DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

Subject Code: EC502PC

By
KASULA RAGHU
Assistant Professor
Dept. of E.C.E.
MGIT
 Course Objectives
➢To introduce the Fundamentals of data communication
networks
➢To demonstrate the Functions of various protocols of Data
link layer.
➢To demonstrate Functioning of various Routing protocols.
➢To introduce the Functions of various Transport layer
protocols
➢To understand the significance of application layer protocols
 Course Outcomes
➢Know the Categories and functions of various Data
communication Networks
➢Design and analyse various error detection techniques.
➢Demonstrate the mechanism of routing the data in
network layer
➢ Know the significance of various Flow control and
Congestion control Mechanisms
➢Know the Functioning of various Application layer
Protocols.
 What we will Learn?
UNIT – I Introduction to Data Communications

UNIT – II Data Link Layer

UNIT – III The Network Layer

UNIT – IV Transport Layer

UNIT – V Application Layer

 Text Books
1. Computer Networking A Top-Down Approach – Kurose James
F, Keith W, 6th Edition, Pearson.

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1k8MCCCkZtyS50xizE5UNYQ1AY9xmAeH9/view?usp=sh
aring

2. Data Communications and Networking Behrouz A.

Forouzan 4 th Edition McGraw-Hill Education.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HRlQ1mpmUzWG6hXiWPw4BHFRSEijr_t5/view?usp=sharing
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wireless or wired cable.

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word

data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the
parties creating and using the data.

Topics discussed in this section

1) Components of a data communications system

2) Data Flow
Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system
 Components of Data Communication
• Sender: Device that sends data message. It can be Computer,
workstation, telephone headset ,video camera and so on .
• Receiver: Device that receives the message. It can be Computer,
workstation, telephone headset ,television and so on.
• Medium: The physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. It can be a Coaxial cable, twisted pair wire, fiber
optic cable or radio waves.
• Message: The information (data) to be communicated. It can be
text ,numbers, picture, sound and video.
• Protocol: A set of rules that governs data communications.
• The effectiveness of a Data Communication system depends upon three
fundamental characteristics.

• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timeliness
 Data Representation
• Data can be text, numbers, images , audio, and video

• Different set of bit patterns have been designed to represent

text symbols. Each set is called code , and the process of
representing symbols is called coding.

• Different codes are available to represent text such as

ASCII(ANSI)[7 bit], Extended ASCII[8-bit], Unicode [16
bit], and ISO has designed a code which is of 32 bit.
Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying information.

Topics discussed in this section:

1) Network Criteria
2) Physical Structures
3) Categories of Networks
 Network Criteria
• Performance
• Depends on Network Elements (number of users, type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of software)
• Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
• Failure rate of network components
• Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
• Errors
• Malicious users
 Physical Structures
• Type of Connection

• Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver

• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

• Physical Topology

• Connection of devices

• Type of transmission - unicast, multicast, broadcast

Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
 Types of Connection
• A network is two or more devices connected through links (wired or
wireless)
• A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one
device to another.
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in
some way to the same link at the same time.
• There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices.
 Type of Connection (Cont.)
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices.
• Ex: A point-to-point connection between the remote control and
the television's control system.
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link (see Figure
1.3b).
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.
 Type of Topology
• The term Topology refers to the way in which a network is
laid out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another.
• There are four basic possible topologies : mesh, star, bus,
and ring (see Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology
 Mesh Topology
• Mesh : In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated
point-to-point link to every other device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects.
• If a node is connected to all the other nodes present in a
network is called fully connected Mesh network.
• Node 1 must be connected to n-1 nodes, node 2 must be
connected to n–1 nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links for
a fully connected Mesh.
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
 Mesh Topology (cont.)
• If each physical link allows communication in both
directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of
links by 2.
• In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we
need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.
• Every device on the network must have n–1
input/output ports (see Figure 1.5) to be connected to the
other n - 1 stations.
 Advantages of Mesh
• The use of dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when
links must be shared by multiple devices.
• Mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes
unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy or security. When every message travels along
a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
• point-to-point links make fault identification and fault
isolation easy.
 Disadvantages of Mesh
• The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount
of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
• First, because every device must be connected to every other
device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
• Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate.
• Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports
and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.
 Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a
mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange. If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which
then relays the data to the other connected device (see Figure
1.6)
• Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it
to any number of others.
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
 Star Topology Advantages
• A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology .
• Less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and
deletions involve only one connection between that device and
the hub and it is easy to install and reconfigure.
• If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain
active (Robustness).
• This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation.
• As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link
problem and bypass defective links.
 Disadvantages
• One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency
of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
• Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each
node must be linked to a central hub.
• If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
• Compare to some other topologies (such as ring or bus) star
requires often more cabling.
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs).
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology uses multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone
to link all the devices in a network (see Figure 1.7).
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
• A drop line is a connection running between the device and the
main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat.
Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations
 Bus Topology (Cont.)
• Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels
farther and farther.
• For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a
bus can support and on the distance between those taps.
• Advantages of a bus topology include ease of
installation.
• Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path,
then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths.
• In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star
topologies.
 Bus Topology (Cont.)
• In a bus (Compared to Star) redundancy is eliminated. Only
the backbone cable stretches through the entire facility.
• Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault
isolation.
• A bus is designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It
can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
• Adding new devices may therefore require modification or
replacement of the backbone.
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in
quality.
 Bus Topology (Cont.)

