at -10 for K = 0 ,
moves toward the right, and the closed-loop pole, which is at 0 for K= 0,
moves toward the left. They meet at -5, break away from the real axis,
and move into the complex plane.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.2 Defining the Root Locus:
• The individual closed-loop pole locations are removed and their paths
are represented with solid lines. It is this representation of the paths of
the closed-loop poles as the gain is varied that we call a root locus.
• For most of our work, the discussion will be limited to positive gain,
or K > 0.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
• We are about to examine the properties of the root locus. From these
properties we will be able to make a rapid sketch of the root locus for
higher-order systems without having to factor the denominator of the
closed-loop transfer function.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
• The equations imply that if a value of s is substituted into the function
KG(s)H(s), a complex number results.
• If the angle of the complex number is an odd multiple of 180˚, that value
of s is a system pole for some particular value of K. What value of K?
Since the angle criterion of Eq. 8.15 is satisfied, all that remains is to
satisfy the magnitude criterion, Eq. 8.14.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
•
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
•
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
•
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus :
• It appears from our previous discussion that the root locus can be
obtained by sweeping through every point in the s-plane to locate those
points for which the angles, as previously described, add up to an odd
multiple of 180˚.
• The concept can be used to develop rules that can be used to sketch the
root locus without the effort required to plot the locus.
• Once a sketch is obtained, it is possible to accurately plot just those
points that are of interest to us for a particular problem.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus :
• The following five rules allow us to sketch the root locus using minimal
calculations. The rules yield a sketch that gives intuitive insight into the
behavior of a control system.
• These refinements, however, require some calculations or the use of
computer programs such as MATLAB.
1. Number of branches:
The number of branches of the root locus equals the number of closed-
loop poles.
2. Symmetry:
The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis.
3.Real-axis segments:
On the real axis, for K > 0 the root locus exists to the left of an odd
number of real-axis, finite open-loop poles and/or finite open-loop zeros.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus :
4. Starting and ending points:
The root locus begins at the finite and infinite poles of G(s)H(s) and
ends at the finite and infinite zeros of G(s)H(s).
5. Behavior at infinity:
The root locus approaches straight lines as asymptotes as the locus
approaches infinity. Further, the equation of the asymptotes is given by
the real-axis intercept,σa and angle θa, as follows:

where k=0,±1,±2,±3 and the angle is given in radians with respect to the
positive extension of the real axis.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus : Example 8.2
-Sketching a root locus with asymptotes
Problem: Sketch the root locus for the system shown in the figure.

Solution: Let us begin by calculating the asymptotes.

 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus : Example 8.2
-Sketching a root locus with asymptotes
Problem: Sketch the root locus for the system shown in the figure.

Solution: Let us begin by calculating the asymptotes.

 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus : Example 8.2
Sketching a root locus with asymptotes
Problem: Sketch the root locus for the system shown in the figure.

Solution: Let us begin by calculating the asymptotes.

The number of asymptote

lines obtained equals the
difference between the
number of finite poles and
the number of finite zeros.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus : Example 8.2
Sketching a root locus with asymptotes
Problem: Sketch the root locus for the system shown in the figure.

Rule 4 states that the locus begins at

the open-loop poles and ends at the
open-loop zeros.

For the example there are more open-

loop poles than open-loop zeros.
Thus, there must be zeros at infinity.

The asymptotes tell us how we get to

these zeros at infinity.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus : Example 8.2
Sketching a root locus with asymptotes
Problem: Sketch the root locus for the system shown in the figure.

