Protective Devices

Protection for electrical installation must be provided in the event of faults such as
short circuit, overload and earth faults. The protective circuit or device must be fast acting
and isolate the faulty part of the circuit immediately. It also helps in isolating only required
part of the circuit without affecting the remaining circuit during maintenance. The following
devices are usually used to provide the necessary protection:

● Fuses

● Relays

● Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)

● Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)

Fuse

The electrical equipments are designed to carry a particular rated value of current
under normal circumstances. Under abnormal conditions such as short circuit, overload or
any fault the current raises above this value, damaging the equipment and sometimes
resulting in fire hazard. Fuses are pressed into operation under such situations. Fuse is a
safety device used in any electrical installation, which forms the weakest link between the
supply and the load. It is a short length of wire made of lead / tin /alloy of lead and tin/ zinc
having a low melting point and low ohmic losses. Under normal operating conditions it is
designed to carry the full load current. If the current increases beyond this designed value
due any of the reasons mentioned above, the fuse melts (said to be blown) isolating the
power supply from the load as shown in figure 3.8.

Fig.3.8
Characteristics of Fuse Material

The material used for fuse wires must have the following characteristics

⮚ Low melting point

⮚ Low ohmic losses

⮚ High conductivity

⮚ Lower rate of deterioration

Terms Related with Fuses:

⮚ Rated current: It is the maximum current, which a fuse can carry without undue

heating or melting. It depends on the following factors:

a. Permissible temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder and the fuse
material
b. Degree of deterioration due to oxidation.

⮚ Fusing current: The minimum current at which the fuse melts is known as the fusing

current. It depends on the material characteristics, length, diameter, cross-sectional

area of the fuse element and the type of enclosure used.

⮚ Fusing Factor: It is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the rated current. It is

always greater than unity.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):

A miniature circuit breaker is a device that provides definite protection to the wiring
installations and sophisticated equipment against over currents and short circuit faults. It
consists of the following parts:

1. Housing or outer body 2. Contacts

3. Operating mechanism 4. Arc extinguishing chamber

5. Fixing arrangement 6. Mechanical interlocking of multiple MCBs.

i) Overload Conditions:

The bimetallic strip provides the over load protection. When over currents flow
through the bimetallic strip it deflects and in doing so releases the latch mechanism and
causes the contacts to open as shown in figure 3.10(a). Inverse time characteristic results,
i.e., greater the overload or excessive current, shorter the time required to operate the breaker.

ii) Short Circuit Conditions:

When the short circuit occurs, the rising current energizes the solenoid, operating the
plunger to strike the trip lever causing immediate release of the latch mechanism. Rapidity of
the magnetic solenoid operation causes instantaneous opening of contacts as shown in figure
3.10 (a).

Under normal operation the contacts are as shown in figure 3.10 (b)

Fig 3.10(a) Fig 3.10(b)

Applications:

MCBs are available with wide range of current ratings. They have a very short
operating time and as such they are very suitable for the protection of important and
sophisticated equipment such as computers, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
Electric Shock:

An electric shock occurs upon a contact of a human body with any source of voltage
high enough to cause sufficient current flow through the body. The minimum detectable
current in humans is about 1ma. The current, if is sufficiently high may cause tissue damage
leading to death.

Electric shocks are caused due to the following:

1. By accidentally touching faulty appliances or extension leads

2. Due to lightning strike
3. By coming into contact with a high voltage source.

The following precautions should be taken to prevent electric shocks:

1. People should not work on exposed live conductors. If working with exposed live
conductors insulated gloves and tools should be used.
2. Insulated foot wear and standing on wooden platforms or mats can reduce the risk of
shock.
 3. All metal parts of appliances must be earthed.
4. Touching live wire or a switch with a wet skin should be avoided.
5. Cover all electrical sockets with plastic safety caps.
6. Replace all worn out cords and wiring.
7. Never use an electrical appliance near water.

Earthing:
 The potential of the earth is considered to be at zero for all practical purposes as the
generator (supply) neutral is always earthed. The body of any electrical equipment is
connected to the earth by means of a wire of negligible resistance to safely discharge electric
energy, which may be due to failure of the insulation, line coming in contact with the casing
etc. Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment to ZERO i.e. to the earth’s
potential, thus protecting the operating personnel against electrical shock. The body of the
electrical equipment is not connected to the supply neutral because due to long transmission
lines and intermediate substations, the same neutral wire of the generator will not be available
at the load end. Even if the same neutral wire is running it will have a self-resistance, which
is higher than the human body resistance. Hence, the body of the electrical equipment is
connected to earth only.

Thus earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth with a very low
resistance wire, making it to attain earth’s potential. The wire is usually connected to a
copper plate placed at a depth of 2.5m to 3m from the ground level.

The earth resistance is affected by the following factors:

1. Material properties of the earth wire and the electrode

2. Temperature and moisture content of the soil
3. Depth of the pit
4. Quantity of the charcoal used
The importance of earthing is illustrated in the figures 3.11 (a), 3.11 (b) and 3.11(c):

Fig 3.11 (a)

When the supply switch S is closed in Case I current flows only through the healthy
apparatus. No current flows through the person and does not experience a shock.
 Fig 3.11 (b)

When the supply switch S is closed in Case II with defective insulation and apparatus not
earthed, a part of the current flows through the body and the person experiences electrical
shock.

Fig 3.11 (c)

When the supply switch S is closed in Case III with defective insulation and apparatus being
earthed though a small part of the current flows through the body the person will not
experience a shock.

Necessity of Earthing:

1. To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they come in contact
with the charged frame due to defective insulation.
2. To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
3. Protection of the equipments
4. Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines against
lightning.

Methods of Earthing:

The important methods of earthing are the plate earthing and the pipe earthing. The earth
resistance for copper wire is 1 ohm and that of G I wire less than 3 ohms. The earth resistance
should be kept as low as possible so that the neutral of any electrical system, which is
earthed, is maintained almost at the earth potential. The typical value of the earth resistance at
powerhouse is 0. 5 ohm and that at substation is 1 ohm.

1. Plate earthing
2. Pipe earthing

Plate Earthing

In this method a copper plate of 60cm x 60cm x 3.18cm or a GI plate of the size 60cm x
60cm x 6.35cm is used for earthing. The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at
a depth of 3m and is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15 cm.
In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth electrode resistance value well below a
maximum of 5 ohms. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate. A cement masonry
chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance. The details are as
shown in figure 3.12.
 Fig 3.12

Pipe Earthing

Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized) iron pipe of 38mm in diameter and length
of 2m (depending on the current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a
depth of 4.75m in a permanently wet ground. To keep the value of the earth resistance at the
desired level, the area (15 cms) surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and
coal.. The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the funnel
periodically. The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run through a 12.7mm
diameter pipe (at 60cms below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top
as shown in the figure 3.13.

Fig 3.13
When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system can carry larger leakage
currents as a much larger surface area is in contact with the soil for a given electrode size.
The system also enables easy maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at the
ground level.

Introduction to Electric Vehicles:

Overview and block diagram approach to EV: Refer to the following link from time 2.54
mins to 9.10 mins

youtube.com/watch?v=OhmxUVTf6gI