In tr o d u c tio n

to th e R e v is e d E d itio n

T h is b o o k is n o t th e o re tic a l. It is a c o lle c tio n o f p ra c tic a l id e a s a n d te c h ­

n iq u e s w h ic h y o u c a n u se im m e d ia te ly to m a k e y o u r o w n te a c h in g m o re
e ffe c tiv e , a n d m o re e n jo y a b le fo r y o u rs e lf a n d y o u r stu d e n ts . T h e b o o k is
n o t b a s e d o n a m e th o d o r a n a p p ro a c h . W e d o n o t b e lie v e th a t th e re is o n e
w a y o f te a c h in g w e ll. A ll th e s u g g e s tio n s a re b a s e d o n o u r e x p e rie n c e o f
te a c h e rs te a c h in g . Id e a s a re in c lu d e d b e c a u s e w e h a v e se e n th a t th e y w o rk
fo r a w id e ra n g e o f te a c h e rs in m a n y d if fe re n t situ a tio n s.
T e a c h in g situ a tio n s a re d if fe re n t. Y o u m a y , f o r e x a m p le , h a v e to p re p a re
s tu d e n ts fo r a p a rtic u la r e x a m in a tio n s o th a t s o m e tim e m u s t b e sp e n t o n
e x a m in a tio n te c h n iq u e s . A ll te a c h e rs c o m p la in th a t th e y d o n o t h a v e
e n o u g h tim e to d o a ll th e th in g s th e y w o u ld lik e to d o . S o m e c o m p ro m is e s
b e tw e e n w h a t y o u w o u ld lik e to d o , w h a t y o u r s tu d e n ts n e e d , a n d th e
re q u ire m e n ts o f th e situ a tio n , a re in e v ita b le .
In th e s e c irc u m s ta n c e s th e re a re tw o g u id in g p rin c ip le s w h ic h s h o u ld
in flu e n c e y o u r d e c is io n s : th a t la n g u a g e te a c h in g is o n ly a n a id to la n g u a g e
le a rn in g , a n d th a t it is th o s e th in g s w h ic h h e lp th e s tu d e n ts to im p ro v e w h ic h
a re o f p a rtic u la r im p o rta n c e ; a n d s e c o n d ly th a t la n g u a g e is firs t a n d fo r e ­
m o s t c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h o s e a c tiv itie s w h ic h m e a n s tu d e n ts c a n u se th e la n ­
g u a g e , a n d c o m m u n ic a te b e tte r, a re to b e e n c o u ra g e d a t th e e x p e n s e o f
a c tiv itie s w h ic h w ill o n ly m e a n th a t s tu d e n ts “ k n o w ” th e la n g u a g e .
T h e firs t tw o c h a p te rs o f th e b o o k d o p ro v id e a m o re g e n e ra l fra m e w o rk
fo r th e sp e c ific tip s w h ic h fo llo w . E v e n th e s e g e n e ra l p rin c ip le s , h o w e v e r,
a re p ra c tic a l ra th e r th a n th e o re tic a l. Y o u a re e n c o u ra g e d n o t o n ly to re a d
th e tip s , b u t to try th e id e a s th e y su g g e s t. W e h o p e m o s t w ill w o rk fo r y o u ,
b u t s o m e m a y n o t, a n d s o m e w ill n e e d to b e m o d ifie d fo r y o u a n d y o u r s it­
u a tio n .
T h e b o o k is e s s e n tia lly o n e o f te c h n iq u e s , a p p lic a b le to d iffe re n t s itu a ­
tio n s a n d a ls o to d iffe re n t m a te ria l. A n y s e le c tio n o f te x tb o o k m a te ria ls w e
c o u ld m a k e w o u ld b e in d a n g e r o f b e in g s itu a tio n -s p e c ific , o r b a s e d o n
a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t te x t-b o o k s w h ic h a re w id e ly a v a ila b le a t th e m o m e n t o f
w ritin g . W e b e lie v e in itia l te a c h e r tra in in g c o u rs e s s h o u ld in c lu d e an e le ­
m e n t w h ic h s h o w s s tu d e n ts h o w to d e v e lo p le s so n p la n s ro u n d p u b lis h e d
m a te ria ls , b u t in o u r e x p e rie n c e c o u rs e tu to rs a lm o s t a lw a y s p re fe r to u se
c o n te m p o ra ry o r lo c a l m a te ria ls in d e v e lo p in g th e s e le s s o n p la n s. F o r th is
re a s o n , w e h a v e n o t in c lu d e d a c h a p te r o n sp e c ific m a te ria ls .
In re v is in g th is b o o k fo r its s e c o n d e d itio n , w e c o n s u lte d m a n y c o u rs e
tu to rs , a n d o th e rs w ith e x p e rie n c e in th e te a c h e r tra in in g fie ld . W e w e re
d e lig h te d to d is c o v e r th a t th e y w e re h a p p y w ith th e e x is tin g te x t. T h e m a in
c h a n g e in th e n e w e d itio n , th e re fo re , is th e a d d itio n o f p o in ts w h ic h w e fe lt
d e s e rv e d m o re e m p h a s is . In o n e o r tw o c a se s — s p e c ific a lly in c re a s e d
e m p h a s is o n re c e p tiv e sk ills a n d c o llo c a tio n — th e re -e m p h a s is m a rk s th e
d e v e lo p m e n t in o u r o w n th in k in g s in c e th e firs t e d itio n a p p e a re d .
F e w te a c h e rs , h o w e v e r lo n g th e y h a v e b e e n te a c h in g , a re d o in g th in g s as
w e ll a s th e y p o s s ib ly c o u ld . T h e re is a lm o s t a lw a y s a n o p p o rtu n ity fo r n e w
id e a s , a ttitu d e s a n d te c h n iq u e s . W e h o p e th is b o o k w ill e n c o u ra g e re a d e rs
to try a n y id e a s w h ic h a re n e w , a n d so to d e v e lo p th e ir te a c h in g , a n d in tu rn
th e ir s tu d e n ts ’ le a rn in g .

M ic h a e l L e w is, Jim m ie H ill, H o v e 1992.

C o n te n ts
1 . B a sic P r in c ip le s 1 — S tu d e n t a n d T ea ch er 7
1. L e a rn in g is m o re im p o rta n t th a n te a c h in g .
2. T e a c h th e stu d e n ts , n o t th e b o o k .
3. In v o lv e s tu d e n ts in th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss .
4. D o n ’t te ll s tu d e n ts w h a t th e y c a n te ll y o u.
5. S h o w y o u r re a c tio n s to w h a t stu d e n ts say .
6. S tu d e n ts n e e d p ra c tic e , n o t y o u .
7. D o n ’t e m p h a s is e d iffic u ltie s.
8. V a ry w h a t y o u d o , a n d h o w y o u d o it.
9. S e le c t!
10. A c tiv itie s a n d re la tio n s h ip s in th e c la s s ro o m c h a n g e .
11. S tu d e n ts n e e d to le a rn h o w to le a rn .
12. U se fu l a n d fu n is b e tte r th a n e ith e r a lo n e .
13. W e a ll le a rn b e s t w h e n w e a re re la x e d .
14. S tu d e n ts c a n b e sile n t b u t still in v o lv e d