• A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even

between devices on the same side of the problem.

• The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of

origin, creating noise in both directions.

• Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in

design of early local area networks. Ethernet LANs can use
a bus topology, but they are less popular now.
 Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-
point connection with only the two devices on either side
of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them
along (see Figure 1.8).
Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations
 Ring Topology
• In ring, a signal is circulating at all times.
• If one device does not receive a signal within a specified
period, it can issue an alarm.
• The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its
location.
• Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically).
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
 Ring Topology (Cont.)
• The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum
ring length and number of devices).
• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
• Fault isolation is simplified.
• However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
• In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can
disable the entire network.
• This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch
capable of closing off the break.
 Ring & Hybrid Topology
• Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology
less popular.

• Hybrid Topology : A network can be hybrid.

• For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure
1.9.
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
 Type of Transmission
• A Unicast transmission sends data to a single recipient on a network.
• A Multicast transmission sends data to a group of nodes on a network.
• A Broadcast transmission sends data to all the nodes of a network.
 Network Models
• Computer networks are created by different entities.
• Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous networks can
communicate with one another.
• The two best-known standards are the OSI model and the Internet
model (TCP/IP).
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model defines a seven-layer
network.
• The Internet model (TCP/IP) defines a five-layer network.
OSI and TCP/IP Models
 Categories of Networks
• Local Area Networks (LANs)
• Short distances
• Designed to provide local interconnectivity

• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

• Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

• Wide Area Networks (WANs)

• Long distances
• Provide connectivity over large areas
Figure 1.10 LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
 Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
• When two or more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork, or internet.
• For example, let us assume that an organization has two offices,
one on the east coast and the other on the west coast.
• The established office on the west coast has a bus topology
LAN; the newly opened office on the east coast has a star
topology LAN.
• The president of the company lives somewhere in the middle
and needs to have control over the company from his home.
Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized in many aspects of our daily lives such as
connecting people around the globe, do business, spend free time.

Topics discussed in this section:

1) Organizations of the Internet

2) Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

 Internet
• An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is Two or More/Huge networks that
can communicate with each other such as computers and printers.

Ex. Private individuals, Various organizations such as Government

Agencies, Schools, Researchers, Corporations, and Libraries …etc.
 A Brief History of Internet
• In Mid-1960s, Mainframe computers in research organizations were
standalone devices ( Independently). Computers from different manufacturers
were unable to communicate with one another.

• The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of

Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to connect computers. so that
the researchers they funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs
and eliminating duplication of effort.
 A Brief History of Internet (Cont.)
• In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA
presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected computers.

• The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same
manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an
interface message processor (IMP).

• The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to one another.

• Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its
own attached host.
Interface Message Processor
 A Brief History of Internet (Cont.)
• By 1969, ARPANET was became reality.
• Four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the
University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to
form a network.
• Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided
communication between the hosts.
• In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core
ARPANET group, collaborated on what they called the Internetting Project.
ARPANET
 A Brief History of Internet (Cont.):
• Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end
delivery of packets.

• This paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as

encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.

• Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking Protocol (lP).

• IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for higher-level
functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection.
 Internet Today
• The internetworking protocol popularly known as TCPIIP.

• It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined

by connecting devices and switching stations.

