Biol 251 Learning Outcome Chapter 06

Bone Tissue
Instructor- Rebecca Zaman
Spring-2017

Introduction-The skeletal system has 6 important functions: Provide support by

acting as a structural framework and a point of attachment for tendons and
ligaments.Protect the internal organs (brain, chest, etc.).Assist body movements
(in conjunction with muscles).Store and release salts of calcium and
phosphorus.Participate in blood cell production (hematopoiesis).Store
triglycerides in adipose cells of yellow marrow.

Tissues of the Skeletal System-Bone is a dynamic tissue – it is always remodeling

(building up and breaking down).Like all organ systems (and as part of the even
larger musculoskeletal organ system), the skeletal system is made of several
different tissues.

The two major tissues are bone (osseous tissue) and cartilage. Bone is a highly
vascularized C.T. with a hard, mineralized extracellular matrix. It is found in the
body in two different arrangements:Compact bone – most of the bone in this
graphic is compact bone.Spongy bone is seen as the less organized tissue along
the left margin (with the spicules).

Compact bone is good at providing protection and support.It forms the diaphysis
of long bones, and the external layer of all bones.

Spongy bone is lightweight and provides tissue support .It forms much of the
epiphysis and the internal cavity of long bones.

Cartilage is a poorly vascularized C.T. with a matrix composed of chondroitin

sulfate and various fibers.Fiber types distinguish hyaline cartilage from
fibrocartilage or elastic cartilage.

Articular cartilage is the thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphysis of
long bones.Articular cartilage is found where the bone forms an articular (joint)
surface -where one bone moves against another bone.

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The periosteum is a tough sheath of dense, irregular connective tissue on the
outside of the bone.It contains osteoblasts that help the bone grow in
thickness,but not in length.It also assists with fracture repai and serves as an
attachment point for tendons and ligaments.

Structure of Bone-The medullary cavity is a space within the diaphysis of long

bones that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.

The endosteum is a membrane that lines the medullary cavity .The endosteum is
composed of osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and connective tissue.

Tissues of the Skeletal System-

The perichondrium is a dense irregular connective tissue membrane that

surrounds cartilage.

Chondrocytes are cells that form cartilage.As we will soon see, many of the major
bones are formed from cartilage (the remainder do not go through a
cartilaginous stage.)

Osteoblasts are bone building cells: They synthesize and secrete collagen fibers
and other organic components.

Osteocytes are mature osteoblasts (maintenance).

Osteoclasts are large bone breakdown cells.As white blood cells, osteoclasts
migrated from the bonemarrow to become “fixed macrophages” in the substance
of the bone.

Besides bone and cartilage, the skeletal system contains other important tissues:

Epithelium (endothelium) form the capillary walls.Nerves (the periosteum is

especially tender).Red marrow – hematopoiesis .Yellow marrow – fat storage.

Chemical Constituents of Bone-Bone is 25% water, 25% organic proteins, 50%

mineral salts (hydroxyapatite crystals).

Organic constituents-Collagen fibers provide flexibility and tensile strength.

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Inorganic hydroxyapatite crystals (mineral salts)-Calcium Phosphate
(Ca3PO4)2,Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3 – marble) ,Other trace elements:
magnesium, fluoride, sulfate.

Bone Structure-The diaphysis is the shaft or body of a long bone.

The epiphyses form the distal and proximal ends of a long bone.

The metaphyses are the areas where the epiphyses and diaphysis join.

In adolescents, through the end of active growth, the epiphysis of the long bones
contains hyalinecartilage and forms an “epiphyseal growth plate”. The growth
plate is always actively dividing and causing the bone to elongate from each end.

In adults, the epiphyseal cartilage is no longer present and elongation of bones

has stopped. The epiphyseal growth plate becomes an “epiphyseal line”, as
growing cartilage is replaced by calcified bone. The epiphyseal line is visible
externally and on X-rays.

Histology of Bone Tissue-Compact Bone contains units called osteons or

Haversian systems formed from concentric lamellae (rings of calcified matrix).

Interstitial lamellae between osteons are left over fragments of older osteons.

Outer circumferential lamellae encircle the bone beneath the periosteum.

Inner circumferential lamellae encircle the medullary cavity.

Lacunae are small spaces between the lamellae which house osteocytes.

Canaliculi are small channels filled with extracellular fluid connecting the
lacunae.Blood and lymphatic vessels are found in the osteon’s Central canal.

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals allow transit of these vessels to the outer cortex
of the bone.

Spongy bone lacks osteons. Instead, lamellae are arranged in a lattice of thin
columns called trabeculae.Trabeculae of spongy bone support and protect the
red bone marrow and are oriented along lines of stress (helps bones resist

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stresses without breaking).Hematopoiesis (blood cell production) occurs in
spongy bone.

Within each trabecula of spongy bone are lacunae .As in compact bone, lacunae
contain osteocytes that nourish the mature bone tissue from the blood circulating
through the trabeculae.The interior of long bones is made up primarily of spongy
bone. The use of spongy bone lessens overall bone weight.

Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone-Bone is richly supplied with blood; Periosteal
arteries and veins supply the periosteum and compact bone.

Nerves accompany the blood vessels (this is often the case.)The periosteum is rich
in sensory nerves sensitive to tearing or tension (as anyonewho has bruised their
shin will tell you!)

Bone Formation-Ossification or osteogenesis is the process of forming new bone.

Bone formation occurs in four situations:Formation of bone in an embryo.Growth
of bones until adulthood.Remodeling of bone.

Repair of fractures-Osteogenesis occurs by two different methods, beginning

about the 6th week of embryonic development.