2 . B a s ic P r in c ip le s 2 — L a n g u a g e a n d L a n g u a g e L e a r n in g 21
1. L a n g u a g e te a c h in g is te a c h in g la n g u a g e .
2. L a n g u a g e s a re d iffe re n t.
3. L a n g u a g e is w h a t, h o w a n d w h y .
4. ‘L e v e l’ is a c o m p le x id ea.
5. K n o w in g th e la n g u a g e is n o t e n o u g h .
6. N a tu ra l la n g u a g e h a s a p la c e in a ll c o u rs e s.
7. M o s t la n g u a g e s k ills c a n b e d iv id e d in to s u b -sk ills.
8. H e a r, sp e a k , re a d , w rite is a g o o d se q u e n c e .
9. L a n g u a g e le a rn in g is c y c lic a l.
10 . L a n g u a g e is u s e d fo r d if fe re n t p u rp o s e s in th e c la s sro o m .
1 1. D o n o t b e a fra id o f th e s tu d e n ts ’ m o th e r to n g u e .
12. M o to r sk ills n e e d p ra c tic e .
13. D is tin g u is h c le a rly b e tw e e n a c c u ra c y a n d flu e n c y p ra c tic e s.
14. In te re s tin g c o m m u n ic a tiv e ta s k s in c re a se m o tiv a tio n .
15. Y o u le a m to s p e a k b y liste n in g .

3 . C la s sr o o m M a n a g e m e n t a n d G e n e r a l T ip s 39
1. A rra n g e th e se a tin g to h e lp .
2. S ta n d u p w h e n y o u ’re d ire c tin g a c tiv ity .
3. L o o k a t th e stu d e n ts.
4. U se y o u r h a n d s to e n c o u ra g e a n d d ir e c t stu d e n ts .
5. U s e th e b a c k o f y o u r h a n d to p o in t.
6. U se p a u s e s to p u n c tu a te w h a t y o u say .
7. V a ry y o u r v o ic e .
8. K e e p y o u r la n g u a g e to a m in im u m w h e n stu d e n ts a re d o in g so m e th in g .
9. D o n ’t c o m m e n ta te .
10. D o n ’t b e a fra id o f sile n c e .
11. D o n ’t b e a fra id o f n o is e .
12. U se p a ir w o rk to in c re a se stu d e n t ta lk in g tim e e v e n i f it s e e m s c h a o s.
13. U se g ro u p w o rk to in c re a s e s tu d e n t ta lk in g tim e .
14. B e e x p lic it.
15 . D o n ’t a sk “ D o y o u u n d e rs ta n d ” .
1 6. D o n ’t g o ‘ro u n d th e c la s s ’ i f in d iv id u a ls c a n p re p a re p a rtic u la r e x a m ­
p le s.
17 . A d m it y o u r ig n o ra n c e .
18. C o n s u lt c o lle a g u e s .
19. C o n s u lt stu d e n ts.
20. D e m o n s tra te , ra th e r th a n e x p la in , n e w a c tiv itie s .
21. E x p lo it re a l e v e n ts .
22. D iv id e th e b la c k b o a rd .
23. U se th e o v e rh e a d p ro je c to r to c o n tro l w h a t s tu d e n ts see.
24. M a c h in e ry w ill n o t s o lv e a ll y o u r p ro b le m s .
25. E x p a n d , d o n ’t c lu tte r.

4 . P r e p a r a tio n 55
1. P re p a re y o u rs e lf.
2. C o u rs e s a n d le s s o n s n e e d a n o v e ra ll stru c tu re .
3. D o n ’t le t th e b o o k d ic ta te .
4. D o n o t p re p a re to o m u c h o r to o rig id ly .
5. P re p a ra tio n m u s t b e c o n c re te .
6. A id s a re o n ly a id s if th e y h e lp .
7. N e v e r ig n o re th e p ra c tic a l d iffic u ltie s .
8. A g o o d le s so n h a s a b e g in n in g , a m id d le a n d a n e n d .

5 . T e c h n iq u e s — L is te n in g 61
1. L is te n in g c a n b e d iv id e d in to su b -sk ills .
2. D ire c t s tu d e n ts ’ lis te n in g , p a rtic u la rly if it is ta p e d .
3. L is te n in g to a ta p e is d if fic u lt.
4. L e t s tu d e n ts h e a r “ th e re a l th in g ” fro m e a rly in th e ir c o u rs e .
5. M a k e su re s tu d e n ts c a n h e a r th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n s im ila r so u n d s .
6. U s e a v a rie ty o f ‘lis te n a n d r e s p o n d ’ a c tiv itie s .

6 . T e c h n iq u e s — S p e e c h w o r k 65
1. D o n o t d is to rt w h e n g iv in g a m o d e l.
2. T h e m o d e l m u s t re m a in th e sa m e .
3. U s e c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n .
4. C o n d u c t c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n d e c is iv e ly .
5. M o v e a ro u n d th e ro o m w h e n d o in g c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n .
6. K e e p y o u r la n g u a g e to a m in im u m in p ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e s .
7. V a ry y o u r c rite rio n o f “ g o o d ” in p ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e .
8. A rtic u la tio n is a n im p o rta n t firs t s te p in p ra c tic e .
9. It is h e lp fu l to d o a rtic u la tio n p ra c tic e s m o re th a n o n c e .
10. B rin g v a rie ty to ‘sa y a fte r m e .
11. S o m e th in g w h ic h is n o t a re a l w o rd s o m e tim e s h e lp s.
12. T h e re is n o s u c h th in g as th e ‘c -h s o u n d ’.
13. T h e m a in c rite ria f o r p ro n u n c ia tio n a re c o n s is te n c y a n d in te llig ib ility .
14. T e a c h in to n a tio n b y b a c k -c h a in in g .
15. D o n ’t e x p la in in to n a tio n , d e m o n s tra te .
16. S h o w stre ss , p itc h a n d in to n a tio n v is u a lly .
17. R e fe r to s tre s s a n d in to n a tio n e v e n w h e n n o t s p e c ific a lly te a c h in g it.

7 . T e c h n iq u e s — S tr u c tu r e 75
1. E n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts to se e p a tte rn s.
2. G o o d ru le s c a n h e lp stu d e n ts .
3. U n d e rs ta n d in g in v o lv e s e x a m p le , e x p la n a tio n , a n d p ra c tic e .
4. T e rm in o lo g y c a n h e lp o r h in d e r.
5. F illin g in a fill-in e x e rc is e is n o t e n o u g h .
6. S tu d e n ts n e e d to p ra c tis e fo rm a s w e ll a s u se .
7. T h e re is a p la c e f o r o ra l a n d w ritte n p ra c tic e s.
8. U s e ‘g im m ic k s ’ to c o m b a t p o p u la r m is ta k e s .
9. U s e b e e h iv e s w ith la rg e c la s s e s .
10. M o s t la n g u a g e g a m e s a re s tru c tu re p ra c tic e s.
11. F re e situ a tio n s a re im p o rta n t.
12. G ra m m a r c a n b e fu n .
13. G ra m m a r is a re c e p tiv e sk ill, to o .
14. T e a c h w o rd g ra m m a r a s w e ll a s s e n te n c e g ra m m a r.