The real-axis segments lie to the left of

an odd number of poles and/or zeros.
The locus starts at the open-loop poles
and ends at the open-loop zeros. For
the example there is only one open-
loop finite zero and three infinite zeros.
Rule 5, then, tells us that the three
zeros at infinity are at the ends of the
asymptotes.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus : SKILL-ASSESSMENT
Problem: Sketch the root locus and its asymptotes for a unity feedback
system that has the forward transfer function
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
• The rules covered in the previous section permit us to sketch a root
locus rapidly.
• If we want more detail, we must be able to accurately find important
points on the root locus along with their associated gain. Points on the
real axis where the root locus enters or leaves the complex plane—real-
axis breakaway and break-in points—and the jω crossings are
candidates.
• We can also derive a better picture of the root locus by finding the
angles of departure and arrival from complex poles and zeros,
respectively.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
• We now discuss how to refine our root locus sketch by calculating real-
axis breakaway and break-in points, jω axis crossings, angles of
departure from complex poles, and angles of arrival to complex zeros.
• We conclude by showing how to find accurately any point on the root
locus and calculate the gain.
Real-Axis Breakaway and Break-In Points
Numerous root loci appear to
break away from the real axis
as the system poles move from
the real axis to the complex
plane.
At other times the loci appear
to return to the real axis as a
pair of complex poles becomes
real.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Real-Axis Breakaway and Break-In Points

There are three methods for

finding the points at which the
root locus breaks away from
and breaks into the real axis.
The first method is to maximize
and minimize the gain, K, using
differential calculus.

Hence, if we differentiate the equation with respect to s and set the

derivative equal to zero, we can find the points of maximum and minimum
gain and hence the breakaway and break-in points. Let us demonstrate.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Real-Axis Breakaway and Break-In Points
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Real-Axis Breakaway and Break-In Points
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Real-Axis Breakaway and Break-In Points

There are three methods for

finding the points at which the
root locus breaks away from
and breaks into the real axis.
The first method is to maximize
and minimize the gain, K, using
differential calculus.

The second method is a variation on the differential calculus method.

Called the transition method, it eliminates the step of differentiation.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Real-Axis Breakaway and Break-In Points

For the third method the root locus program discussed in Appendix G.2
can be used to find the breakaway and break-in points.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
The jω-Axis Crossings
• To find the -axis crossing, we can use the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
The jω-Axis Crossings
• To find the -axis crossing, we can use the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.

S = ± j1.59
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Angles of Departure and Arrival
• In this subsection we further refine our sketch of the root locus by
finding angles of departure and arrival from complex poles and zeros.
• In order to sketch the root locus more accurately, we want to calculate
the root locus departure angle from the complex poles and the arrival
angle to the complex zeros.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Angles of Departure and Arrival
• The root locus starts at the open-loop poles and ends at the open-loop
zeros. In order to sketch the root locus more accurately, we want to
calculate the root locus departure angle
from the complex poles and
the arrival angle to the complex zeros.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Angles of Departure and Arrival
If we assume a point on the root locus ɛ
close to a complex pole, the sum of angles
drawn from all finite poles and zeros to this
point is an odd multiple of 180˚ .
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch:
Angles of Departure and Arrival
If we assume a point on the root locus ɛ
close to a complex pole, the sum of angles
drawn from all finite poles and zeros to this
point is an odd multiple of 180˚ .
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch: Angles of Departure and Arrival
• Problem: Given the unity feedback system in the figure, find the
angle of departure from the complex poles and sketch the root
locus.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.5 Refining the Sketch: Angles of Departure and Arrival
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example
• We now review the rules for sketching and finding points on the root
locus, as well as present an example.
• The root locus is the path of the closed-loop poles of a system as a
parameter of the system is varied. Each point on the root locus satisfies
the angle condition, arg(G(s)H(s)) = (2k+1)180 .
• Using this relationship, rules for sketching and finding points on the root
locus were developed and are now summarized:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example
• Using this relationship, rules for sketching and finding points on the root
locus were developed and are now summarized:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example
• Using this relationship, rules for sketching and finding points on the root
locus were developed and are now summarized:
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example

First sketch the root locus.

- Using Rule 3, the real-axis segment is found to be between -4 and -2 .
- Rule 4 tells us that the root locus starts at the open-loop poles and ends
at the open-loop zeros. These two rules alone give us the general shape
of the root locus.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example

First sketch the root locus.

- Using Rule 3, the real-axis segment is found to be between -4 and -2 .
- Rule 4 tells us that the root locus starts at the open-loop poles and ends
at the open-loop zeros. These two rules alone give us the general shape
of the root locus.
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example
 Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques
8.6 Example