• It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the

Internet because it is continually changing-new networks are
being added, existing networks are adding addresses, and
networks of defunct companies are being removed.
 Internet Today(Cont. )
• Today most end users who want Internet connection use the
services of Internet service providers (lSPs).

• There are international service providers, national service

providers, regional service providers, and local service
providers.

❑The Internet today is run by private companies, not the

government. Figure 1.13 shows a conceptual (not
geographic) view of the Internet.
Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet
 Internet Service Providers
• At the top of the hierarchy are the international service
providers that connect nations together.
• The national Internet service providers are backbone
networks created and maintained by specialized companies.
• There are many national ISPs operating in North America;
some of the most well known are Sprint Link, PSINet,
UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel.
❑ To provide connectivity between the end users, these
backbone networks are connected by complex switching
stations (normally run by a third party) called network access
points (NAPs).
 Internet Service Providers (Cont.)
❑Some national ISP networks are also connected to
one another by private switching stations called
peering points.
❑These normally operate at a high data rate (up to 600
Mbps).
• Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs
are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more
national ISPs.
• They are at the third level of the hierarchy with a
smaller data rate.
 Internet Service Providers (Cont.)
• Local Internet service providers provide direct service to
the end users.
• The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly
to national ISPs.
• A local ISP can be a company that just provides Internet
services, a corporation with a network that supplies services
to its own employees, or a nonprofit organization, such as a
college or a university, that runs its own network.
 1-4 PROTOCOLS
A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of
rules that govern data communications. It determines what is
communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing
Topics discussed in this section:
▪ Syntax
▪ Semantics
▪ Timing
 Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
• Structure or format of the data meaning the order in which they
are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of
data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
• Semantics
• Interprets the meaning of the bits
• Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
• When data should be sent and with what Speed data should be
sent or speed at which it is being received.
 Standards
• Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto
(meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or
"by regulation").

• De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body

but have been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto
standards.

• De facto standards are often established originally by manufacturers who

seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology.
 Standards (Cont.):
• De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by
an officially recognized body are de jure standards.

• Standards Organizations :

• Standards are developed through the cooperation of

standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
 Standards Organizations :

• International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

• International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE).
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
Network Models
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services available
from the post office.
Topics discussed in this section:
Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
 OSI Model
• The purpose of the OSI model is to facilitate communication
between different systems without requiring changing the logic of
the existing hardware and software.
• The OSI model is for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable (ability of
computer systems or software to exchange or make use of
information) .
• The OSI model is a Layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of computer
systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines
a part of the process of moving information across a network (see
Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
 Layered Architecture

• The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers:

physical (layer 1), data link (layer 2), network (layer 3),
transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6),
and application (layer 7).
• Figure 2.3 shows the layers involved when a message is sent
from device A to device B.
• As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through
many intermediate nodes.
• These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first
three layers of the OSI model.
 Layered Architecture (Cont.)
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services
of the layer just below it.
• Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2
and provides services for layer 4.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine.
• This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of
rules and conventions called protocols.
• The processes on each machine that communicate at a given
layer are called peer-to-peer processes.
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
 Peer-to-Peer Processes
• At the physical layer, communication is direct: In Figure 2.3,
device A sends a stream of bits to device B (through
intermediate nodes).
• At the higher layers, however, communication must move
down through the layers on device A, over to device B, and
then back up through the layers.
• Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to
the message it receives from the layer just above it and
passes the whole package to the layer just below it.
• At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can
be transmitted to the receiving device.
 Peer-to-Peer Processes (Cont.) :
• At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer
by layer, with each process receiving and removing the data
meant for it.
• For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for it, then
passes the rest to layer 3.
• Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it and passes the
rest to layer 4, and so on.
• Each interface defines the information and services a layer
must provide for the layer above it. well-defined interfaces
and layer functions provide modularity to a network.
 Organization of the Layers :