8 . T e c h n iq u e s — C o r r e c tio n 89
1. M is ta k e s a re a n a tu ra l p a rt o f th e le a rn in g p ro c e s s .
2. G iv e stu d e n ts th e c h a n c e to c o rre c t th e m se lv e s.
3. In v o lv e th e c la ss.
4. Is o la te th e p ro b le m .
5. T h e stu d e n t m u s t u se th e c o rre c t la n g u a g e .
6. T h e re a re m a n y k in d s o f m is ta k e s.
7. C o rre c tin g re g is te r a n d a p p ro p ria c y n e e d s ta ct.
8. C o rre c t p ro m p tly fo r a c c u ra c y , a fte rw a rd s fo r flu e n c y .
9. D o n ’t o v e r-c o rre c t.
10. R e fo rm u la tio n is o fte n b e tte r th a n c o rre c tio n .
11. U se a c o d e to c o rre c t w ritte n w o rk .
12. U se c la s s d is c u s s io n a s a b a s ic m e th o d o f c o rre c tin g w ritte n w o rk .

9 . T e c h n iq u es — V o ca b u la ry 97
1. A ‘v o c a b u la r y ’ ite m c a n b e m o re th a n o n e w o rd .
2. D o n o t d is c u s s th e s tru c tu re o f le x ic a l ite m s.
3. T h e re is a d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n a c tiv e a n d p a s s iv e v o c a b u la ry .
4. E x p la in d if fe re n c e o f m e a n in g , n o t m e a n in g .
5. W o rd s a re o fte n b e s t ta u g h t in g ro u p s .
6. V a ry th e w a y y o u e x p la in .
7. W o rd s c a n lin k g ra m m a tic a lly a s w e ll a s th e m a tic a lly .
8. R e c o rd w o rd s to g e th e r w h ic h o c c u r to g e th e r.

1 0 . T e c h n iq u e s — T ex ts 105
1. D iffe re n t te x ts h a v e d if fe re n t u se s.
2. T o o m a n y n e w w o rd s m a k e a te x t im p o ssib le .
3. N o th in g is ‘in te re s tin g ’ i f y o u c a n ’t d o it.
4. U se p re -a c tiv itie s to fo c u s s tu d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n .
5. D is tin g u is h b e tw e e n in te n s iv e a n d e x te n s iv e re a d in g .
6. D o n o t a sk s tu d e n ts to re a d a lo u d u n se e n .
7. V a ry th e m e th o d o f re a d in g .
8. U se sh o rt q u e s tio n s d u rin g in te n siv e re a d in g .
9. D o n ’t a s k “ W h a t d o e s ... m e a n ? ” , u se d e fin itio n q u e stio n s.
10 . S tu d e n ts c a n n o t u s e w h a t th e y c a n n o t say .
11. ‘D iff ic u lt’ w o rd s a re n o t th e sa m e a s lo n g w o rd s.
12. ‘C o rre c tio n q u e s tio n s ’ p ro m p t stu d e n t la n g u a g e .
13. N o t all c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s c h e c k u n d e rs ta n d in g .
14. U se c o m p re h e n s io n a n d c o n v e rs a tio n q u e s tio n s to g e th e r.
15. I f y o u re a d a d ia lo g u e , d is tin g u is h th e tw o s p e a k e rs c le a rly .

11. T e c h n iq u e s — C o n v e r s a tio n 117

1. E x p lo it o p p o rtu n itie s fo r sh o rt sp o n ta n e o u s c o n v e rs a tio n s .
2. D o n ’t flo g a d e a d h o rse .
3. E n c o u ra g e c o n tr ib u tio n s w ith o u t in te rfe rin g .
4. C o n v e rs a tio n d o e s n o t n e e d to b e a b o u t s e rio u s issu e s.
5. P ro v o c a tiv e sta te m e n ts a re o fte n b e tte r th a n q u e stio n s.
6. P ro b le m so lv in g is o fte n a n e x c e lle n t b a s is fo r ‘c o n v e rs a tio n ’.
7. E n c o u ra g e a c tiv e liste n in g .

1 2. S o m e m isu n d e r s to o d la n g u a g e p o in ts 1 23
1. S o m e /a n y
2. ‘T h e F u tu r e ’
3. C o n tin u o u s fo rm s
4. G o -w e n t-g o n e
5. C o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n ta b le n o u n s
6. C a n /c o u ld
7. M u s t/h a v e to
8. T ag s
9. A u x ilia rie s
10 . (d o ) as th e d u m m y a u x ilia ry
C h a p ter 1

B a sic P r in c ip le s 1 —
S tu d e n t a n d T e a c h e r

B e fo re y o u re a d th is c h a p te r th in k a b o u t e a c h o f th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts .
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. L e s s o n s s h o u ld b e p la n n e d a n d tim e d carefully.

2. S o m e tim e s th e te x tb o o k s to p s y o u te a c h in g well.

3. L a n g u a g e te a c h in g is p a rtly a b o u t te a c h in g s tu d e n ts h o w to le a rn a lan g u ag e.

4. If s tu d e n ts h a v e d iffic u lty it’s u su a lly b e s t fo r th e te a c h e r to e x p la in a n d m o v e o n .

5. T h e te a c h e r s h o u ld n o t b e ta lk in g f o r m o r e th a n 2 0 % o f th e le s so n tim e.

6 . E n g lis h is a difficu lt, illogical la n g u a g e .

7 .1 te a c h e a c h u n it o f th e b o o k in th e s a m e way.

8 . 1 n e v e r sit d o w n d u rin g m y le sso n s.

9 . 1 alw ays e x p la in w h a t I’m g o in g to d o b e fo re I d o it.

1 0 .1 d o n ’t w o rry if I d o n ’t fo llo w m y le s so n p la n , p ro v id in g th e s tu d e n ts e n jo y it.

A fte r y o u h av e re a d th e c h a p te r d o th e s a m e thing. H a s re a d in g th e c h a p te r c la rifie d y o u r id e a s ?

H a v e y o u c h a n g e d y o iir id e a s ?
B a s ic P r in c ip le s 1
S tu d e n t a n d T e a c h e r