Intra-membranous ossification produces spongy bone.This bone may

subsequently be remodeled to form compact bone.

Endochondral ossification is a process whereby cartilage is replaced by

bone.Forms both compact and spongy bone.

Intra-membranous ossification is the simpler of the two methods.It is used in

forming the flat bones of the skull, mandible, and clavicle.Bone forms from
mesenchymal cells that develop within a membrane – without going through a
cartilage stage (recall that mesenchyme is the tissue from which almost all other
C.T. develop.)Many ossification centers.

Endochondral ossification is the method used in the formation of most bones,

especially long bones.It involves replacement of cartilage by bone.There are one
primary and two secondary centers of growth.

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Ossification contributing to bone length is usually complete by 18-21 years of age.

Bones can still continue to thicken and are capable of repair even after the
epiphyseal growth plates have closed.

Human growth hormone is one of the body’s many anabolic hormones. Among
other things, its secretion will stimulate bone growth, muscle growth, loss of fat,
and increased glucose output in the liver.The use of growth hormone has been
increasing in popularity among athletes due to the numerous “benefits”
associated with its use; side effects are often not thought of when young athletes
use these drugs.

Bone Growth and Remodeling-A balance must exist between the actions of
osteoclasts and osteoblasts.If too much new tissue is formed, the bones become
abnormally thick and heavy (acromegaly).Excessive loss of calcium weakens the
bones, as occurs in osteoporosis.They may also become too “soft”, as seen in the
bone diseases rickets and osteomalacia.

Normal bone metabolism depends on several factors:

Minerals are an essential component.Large amounts of calcium and phosphorus

and smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride, and manganese are required for
bone growth and remodeling.

Vitamins are also necessary for normal bone metabolism:Vitamin A stimulates

activity of osteoblasts.Vitamin C is needed for synthesis of collagen.Vitamin D is
essential to healthy bones because it promotes the absorption of calcium from
foods in the gastrointestinal tract into the blood.Vitamins K and B12 are needed
for synthesis of bone proteins.

Hormones are key contributors to normal bone metabolism. During childhood,

the hormones most important to bone growth are human growth hormone (hGH)
and growth factors called IGFs (produced by the liver). Both stimulate osteoblasts,
promote cell division at the epiphyseal plate, and enhance protein synthesis.

Thyroid hormones and insulin also promote bone growth by stimulating

osteoblasts and protein synthesis.The sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone)
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cause a dramatic effect on bone growth, such as the sudden “growth spurt” that
occurs during the teenage years.The sex hormones also promote widening of the
pelvis in the female skeleton.They are also responsible for closing the epiphyseal
plates at the end of puberty.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin are critical for balancing the levels of
calcium and phosphorus between blood and bone.

Maintaining a normal serum Ca2+ level takes precedence over mineralizing bone.

Calcium Homeostasis-Day to day control of calcium regulation mainly involves:

PTH stimulates osteoclastic activity and raises serum calcium level.

Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin), and to a lesser extent hGH and the sex hormones,
stimulate osteoblastic activity and lower serum calcium level.

Vitamin D is needed for absorption of the Ca2+ and PO4– ions from the small
intestine, and reabsorption of those same ions in the kidneys.

Fracture and Repair-The naming of fractures can be confusing because of the

many different criteria that are used.

Some schemes describe the anatomical appearance of the fracture:

Partial, complete (fx is all the way through the bone), closed (simple), open (fx
punctures the skin), “Green stick” (a small linear break in the bone cortex),
impacted, comminuted, spiral, transverse, displaced

Other fractures are classified by the disease or mechanism which produced the
fracture.Pathological fracture (usually from a cancerous process or severe chronic
disease), compression fracture (produced by extreme forces such as in trauma)

Stress fracture (produced from repeated strenuous activities such as running)

Still other fractures describe a common pattern of injury, often involving more
than one bone, and usually denoted by an eponym (someone’s name):

Colles’ fracture of the distal radius.Pott’s fracture of the distal fibula.

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Once a bone is fractured, repair proceeds in a predictable pattern:

The first step, which occurs 6-8 hours after injury, is the formation of a fracture
hematoma as a result of blood vessels breaking in the periosteum and in
osteons.

The second and third steps involve the formation of a callus (takes a few weeks,
to as many as six months).Phagocytes remove cellular debris and fibroblasts
deposit collagen to form a fibro-cartilaginous callus...which is followed by
osteoblasts forming a bony callus of spongy bone.

The final step takes several months and is called remodeling :Spongy bone is
replaced by compact bone.The fracture line disappears, but evidence of the
break remains.

Exercise and Bone Tissue-Under mechanical stress, bone tissue becomes stronger
through deposition of mineral salts and production of collagen fibers by
osteoblasts. Unstressed bones, on the other hand, become weaker.Astronauts in
space suffer rapid loss of bone density.

The main mechanical stresses on bone are those that result from the pull of
skeletal muscles and the pull of gravity (weight-bearing activities).

Aging and Bone Tissue-A decrease in bone mass occurs as the level of sex
hormones diminishes during middle age (especially in women after menopause).

Bone resorption by osteoclasts outpaces bone deposition by osteoblasts.Since

female bones are generally smaller and less massive than males to begin with, old
age has a greater adverse effect in females.

There are two principal effects of aging on bone tissue:Loss of bone massThe loss
of calcium from bones is one of the symptoms in osteoporosis.Brittleness-
Collagen fibers give bone its tensile strength, and protein synthesis decreases
with age. The loss of tensile strength causes the bones to become very brittle and
susceptible to fracture. Osteoporosis is a condition where bone resorption
outpaces bone deposition Often due to depletion of calcium from the body or
inadequate intake.
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