• The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three

subgroups.
• Layers 1, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and network-are the
network support layers; they deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device to another (such as
electrical specifications, physical connections, physical
addressing, and transport timing and reliability).
• Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application-
can be thought of as the user support layers;
 Organization of the Layers (Cont.):
• Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and
ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a
form that the upper layers can use.
• The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in
software. Lower layers are a combination of hardware
and software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly
hardware.
• Figure 2.3 reveals another aspect of data communications in
the OSI model: Encapsulation. A packet (header and data) at
level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The whole
packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so
on.
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer

in the OSI model.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
 Physical Layer :
• The physical layer assists in carrying a bit stream over a
physical medium.
• It also acts as interface with the mechanical and electrical
specifications required for transmission medium.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices can be interfaced between transmission to occur.
• Figure 2.5 shows the position of the physical layer with
respect to the transmission medium and the data link layer.
 Physical Layer (Cont.):
• The physical layer will be concerned with the following:
1) Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: It interfaces
between devices & Transmission medium
2) Representation of bits: It defines the type of encoding ( how 0’s and 1’s
are changed to signals.
3) Data rate: Number of bits send each second or it also defines the
duration of bit.
4) Synchronization of bits: Sender & Receiver must be synchronized at
the bit level.
5) Line configuration: It defines the connection of devices to the
media(Point to Point or Multipoint)
6) Physical topology: It defines how the devices are connected to form a
network (Mesh, Star, Ring, Bus, Hybrid)
7) Transmission mode: It defines the direction of Transmission between
devices( Simplex, Half Duplex, Duplex
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
 Data Link Layer :
• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
transmission facility, to a reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper
layer (network layer).
• Figure 2.6 shows the relationship of the data link layer to the
network and physical layers.
• Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the
following:
• Framing, Physical addressing, Flow control, Error
control, Access control.
1) Framing : The data link layer (DLL) divides the stream of bits
received from the network into manageable data units called frames.
2) Physical addressing : DLL adds a header to the frame to define
sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frames to be send for
outside network, address will be the device address.
3) Flow control : DLL controls the flow control mechanism to avoid
overflow at the receiver ( when there is rate changes at the sender and
receiver)
4) Error control : DLL adds reliability for the physical layer in
detecting and retransmission of lost and damaged frames. Error
control is achieved by adding trailer at the end of the frame.
5) Access control : when devices are connected to the same link, DLL
will control over the link at any given time.
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
 Hop to Hop delivery by DLL

• As the figure shows, communication at the data link layer

occurs between two adjacent nodes.
• To send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made.
• First, the data link layer at A sends a frame to the data link
layer at B (a router).
• Second, the data link layer at B sends a new frame to the
data link layer at E.
• Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new frame to the
data link layer at F.
 Hop to Hop delivery by DLL (Cont.):

• Note that the frames that are exchanged between the three
nodes have different values in the headers.
• The frame from A to B has B as the destination address and
A as the source address.
• The frame from B to E has E as the destination address and
B as the source address.
• The frame from E to F has F as the destination address and E
as the source address.
• The values of the trailers can also be different if error
checking includes the header of the frame.
 Network Layer :
•The network layer is responsible for the source-
to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links).
•Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery
of the packet between two systems on the same
network (links).
•The network layer ensures that each packet gets
from its point of origin to its final destination.
Figure 2.8 Network layer
 Network Layer (Cont.):
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is
usually no need for a network layer.
• However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks (links) with connecting devices between the
networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer
to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
• Figure 2.8 shows the relationship of the network layer to the
data link and transport layers.
• Other responsibilities of the network layer include the
following: Logical addressing, Routing.
1) Logical addressing: Data Link Layer handles the addressing problem
locally. But when packet reaches boundary, we need another
addressing system in differentiating the source and Destination.

The Network Layer adds a header coming from upper layer ,

includes Logical address of the sender and Receiver.

2) Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create

internetworking (network to Network) or Large Networks.

Network Layer routes or switches the packets to their destination.

Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual
packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
 Source-to-destination delivery(End-End):
• The network layer at A sends the packet to the network layer
at B.
• When the packet arrives at router B, the router decides based
on the final destination (F) of the packet.
• As we will see in later chapters, router B uses its routing
table to find that the next hop is router E.
• The network layer at B, therefore, sends the packet to the
network layer at E.
• The network layer at E, in tum, sends the packet to the
network layer at F.
 Transport Layer :
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message.

• A process is an application program running on a host.

Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination
delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.