1. L e a r n in g is m o r e im p o r ta n t th a n te a c h in g

T h e c o n sc ie n tio u s te a c h e r is c o n c e rn e d to te a c h well. Y ou w o u ld n o t b e
re a d in g th is b o o k u n le s s y o u r in te n tio n w as to im p ro v e y o u r o w n te a c h in g
a n d a k n o w le d g e o f th e o ry a n d te c h n iq u e c a n h e lp to m a k e y o u m o re e ffe c ­
tive a n d m o re efficien t. T h e sin g le m o s t im p o rta n t fa c to r to re m e m b e r,
h o w e ver, is th a t te a c h in g is n o t th e te rm in a l o b je c tiv e o f w h a t h a p p e n s in th e
c la s sro o m . In th e e n d , it is c h a n g e s in th e s tu d e n ts ’ b e h a v io u r u p o n w h ich
su c c ess a n d fa ilu re d e p e n d .
T h e u ltim a te te s t o f “a g o o d le s s o n ” is n o t h o w th e te a c h e r p e rfo rm e d b u t
w h e th e r th e s tu d e n ts le a rn e d . T e a c h e rs w h o a re c o n sta n tly p re -o c c u p ie d by
th e ir o w n ro le — w h a t th e y sh o u ld b e d o in g , a n d w h a t th e ir s tu d e n ts th in k o f
th e m — a re m a k in g a se rio u s m ista k e. T h e m o s t im p o rta n t ro le o f th e te a c h e r
is th a t o f c a ta ly st — th e y h e lp to m a k e th in g s h a p p e n , b u t th e p u rp o s e is
a c tiv a tin g th e stu d e n ts.
S o m e te a c h e rs h a v e ta u g h t th e sa m e le sso n s in th e s a m e w ay fo r y e a rs o u t
o f la z in e ss o r inflexibility; o th e r te a c h e rs m a k e a m o re su b tle m ista k e — th e y
c o n sta n tly lo o k f o r “th e m e th o d ”. S u c h te a c h e rs b e lie v e th a t th e re is ‘a b e s t’
w ay o f d o in g so m e th in g a n d , h a v in g fo u n d th e m e th o d th e y c o n s id e r b e st,
th e y follo w it stric tly a n d carefully. W e d o n o t b e lie v e th a t su c h a m e th o d
exists. L a n g u a g e is c o m p le x , a n d la n g u a g e te a c h in g is c o rre s p o n d in g ly c o m ­
plex. It is d ifficu lt to m a k e any s ta te m e n t w h ic h is always tr u e a b o u t lan gu ag e
te a c h in g . D iffe re n t s itu a tio n s call fo r d iffe re n t m a te ria ls, d iffe re n t m e th o d s,
d iffe re n t activ ities, a n d d iffe re n t stra teg ie s. T h e m a in p rin c ip le fo r te a c h e rs
to re m e m b e r, h o w ev er, in d e c id in g o n th e su ita b ility o f a n a p p ro a c h o r
m e th o d is w h e th e r it will b e h e lp fu l to th e ir p a rtic u la r s tu d e n ts in th a t class.
W ill it h e lp th e s tu d e n ts to a c h iev e th e ir o b je c tiv e s ? If it d o e s th a t, th e te a c h e r
will a ls o h a v e s u c c e e d e d .
A lth o u g h it is n o t alw ays p o ss ib le fo r te a c h e rs w o rk in g w ith in th e sta te
sy ste m to follo w this p rin c ip le c o m p le te ly , it is c le a r th a t if th e sy lla b u s, b o o k ,
o r te a c h e r a re m o re im p o rta n t th a n th e s tu d e n ts , so m e th in g s e rio u s is w ro n g .

2 . T e a c h th e s tu d e n ts , n o t th e b o o k

F e w te a c h e rs h av e th e tim e o r o p p o rtu n ity to d e sig n th e ir o w n c o u rs e s . In th e

m a jo rity o f c a se s a b a sic te x tb o o k is c h o s e n a n d it is th is w h ich p ro v id e s th e
p ra c tic a l c la s s ro o m sy llab u s. In ev itab ly , te a c h e rs te n d to follow th e b o o k ,
d e c id in g in a d v a n c e h o w lo n g th e y c a n s p e n d o n e a c h u n it so th a t th e y will
 Student and Teacher

finish th e b o o k in a c e rta in tim e . B u t th e o b je c t o f th e c o u rs e is to te a c h th e

s tu d e n ts , n o t fin ish th e b o o k !
It m a y b e n e c e s s a ry to p r e p a r e a d d itio n a l p ra c tic e s o n p a rtic u la r p o in ts; it
m a y b e n e c e ss a ry to g o b a c k a n d s tu d y a g a in a u n it w h ic h h a s c a u s e d p a rtic u ­
la r d ifficu ltie s a n d , m o s t im p o r ta n t o f all, it m a y b e n e c e s s a ry to a b a n d o n th e
d a y ’s le s so n p la n b e c a u s e s tu d e n ts ra is e d iffic u ltie s w h ic h n e ith e r th e te a c h e r
n o r th e b o o k h a s fo re s e e n . T h e p rin c ip le is th a t if, a t a n y p o in t d u rin g th e
le s so n , th e te a c h e r’s p re -a rra n g e d p la n a n d th e s tu d e n ts ’ n e e d s a re in
c o n flic t, it is th e s tu d e n ts ’ n e e d s w h ic h s h o u ld h a v e p rio rity .

3 . In v o lv e s tu d e n ts in th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s

S o m e fo re ig n la n g u a g e s tu d e n ts , p a rtic u la rly a d u lts , a re le a rn in g th e la n ­

g u a g e f o r v ery sp ec ific re a so n s ; o th e rs , p a rtic u la rly th o s e le a rn in g in a S ta te
s c h o o l sy ste m , a re d o in g E n g lis h b e c a u s e it is p a r t o f th e sy ste m . In all c a se s,
h o w e v er, s tu d e n ts a re m o r e likely to e n jo y th e s u b je c t, a n d to s u c c e e d a t it, if
th e y a re in v o lv e d in th e le a rn in g p ro c e s s a n d , a s fa r a s p o ss ib le , h a v e a c h a n c e
to in flu e n c e w h a t h a p p e n s , a n d h o w it h a p p e n s .
It is a lm o st in v a ria b ly a g o o d id e a to b e g in a n e w c o u rs e b y d is c u ss in g w ith
s tu d e n ts w hy th e y a re stu d y in g E n g lish , w h a t u se s th e y se e f o r th e E n g lish
th e y le a rn , a n d s o m e th in g o f th e ir e x p e c ta tio n s o f w h a t th e y e x p e c t to
h a p p e n in th e c la s sro o m . It a ls o h e lp s to d isc u ss w h a t s tu d e n ts e x p e c t to
enjoy, a n d n o t enjoy.
TTie d is c u ss io n s h o u ld b e as p ra c tic a l as p o ss ib le . T e a c h e rs c a n , fo r
e x a m p le , d is trib u te a list su c h a s th e fo llo w in g a n d a s k s tu d e n ts ;

T o tic k u se s o f E n g lis h w h ich th e y th in k a re re le v a n t to th e m p e rso n a lly .

T o a rra n g e th e ite m s in o r d e r o f im p o rta n c e (fro m 1 to 10).

English is useful because:

A. You can ta lk to lo ts o f new people.

B. You can use E nglish w hen you are travelling.
C. You can understand film s and T V program m es.
D. You can understand pop songs.
E. It he lp s you to g e t a good jo b .
F. You need it if you w a n t to stu d y a t university.
G .P eople do business in E nglish all over th e w orld.
H. You can understand m ore a b o u t th e w orld if you can read
E nglish and A m erican m agazines and new spapers.
I. It’s th e inte rn a tio n a l language fo r m ost people.
J. You can read E nglish lite ra tu re in th e o rig in a l language.
Student and Teacher

D u rin g th e c o u rs e it c a n h e lp to p re s e n t s tu d e n ts w ith a q u e s tio n n a ire su c h as

th e follow ing.

M ark each of these if you can do it in E nglish.

M ark it X if you ca n ’t do it in E nglish.

Tell som ebody a bit about m yself.

Talk about m y hobbies.
M ake a phone call.
W rite a sh o rt le tte r to a friend.
E xplain to som eone th a t they have m ade a m istake.
Tell som eone po lite ly th a t I don’t believe them .
E xplain w hat kind o f foo d I like, and don’t like.
Talk about m y favo u rite sport.
S ay five w ays life in m y co u n try is d iffe re n t from life in B ritain.
Talk about politics.
Read a new spaper article.
D isagree strongly b u t po lite ly w ith som eone else.

U su a lly su ch a q u e s tio n n a ire w ill w o rk b e tte r if th e te a c h e r h a s p r e p a re d it

sp e cia lly fo r th e class so th a t it fits w ell to w h a t th e s tu d e n ts h av e stu d ie d , a n d
to w h a t th e y a re g o in g to s tu d y in th e n e a r fu tu re .
A fte r th e initial d is c u ss io n it h e lp s if, fro m tim e to tim e d u rin g th e c o u rs e ,
q u e s tio n s a s to why s tu d e n ts a re le a rn in g , what th e y a re le arn in g , a n d how
th e y a re le a rn in g , a re ra is e d ag ain . T h e last o f th e s e is, p e rh a p s , p a rtic u la rly
se n sitiv e a n d w o rth fu rth e r d isc u ssio n .
T e a c h e rs a re c o n sta n tly a sse ssin g s tu d e n ts , w h ile s tu d e n ts h av e little
c h a n c e to a sse ss te a c h e rs . B u t w h y sh o u ld th is b e so ? T e a c h e rs w o u ld ra th e r
give g o o d , effectiv e, a n d e n jo y a b le le sso n s th a n o th e rw ise . W h y n o t allow
th e ir ‘c u s to m e rs ’ to h e lp th e m to d o th is? It is self-e v id e n t th a t so m e le sso n s
a re m o re su c ce ssfu l th a n o th e rs , a n d so m e le sso n activ ities m o re p o p u la r
th a n o th e rs . T e n m in u te s s p e n t o c c a sio n a lly a t th e e n d o f a le s s o n a sk in g s tu ­
d e n ts if th e y h a v e e n jo y e d th a t p a rtic u la r le sso n o r n o t a n d , m o re
im p o rta n tly , why th e y h av e, o r h av e n o t, c a n b e v e ry rew a rd in g . F irst, it
d e m o n s tra te s to th e s tu d e n ts th a t th e y a re im p o rta n t in th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss ,
a n d th a t th e te a c h e r is in te re s te d in th e m b o th as la n g u a g e le a rn e rs a n d as
p e o p le . S eco n d ly, th e s tu d e n ts c a n tell th e te a c h e r w h a t th e y e n jo y a n d why.
In so m e c a se s th is in fo rm a tio n m a y su rp ris e th e te a c h e r, b u t it s h o u ld h e lp to
m a k e th e te a c h in g m o re e ffec tive a n d m o re e n jo y a b le . T h e re is n o n e e d fo r
th e te a c h e r to fe a r th e s tu d e n ts ’ a ss e ss m e n t. If th e ir c o m m e n ts a re ta k e n
seriously, s tu d e n ts s o o n re a lise th a t th e y c a n u se fu lly in flu e n c e th e ir o w n
lesso n s. A sim p le c o m m e n t s u c h as s tu d e n ts a sk in g to w o rk w ith a d iffe re n t
p a r tn e r o n d iffe re n t d a y s in p a ir w o rk , o r to b e g iven a little lo n g e r tim e to
c o m p le te g ro u p w o rk a c tiv itie s, c a n h e lp . In th e s a m e w ay a g e n e ra l c o m ­
m e n t — th a t th e c o u rs e is g o in g to o q u ic k ly o r th e y d o n ’t g e t e n o u g h c h a n c e
to s p e a k — is, if se e n c o n stru c tiv e ly , in v a lu a b le in h e lp in g th e stu d e n ts , w h ich
is th e te a c h e r’s m a in o b je ctiv e.
 Student and Teacher

S tu d e n ts ’ m o tiv a tio n will a lm o s t alw ays b e b e tte r if th e y se e th e p u r p o s e o f

w h a t th e y a re d o in g . A lth o u g h th e o b je c tiv e o f a p a rtic u la r p ra c tic e m a y b e
c le a r to th e te a c h e r, it is n o t n e c e s sa rily c le a r to th e stu d e n ts . T e a c h e rs s h o u ld
b e p re p a r e d to e x p la in to th e s tu d e n ts w h a t th e y a re d o in g , a n d w hy th e y a re
d o in g it. S o m e e x a m p le s m a y h elp:

a . S o m e tim e s y o u w ill p lay a ta p e w h ic h th e s tu d e n ts a re to m im ic — it will

h e lp th e s tu d e n ts to speak E n g lis h ; o n o th e r o c c a sio n s a ta p e c o n ta in in g la n ­
g u a g e w h ich th e s tu d e n ts will n o t k n o w m a y b e u s e d to h e lp s tu d e n ts to listen
b e tte r. U n le ss y o u h a v e in tro d u c e d th e s e c o n d ta p e a n d m a d e c le a r th a t it is a
d iffe re n t k in d o f p ra c tic e , s tu d e n ts w ill b e c o n fu s e d a n d y o u c a n e x p e c t
h o w ls o f p ro te st.

b. M o s t m o d e m la n g u a g e c o u rs e s a re cyclical — th e s a m e la n g u a g e p o in ts
re c u r th ro u g h o u t th e c o u rs e . It c a n e asily a p p e a r to s tu d e n ts th a t ‘w e ’ve
a lre a d y d o n e th is’. T e a c h e rs m u s t b e p re p a r e d to e x p la in th a t th e y a re n o t
d o in g th e s a m e th in g a g a in , b u t le a rn in g m o re a b o u t h o w a p a rtic u la r
s tru c tu re is u se d .

c. F re q u e n tly it is h e lp fu l to d o th e s a m e p ra c tic e m o r e th a n o n c e in q u ic k
su c c e ss io n . T h is is tru e , f o r e x a m p le , o f a rtic u la tio n p ra c tic e s in te n d e d o n ly
to d e v e lo p m o to r skills (se e p a g e 6 9 ) . It is a lso tr u e o f c o m m u n ic a tiv e p a ir
w o rk p ra c tic e s w h e re first a tte m p ts a t th e p ra c tic e a re la rg ely d ia g n o s tic a n d
th e p ra c tic e is re p e a te d a fte r th e te a c h e r h a s p ro v id e d s o m e lin g u istic in p u t.
W h ile th e u se fu ln e ss o f s u c h re p e titio n s is c le a r to th e te a c h e r, fo r s c h o o l s tu ­
d e n ts th e y c o n tr a s t stro n g ly w ith w h a t th e y a re u s e d to in o th e r le ss o n s —
th e re is little p o in t in a s k in g s tu d e n ts to d o th e s a m e m a th s p ro b le m
tw ice.

L o n g e x p la n a tio n s o f c la s s ro o m ac tiv ity s h o u ld b e a v o id e d , b u t te a c h e rs