• It treats each one independently, as though each piece

belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does.
 Transport Layer (Cont.) :
• The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the
whole message arrives intact (not damaged) and in order,
overseeing both error control and flow control at the
source-to-destination level.
• Figure 2.10 shows the relationship of the transport layer to
the network and session layers. Other responsibilities of the
transport layer include the following:
• Service-point addressing, Segmentation and reassembly,
Connection control, Flow control, Error control.
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
1) Service-point addressing : Because of several Tasks on a commuter at
same time EACH process should be added by a service point address
(Port address). Network layer assists in getting each packet to the correct
computer and the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
2) Segmentation and reassembly: Message is divided into transmittable
segments with sequence numbers so that rearranging can be done correctly
and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
3) Connection control: In Connectionless Transport Layer each segment is
treated as individual packet and delivers to the Transport Layer in destination
machine. Connection oriented Transport Layer establishes connection before
transmission of packets and once the packets completes connection is
terminated.
4) Flow control: Here Flow control is performed end to end rather than single
link.
5) Error control: Here error control is performed Process to Process rather than
across single link . Checks for errors and error correction is achieved by
retransmission
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
 Session Layer :
• The services provided by the first three layers (physical,
data link, and network) are not sufficient for some
processes.
• The session layer is the network dialog controller
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.

Dialog control, Synchronization.

1) Dialog control : It allows two systems to enter dialog in allowing

communication to take place either in Half Duplex or Full Duplex mode.

2) Synchronization : It adds a checkpoints or synchronization points to a

stream of data.

e.g., Out of 600 Pages checkpoint kept for every 100 Pages with internal

acknowledgement
Figure 2.12 Session layer
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
 Presentation Layer :
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax
and semantics of the information exchanged between
two systems.
• Figure 2.13 shows the relationship between the
presentation layer and the application and session
layers.
• Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer
include the following:
• Translation, Encryption, Compression.
1) Translation: Presentation Layer at the sender changes the
information from sender dependent format to common format and at
the Receiving PL machine changes back to receiver dependent
format.
2) Encryption : Sender transforms the original information to
another format and sends over the network and Decryption reverse
the process back to original format.
3) Compression: It reduces the number of bits transmitted per
second (BW Saving) e.g., text, Audio & Video
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.117
 Application Layer :
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.

• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as

e-mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information
services.

• Figure 2.14 shows the relationship of the application layer

to the user and the presentation layer.
Figure 2.14 Application layer
 Application Layer (Cont.):

• Specific services provided by the application layer

include the following:
• Network virtual terminal, File transfer, access, and
management, Mail services, Directory services.

• Network virtual terminal:

• File transfer access and management: This Application
allows user to manage, or control files in the remote
computer ( to make changes, read data and to retrieve files
from remote computer for use in the local computer)

• Mail services: This provides a basis for e-mail forwarding

and storage.

• Directory services: This Application provides distributed

database sources and access global information.
 Note

The application layer is responsible

for
providing services to the user.

2.122
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in
the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data
link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE :
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network
interfaces, internetworking, and transport functions
that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model.

• The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer.

• The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, are

represented in TCPIIP by a single layer called the
application layer.
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE :
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, each of which provides a specific functionality.

• The layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively

independent protocols that can be mixed and matched
depending on the needs of the system.

• The term hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is

supported by one or more lower-level protocols.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE :
•At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three
protocols:
•Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
•At the network layer, the main protocol defined
by TCP/IP is the Internetworking Protocol (IP).
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE :

• There are also some other protocols that support data

movement in this layer

• At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not

define any specific protocol.

• It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.

A network in a TCPIIP internetwork can be a local-
area network or a wide-area network.
 Network Layer Protocols :
• At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork
layer), TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol.
• IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP,RARP,
ICMP, and IGMP.
• The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission
mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
• It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort
delivery service.
• The term best effort means that IP provides no error
checking or tracking.
 Network Layer Protocols :
• IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers
and does its best to get a transmission through to its
destination, but with no guarantees.
• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each
of which is transported separately.
• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can
arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility
for reordering datagrams once they arrive at their
destination.
 Network Layer Protocols :

• ARP is used to find the physical address of the node

when its Internet address is known.

• The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

allows a host to discover its Internet address when it
knows only its physical address.
 Network Layer Protocols :
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a
mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems back to the sender.
ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

• The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used

to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a
message to a group of recipients.
 Transport Layer Protocols :
• Traditionally the transport layer was represented in
TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP.
• IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can
deliver a packet from one physical device to another.
• UDP and TCP are transport level protocols
responsible for delivery of a message from a process
(running program) to another process.
• A new transport layer protocol, SCTP-Stream Control
Transmission Protocol, has been devised to meet the
needs of some newer applications.
 Transport Layer Protocols :
• The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two
standard TCPIIP transport protocols.
• It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port
addresses, checksum error control, and length information to
the data from the upper layer.
• The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full
transport-layer services to applications.
• TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream,
in this context, means connection-oriented.
• A connection must be established between both ends of a
transmission before either can transmit data.
 Transport Layer Protocols :
• At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a
stream of data into smaller units called segments.
• Each segment includes a sequence number for
reordering after receipt, together with an
acknowledgment number for the segments received.
• Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP
datagrams.
• At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it
comes in and reorders the transmission based on
sequence numbers.
 Transport Layer Protocols :