s h o u ld c o n s ta n tly b e a le r t to th e fa c t th a t s tu d e n ts will w o rk m o re h a p p ily
a n d m o re effectiv ely if th e p u r p o s e o f th e activ ity is c le a r to th e m .
T h is p rin c ip le re la te s n o t o n ly to w h o le le ss o n s b u t to in d iv id u a l activities.
If s tu d e n ts a re g o in g to liste n to a ta p e , o r r e a d a te x t, it h e lp s to tell th e m in
a d v a n c e w h a t it is a b o u t a n d p e rh a p s s o m e o f th e im p o rta n t la n g u a g e th e y
will n e e d to u n d e r s ta n d it. (S e e p a g e 6 2 a n d p a g e 108 ). If th e e m p h a s is lies
o n la n g u a g e learning a n d n o t la n g u a g e teaching, it is c le a r th a t a m e th o d o l­
o g y w h ich is b a s e d o n te a c h e r k n o w in g e v e ry th in g a n d ‘re v e a lin g ’ th in g s to
stu d e n ts , w ill b e in a p p r o p ria te . S e c re ts d o n o t h e lp . O n th e c o n tra ry , th e
te a c h e r’s ta sk is to s ig n p o s t th e c o u rs e , th e le s so n , a n d th e in d iv id u a l
a ctivitie s, as c le a rly a s p o s s ib le fo r th e stu d e n ts .
In th e s a m e w ay th a t p r e p a r a tio n h e lp s o rie n ta te stu d e n ts , te a c h e rs c a n
m a k e th e c o u rs e se e m m o re im m e d ia te ly u seful a n d re le v a n t b y h e lp in g
stu d e n ts to se e w h a t th e y h a v e a c h ie v e d , a n d u n d e rs ta n d w h a t th e y c a n d o
w ith w h a t th e y know .
T h e re a re o n ly a b o u t 2 0 0 v e rb s in E n g lis h w h ich h av e irre g u la r p a s t te n s e
fo rm s a n d a b o u t h a lf o f th o s e a r e e x tre m e ly ra re o r a rc h a ic . T h e r e is n o s h o r t
c u t to le a rn in g th e m , b u t y o u c a n m a k e it e a s ie r f o r s tu d e n ts b y tellin g th e m
ex p licitly th a t th e re a re o n ly a c e rta in n u m b e r a n d th a t if, f o r e x a m p le , th e y
le a rn 10 a d a y fo r th re e w e ek s th e y will k n o w all th e E n g lis h irre g u la r v e rb s.
T h e in fo rm a tio n d o e s n o t m a k e le a rn in g th e v e rb s a n y e a sie r, b u t it m a k e s
th e ta s k se e m m a n a g e a b le a n d less in h ib itin g .
Student and Teacher

In a sim ila r w ay it is u n e x c itin g b u t n e c e ss a ry to p ra c tis e m a n ip u la tio n o f th e

auxiliary:

A I’ve ju s t b o u g h t a n e w car. A I’m g o in g to T en erife .

B O h , h a v e yo u . B O h , a re yo u .

M o s t m o d e m c o u rs e s re-cy cle s tru c tu re s th ro u g h d iffe re n t fu n c tio n a l u ses.

In th is c a se it h e lp s to re m in d s tu d e n ts th a t w h e n th e y c a n m a n ip u la te th e
a u x iliary in th is way, th e y c a n m a k e in te re s te d re s p o n s e s so th a t th e y c a n ta k e
p a r t actively in a c o n v e rs a tio n e v e n if th e ir o w n E n g lish m e a n s th e y c a n n o t
say v ery m u ch .
T h e p rin c ip le is sim p le — th e m o re th e s tu d e n ts feel inv o lv ed in th e p r o ­
c e ss o f le a rn in g , th e m o re su c c e ssfu l a n d e n jo y a b le th e y will fin d it.

4 . D o n ’t te ll s tu d e n ts w h a t th e y c a n te ll y o u

M o s t la n g u ag e te a c h e rs ta lk to o m u c h . A g a in , it is im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r
th a t th e p rim a ry o b je c tiv e o f th e c o u s e is to im p ro v e th e s tu d e n ts ’ lan g u a ge ,
a n d to p re s e n t them w ith o p p o rtu n itie s f o r p ro d u c tiv e p ra c tic e (o r carefully
controlled liste n in g p ra c tic e ).
T h e re a re m a n y o p p o rtu n itie s in a ty pica l le sso n fo r e licitin g k n o w le d g e
a n d in fo rm a tio n fro m th e s tu d e n ts ra th e r th a n sim p ly telling th e m it:

a . If th e w o rk o f o n e d a y is a n e x te n s io n o f so m e th in g fro m a p re v io u s lesson ,
stu d e n ts sh o u ld b e re m in d e d o f th e p re v io u s le sso n , b u t b y th e te a c h e r ques­
tioning the s tu d e n ts , n o t telling. E x a m p le s o f this a re if a c o n tin u o u s s to ry is
b e in g re a d , s tu d e n ts s h o u ld b e a s k e d to su m m a rise th e sto ry so far, o r, if a
la n g u a g e p o in t is b e in g re -s tu d ie d , it sh o u ld b e in tro d u c e d w ith q u e stio n s
ra th e r th a n te a c h e r p re s e n ta tio n .

b. A fte r stu d y in g a tex t, in s te a d o f e x p la in in g w o rd s, a sk d e fin itio n q u e stio n s

(se e p a g e 111).

c . M a k e a h a b it o f a sk in g s tu d e n ts to c o n tr ib u te a lte rn a tiv e lan g u a g e o f th e ir

o w n — fo r e x a m p le , a n o th e r p h ra s e w h ic h is fu n c tio n a lly e q u iv a le n t, sy n ­
o n y m s, o r a s s o c ia te d v o c a b u la ry item s. W o rd ro s e s a n d w o rd la d d e rs (se e
p a g e 10 8 ) c a n b e h elpfu l in e n s u rin g th a t th e s tu d e n ts p ro v id e so m e o f th e
linguistic in p u t f o r a lesson .

d. S tu d e n ts c a n a ls o b e e n c o u ra g e d to p ro v id e so m e o f th e c o n te n t o f a
le sso n u sin g , f o r e x a m p le , th e p o sitiv e /n e g a tiv e te c h n iq u e (se e p a g e 5 9 ).

T h e s tu d e n t’s la n g u a g e m a y b e lim ite d b u t this d o e s n o t m e a n th e s tu d e n t is

u n in te llig e n t. T o o o fte n te a c h e rs , p a rtic u la rly n ative te a c h e rs, tre a t s tu d e n ts
w h o se linguistic level is low a s if th e y w e re g e n e ra lly less a b le . T h is m ista k e n
a s s u m p tio n c a n b e p a rtic u la rly u n fo rtu n a te in th e c a se o f a w e ll-q u alified
m id d le -a g e d b u sin e ss m a n . S u c h s tu d e n ts n o t u n re a s o n a b ly e x p e c t to b e
tr e a te d a s in te llig e n t a n d c a p a b le a d u lts a n d re s e n t m a te ria ls o r te a c h e rs th a t
p a tro n is e th e m .
O n a m o re g e n e ra l level it is n o t u n u su a l f o r te a c h e rs to e x p la in a t le n g th
o n ly fo r a m e m b e r o f th e class to say We’ve already done that, o r, in th e c a se
 Student and Teacher

o f a n a tiv e s p e a k e r th e e x p la n a tio n is g re e te d b y We’ve got the sam e word in

(Spanish). A n n o y in g a s th is m a y b e , te a c h e rs b rin g s u c h d iffic u tie s o n th e m ­
selves.
A llo w in g s tu d e n ts to c o n tr ib u te in th is w ay is n o t ju s t a g im m ic k. F irstly, it
p ro v id e s s tu d e n ts w ith m o r e o p p o rtu n itie s to say s o m e th in g (a n d k e e p s th e
te a c h e r c o rre s p o n d in g ly quiet!). It a ls o c o n s ta n tly p ro v id e s th e te a c h e r w ith
a n id e a o f th e s tu d e n ts ’ p re v io u s k n o w le d g e a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g , a n d re v ea ls
m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s w h ic h m a y n e e d to b e c le a re d u p b e fo re n e w w o rk is
in tro d u c e d .
T h e p rin c ip le is to b a s e y o u r te a c h in g o n e lic itin g r a th e r th a n in stru c tin g .
S u c h a n a p p ro a c h re fle c ts a c c u ra te ly th e ro le s o f te a c h e r a n d s tu d e n t in a
c la s s ro o m w h ic h e m p h a s is e s th a t le a rn in g is m o r e im p o r ta n t th a n te a c h in g .

5 . S h o w y o u r r e a c tio n s t o w h a t s tu d e n ts s a y

P a r t o f e x p lo itin g re a l e v e n ts in v o lv es re a c tin g n a tu ra lly to w h a t s tu d e n ts say,

b o th in e x e rc ises a n d in fre e c o n v e rs a tio n . L o o k a t th is ex a m p le :

T S o , h av e y o u s e e n “T h e S o u n d o f M u s ic ”?
51 Y es, b u t o n ly o n te le v isio n .
T A n d w hat ab o u t you?
52 N o , I d o n ’t like m u sic a ls.
T O h , d o n ’t y o u ? H a v e y o u s e e n it, S 3 ?
53 Y es I h a v e — 18 tim e s.
T Y es, a n d w h a t a b o u t y o u , S 4 ?

T h e te a c h e r’s re s p o n s e to S 2 is g o o d — it is n a tu ra l a n d gives th e s tu d e n ts a
c h a n c e to n o tic e a ty p ic a l fe a tu re o f a c tiv e liste n in g (Oh, d o n ’t you?). T h e
te a c h e r’s re a c tio n to S 3 , h o w ev er, is a d is a s te r f o r tw o im p o rta n t re a so n s :
a . A te a c h e r c o u ld o n ly re a c t so a u to m a tic a lly if h e o r sh e w as n o t listen ing .
R e a lisin g th a t y o u a re n o t liste n in g h a s a s tro n g d e m o tiv a tin g e ffe c t o n s tu ­
d e n ts .
b. T h e te a c h e r m iss e d a w o n d e rfu l o p p o rtu n ity to d e m o n s tra te in a n a tu ra l
c o n te x t th e in to n a tio n a p p r o p r ia te to e x p re s sin g s u rp ris e (18 tim es! W hat on
earth for?).

If y o u a re s u rp ris e d , s h o c k e d , c u rio u s , d o u b tf u l, e tc . m a k e s u re y o u show it

in y o u r g e n e ra l re a c tio n , in w h a t y o u say, a n d in how y o u say it. E n c o u ra g e
o th e r s tu d e n ts to sh o w th e ir re a c tio n s to o . S u c h re a c tin g d e v e lo p s a n
im p o rta n t la n g u a g e skill — th e a ctiv e ro le o f th e lis te n e r in a c o n v e rs a tio n —
a n d m a k e s b o th th e la n g u a g e a n d y o u r le ss o n s m o re a live f o r stu d e n ts .

6 . S tu d e n ts n e e d p r a c tic e , n o t y o u

T h e re a re m a n y w ays in w h ic h it is p o s s ib le fo r th e te a c h e r to d o m in a te th e
c la s s ro o m ling u istically in w ays w h ic h a re q u ite u n n e c e s sa ry . T h e m o r e th e
te a c h e r ta lk s, th e le ss o p p o r tu n ity th e s tu d e n ts h a v e to sp e a k , b u t it is th e s tu ­
d e n ts w h o n e e d th e p ra c tic e !
T e a c h e rs s h o u ld b e w a re o f all o f th e follow ing:
a . E x p la in in g w h e n th e y d o n ’t n e e d to .
Student and Teacher

b. R e p e a tin g th e m se lv e s u n n e c e ss a rily (fo r e x a m p le , w h e n a sk in g a

q u estio n ).
c. A n sw e rin g fo r s tu d e n ts , w ith o u t w aiting lo n g e n o u g h .
d. C o rre c tin g to o m u c h a n d to o quickly.
e. T a lk ing a b o u t s o m e th in g w h ich in te re s ts th e m , b u t n o t n e c e ssa rily
th e ir stu d e n ts.
f. T a lk ing u n n e c e s sa rily a b o u t th e p ro c e s s o f th e lesso n (se e p a g e 4 4 ).

It is n o t, h ow ev er, su fficien t fo r th e te a c h e r to av o id u n n e c e s s a ry talk . If th e

m a in c la s sro o m activ ity c o n sists o f th e te a c h e r a sk in g q u e stio n s w h ic h a re
th e n a n sw e re d b y in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts , it still m e a n s th a t h a lf o f all c la s sro o m
la n g u ag e is c o m in g fro m th e te a c h e r. T e a c h e rs w o rk in g in sta te sc h o o l sys­
tem s, fo r e x a m p le , n e e d to re m in d th e m se lv e s fre q u e n tly o f a c a lc u la tio n
su ch as th e fo llo w ing — if th e s tu d e n ts h av e fo u r 4 5 m in u te le sso n s a w eek , in
a class o f 3 0 , th e re a re o n ly 180 m in u te s a v a ila b le e a c h w e ek to b e d iv id e d
a m o n g th o s e stu d e n ts . E v e n if th e c lass c o n siste d o f n o re a d in g , p a u se s fo r
th o u g h t, o r o th e r a ctiv ities, b u t e n tire ly o f th e te a c h e r a sk in g in d iv id u a l
s tu d e n ts q u e stio n s w h ich w e re a n sw e re d im m e diately , th e te a c h e r w o u ld d o
9 0 m in u te s ta lk in g a n d e a c h in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t o n ly th re e m in u te s. A s s o o n
as th e p ra c tic a l difficu lties a re ta k e n in to a c c o u n t, this tim e is g rea tly re d u c e d
a n d a m o re rea listic e s tim a te o f th e tim e s p e n t ta lk in g b y e a c h in d iv id u a l
p u p il w o u ld b e p e rh a p s a m in u te a w eek . In th o s e c irc u m sta n c e s it is h a rd ly
su rp risin g if s tu d e n ts ’ s p o k e n E n g lish im p ro v e s slowly! H o w e v e r m u c h th e
te a c h e r m a y b e a n x io u s a b o u t it, it is e ssen tial th a t te c h n iq u e s a re in tro d u c e d
in to th e c la s s ro o m to in c re a se th e a m o u n t o f s tu d e n t talk in g tim e . O ra l w o rk ,
p a ir w o rk , a n d g ro u p w o rk a re n o t o p tio n a l e x tra s — fo r th e s tu d e n ts ’ sp o k e n
la n g u ag e to im p ro v e , th e y a re e ssen tial.
O n e w o rd o f w a rn in g is, p e rh a p s , n e ce ssary , T h e re is m o re a n d m o re
e v id e n c e th a t g o o d listening p ra c tic e s h av e a m o re im p o rta n t p a r t to p lay in
g o o d la n g u a g e te a c h in g th a n h a s so m e tim e s b e e n re c o g n ise d . A p ra c tic e , fo r
e x a m p le , in w h ic h s tu d e n ts a re g iven tw o o r th re e q u e s tio n s a n d th e n listen to
th e te a c h e r talk in g a b o u t so m e th in g c a n u n d o u b te d ly b e v e ry u sefu l. It is n o t
n e c e ss a ry th a t e v e ry p ra c tic e involves lo ts o f “s tu d e n t ta lk in g tim e.” T h e
te a c h e r ta lk in g as a p la n n e d p a r t o f th e le s so n h a s a n im p o rta n t ro le to play,
providingthe s tu d e n ts a re listen in g actively. T e a c h e rs sh o u ld , n o n e th e le ss , b e
c o n sc io u s o f th e a m o u n t o f unnecessary ta lk in g th e y d o . T h e g e n e ra l p rin c i­
p le is th a t if th e te a c h e r is talking , th e stu d e n ts a re n o t g e ttin g th e p ra c tic e
th e y n e e d .