• The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

provides support for newer applications such as voice
over the Internet(VoIP).
• It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best
features of UDP and TCP.
 Application Layer Protocols :
• SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• FTP : File Transfer Protocol
• HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
• DNS : Domain Name System
• SNMP : Simple Network Management Protocols
• TELNET : Telecommunication Network.
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:

Physical Address,
Logical Address,
Topics discussed in this section:
Port Address, and
Specific Address.
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Physical Addresses :
•The physical address, is the link address, defined by
its LAN or WAN of the node.

• It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.

It is the lowest-level address.

•The size and format of these addresses vary

depending on the network.
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a

node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a

link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with

physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical

address 87 is the receiver.

Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 Logical Addresses :
• Logical addresses is necessary for universal
communications that are independent of underlying
physical networks.
• Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have
different address formats.
• A universal addressing system is needed in which
each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the
underlying physical network.
 Logical Addresses :
•The logical addresses are designed for this
purpose.
• A logical address on the Internet is currently a 32-
bit address that can uniquely define a host
connected to the Internet.
•No two addressed and visible hosts on the Internet
can have the same IP address.
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting

three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of
addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case,
each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has only
one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So, each router has
three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
 Port Addresses :
• The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a
quantity of data to travel from a source to the destination
host.
• However, arrival at the destination host is not the final
objective of data communications on the Internet.
• A system that sends nothing but data from one computer to
another is not complete.
• Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes
at the same time.
 Port Addresses :
• The end objective of Internet communication is a
process communicating with another process.
• For example, computer A can communicate with
computer C by using TELNET.
• At the same time, computer A communicates with
computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
• For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we
need a method to label the different processes.
 Port Addresses :
•In other words, they need addresses. In the
TCPIIP architecture, the label assigned to a
process is called a port address.

•A port address in TCPIIP is 16 bits in length.

 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The
sending computer is running three processes at this time with port addresses
a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with
port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to
communicate with process j in the receiving computer. Note that although
physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain
the same from the source to destination.
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
 Note

Thephysical addresses will change from

hop to hop, but the logical addresses
usually remain the same.
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
 Specific Addresses :
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that
are designed for that specific address.

• Examples include the e-mail address (for example,

[email protected]) and the Universal Resource
Locator (URL) (for example, www.mhhe.com).

• The first defines the recipient of an e-mail ; the second

is used to find a document on the World Wide Web
Wireless and Mobile
Networks

Computer
Networking: A
Top Down
Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012
Elements of a wireless network

network
infrastructure
Elements of a wireless network

wireless hosts
❖ laptop, smartphone
❖ run applications
❖ may be stationary
(non-mobile) or mobile
network
infrastructure ▪ wireless does not
always mean mobility
Elements of a wireless network
base station
❖ typically connected to
wired network
❖ relay - responsible for
sending packets
between wired network
network and wireless host(s) in
infrastructure its “area”
▪ e.g., cell towers,
802.11 access points
Elements of a wireless network
wireless link
❖ typically used to
connect mobile(s) to
base station
❖ also used as backbone
link
network ❖ multiple access protocol
infrastructure coordinates link access
❖ various data rates,
transmission distance
Characteristics of selected wireless links

200 802.11n

54 802.11a,g 802.11a,g point-to-point

Data rate (Mbps)

5-11 802.11b 4G: LTWE WIMAX

4 3G: UMTS/WCDMA-HSPDA, CDMA2000-1xEVDO

1 802.15

.384 2.5G: UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000

.056 2G: IS-95, CDMA, GSM

Indoor Outdoor Mid-range Long-range

10-30m 50-200m outdoor outdoor
200m – 4 Km 5Km – 20 Km
Elements of a wireless network
infrastructure mode
❖ base station connects
mobiles into wired
network
❖ handoff: mobile
changes base station
network providing connection
infrastructure into wired network
Elements of a wireless network
ad hoc mode
❖ no base stations
❖ nodes can only
transmit to other
nodes within link
coverage
❖ nodes organize
themselves into a
network: route
among themselves
Wireless network taxonomy
single hop multiple hops
host connects to host may have to
infrastructure base station (WiFi, relay through several
(e.g., APs) WiMAX, cellular) wireless nodes to
which connects to connect to larger
larger Internet Internet: mesh net

no base station, no
connection to larger
no no base station, no
Internet. May have to
infrastructure connection to larger
relay to reach other
Internet (Bluetooth,
a given wireless node
ad hoc nets)
MANET,VANET
 Wireless Link Characteristics (1)

important differences from wired link ….

• decreased signal strength: radio signal attenuates as it
propagates through matter (path loss)
• interference from other sources: standardized wireless network
frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz) shared by other devices (e.g.,
phone); devices (motors) interfere as well
• multipath propagation: radio signal reflects off objects ground,
arriving ad destination at slightly different times

…. make communication across (even a point to point) wireless link

much more “difficult”
 Wireless Link Characteristics (2)

• SNR: signal-to-noise ratio 10-1

• larger SNR – easier to extract 10-2

signal from noise (a “good thing”) 10-3

• SNR versus BER tradeoffs

BER
10-4
• given physical layer: increase
10-5
power -> increase SNR->decrease
BER 10-6

• given SNR: choose physical layer 10-7

that meets BER requirement, 10 20
SNR(dB)
30 40

giving highest thruput

• SNR may change with mobility: QAM256 (8 Mbps)

dynamically adapt physical layer QAM16 (4 Mbps)

(modulation technique, rate) BPSK (1 Mbps)

 Wireless network characteristics
Multiple wireless senders and receivers create additional problems
(beyond multiple access):
A B C
C

A’s signal C’s signal

B strength strength
A

Hidden terminal problem

space

❖ B, A hear each other Signal attenuation:

❖ B, C hear each other ❖ B, A hear each other
❖ A, C can not hear each ❖ B, C hear each other
other means A, C unaware ❖ A, C can not hear each
of their interference at B other interfering at B
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
802.11a
802.11b • 5-6 GHz range
• 2.4-5 GHz unlicensed spectrum • up to 54 Mbps
• up to 11 Mbps 802.11g
• 2.4-5 GHz range
• direct sequence spread spectrum • up to 54 Mbps
(DSSS) in physical layer 802.11n: multiple antennae
• all hosts use same chipping code • 2.4-5 GHz range
• up to 200 Mbps

❖ all use CSMA/CA for multiple access

❖ all have base-station and ad-hoc network versions
802.11 LAN architecture
❖ wireless host
communicates with
Internet
base station
▪ base station = access
point (AP)

hub, switch ❖ Basic Service Set (BSS)

or router (aka “cell”) in
infrastructure mode
contains:
BSS 1 ▪ wireless hosts
▪ access point (AP): base
station
▪ ad hoc mode: hosts only
BSS 2
 802.11: Channels, association

• 802.11b: 2.4GHz-2.485GHz spectrum divided into 11 channels at

different frequencies
• AP admin chooses frequency for AP
• interference possible: channel can be same as that chosen by
neighboring AP!
• host: must associate with an AP
• scans channels, listening for beacon frames containing AP’s
name (SSID) and MAC address
• selects AP to associate with
802.11b Channels :
 802.11b Channels :
• 802.11 operates in the frequency range of 2.4 GHz to
2.485 GHz.
• Within this 85 MHz band, 802.11 defines 11 partially
overlapping channels (14 Channels but 3 will not be used).
• Each Channel BW 22MHZ.
• Any two channels are non-overlapping if and only if they
are separated by four or more channels.
• In particular, the set of channels 1, 6, and 11 is the only
set of three non-overlapping channels.
 802.11: passive/active scanning

BBS 1 BBS 2 BBS 1 BBS 2

1 1 1
AP 1 AP 2 2 2 AP 2
2 AP 1
3 3
4
H1
H1

Passive scanning: Active scanning:

(1)Probe Request frame broadcast from H1
(1)beacon frames sent from APs
(2)Probe Response frames sent from APs
(2)association Request frame (3)Association Request frame sent: H1 to
sent: H1 to selected AP selected AP
(3)association Response frame (4)Association Response frame sent from
sent from selected AP to H1 selected AP to H1
Thank You