7. D o n ’t e m p h a s is e d iffic u ltie s

L e a rn in g a fo re ig n la n g u a g e well is difficult. M a n y s tu d e n ts fin d it d iffic ult

to u n d e rs ta n d c o n c e p tu a l d is tin c tio n s w h ic h d o n o t o c c u r in th e ir o w n
lan gu ag e, a n d th e m e m o ry lo a d is high. T h e re is n o p o in t in p re te n d in g th a t
th e s e d iffic ulties d o n o t exist. A s all te a c h e rs know , stu d e n ts , p a rtic u la rly in
sc h o o l, d o n e e d to b e re m in d e d fro m tim e to tim e th a t th e re is n o s h o r t c u t to
su cc ess. B e in g rea listic a b o u t d ifficu lties is a n im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e te a c h e r’s
jo b .
U n fo rtu n a te ly , te a c h e rs to o o fte n m a k e th e su b je c t se e m m o re d iffic ult
th a n it is th ro u g h a se rie s o f c a su a l re m a rk s, th e m a in e ffe c t o f w h ic h m u s t b e
to u n d e rm in e th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o n fid e n c e .
 Student and Teacher

H e re a re so m e e x a m p le s:

English is a very difficult language.

English is fu ll o f irregularities — there are no real rules.
Well, there's the rule, now le t’s look at the exceptions.
Prepositions are com pletely illogical.

M o s t te a c h e rs will a d m it to h a v in g m a d e th e s e , o r sim ilar, re m a rk s. T h e y a re

o b v io u sly u n h e lp fu l. It is d iffic u lt to th in k o f a n o c c a s io n w h e n it c o u ld b e
h e lp fu l to tell s tu d e n ts th a t w h a t th e y a re strug gling to u n d e rs ta n d is in fa c t
re ally in c o m p re h e n sib le ! T e a c h e rs n e e d to b e re a listic a b o u t d iffic u ltie s — it
c a n b e h e lp fu l, fo r e x a m p le , to tell s tu d e n ts b e fo re th e y liste n to a ta p e th a t
th e v o ic e h a s a stro n g a c c e n t. If s tu d e n ts a re d o in g a liste n in g -fo r-g ist e x e rc is e
w ith a lo t o f la n g u a g e th e y m a y n o t u n d e rs ta n d , th e y n e e d to b e to ld o f this
d ifficu lty in a d v a n c e . T h e p rin c ip le , h o w ev er, is f o r th e te a c h e r to b e realistic
a b o u t d ifficu lties, a n d to a v o id u n d e rm in in g th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o n fid e n c e b y
c a su a l ill-c o n sid e re d re m a rk s .

< 8 . V ary w h a t y o u d o , a n d h o w y o u d o it
W h ile th e re a re m a n y h e lp fu l w ays o f a p p ro a c h in g la n g u a g e te a c h in g , it is a
m ista k e to b elie v e th a t ‘a m e th o d ’ ex ists w h ich c a n g u a ra n te e su c c e ss. E v e ry
te a c h e r k n o w s th a t w h a t w o rk s o n e d a y w ith o n e c lass, d o e s n o t n e c e ss a rily
w o rk w ith a d iffe re n t c lass, o r e v e n o n a d iffe re n t d a y w ith th e s a m e class. A
te x tb o o k w h ich is a p p r o p r ia te to o n e s itu a tio n , is o fte n n o t su ita b le fo r
a n o th e r. O n e s ta te m e n t w h ic h is g e n e ra lly tr u e c a n , h o w ev er, b e m a d e — if
th e te a c h e r alw ays d o e s th e s a m e th in g s in th e s a m e way, th e s tu d e n ts w ill b e
b o re d !
E a c h u n it o f m o s t b a s ic c o u rs e b o o k s is laid o u t in a sim ila r way. T h e
in tro d u c tio n to th e c o u rs e b o o k , h o w ev er, u su a lly p o in ts o u t th a t th is is to
p ro v id e a c o n v e n ie n t fra m e w o rk f o r th e te a c h e r, n o t so th a t e a c h u n it is
ta u g h t in th e s a m e o rd e r, u sin g th e s a m e m e th o d , d a y a fte r day.

T h e r e a re m a n y o p p o rtu n itie s f o r v ariety :

a . T e a c h th e u n it in a d iffe re n t o r d e r — in o n e c a s e u se th e d ia lo g u e f o r lis­
te n in g c o m p re h e n s io n b e fo re th e s tu d e n ts se e th e te x t, o n a n o th e r o c c a s io n
u s e th e ta p e d d ia lo g u e as a s u m m a ry a fte r stu d y in g th e p rin te d te x t a n d
d o in g th e e x ercises.

b. U s e d iffe re n t w ays o f re a d in g tex ts: p re p a re d , d ra m a tic re a d in g , sile n t

re a d in g , th e te a c h e r re a d in g , liste n in g to th e r e c o rd e d tex t, e tc . (se e p a g e
110 ) .

c . V a ry who p e rfo rm s th e ta s k — y o u o r th e stu d e n ts . It is n o t, f o r e x a m p le ,

n e c e s s a ry fo r y o u alw ay s to a s k th e c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s a b o u t a te x t —
th e s tu d e n ts c a n a s k e a c h o th e r q u e stio n s.

d. In tro d u c e a lte rn a tiv e a c tiv ities fro m tim e to tim e — g a m e s, p a ir w o rk ,

g ro u p w o rk , p ro b le m so lvin g , p ro je c t w o rk , etc.

e . C h a n g e th e se a tin g p la n f o r d iffe re n t ac tiv ities a n d , f o r e x a m p le , v a ry

w h e re in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts a re sittin g f o r p a ir w o rk so th a t o n d iffe re n t d ay s
th e y a re w o rk in g w ith d iffe re n t p a rtn e rs .
 Student and Teacher

A w o rd o f w a rn in g is n e c essa ry . S tu d e n ts lik e to fe el s e c u re in th e c la s s ro o m
a n d th e y w a n t to k n o w w h a t is g o in g o n . S tu d e n ts w ill b e d is c o n c e rte d if y o u
c h o p a n d c h a n g e in a r a n d o m fa s h io n . T h e p rin c ip le is to h a v e a constant
fram ew ork w ith in w h ic h th e re is a variety o f pace a n d a variety o f activity.

< ^ 9 . S e le c t!

T e a c h e rs n e v e r c o m p la in th a t th e y h a v e to o m u c h tim e o n a c o u rs e . T h e
c o m p la in t is alw ays in th e o th e r d ire c tio n — I f I had m ore tim e I could do...
W ith in th e lim its o f a n y c o u rs e — w h e th e r it is a tw o -w e e k in te n siv e c o u rs e o r
a c o u rs e la stin g th e w h o le o f th e s tu d e n t’s s c h o o l c a re e r — th e ta rg e t c a n n o t
rea listica lly b e a c o m p le te k n o w le d g e o f E n g lish . In e v e ry c a s e se le c tio n s
h a v e to b e m a d e o f th e la n g u a g e to b e p re s e n te d , th e skills to b e le a rn e d , e tc.
C e rta in se le c tio n s, su c h as g e n e ra l sy lla b u s d e sig n a n d c h o ic e o f te x tb o o k
m ay, o n m a n y o c c a sio n s, b e o u ts id e th e te a c h e r’s c o n tro l. E v e n so , th e in d i­
v id u al te a c h e r is c o n sta n tly fa c e d w ith se le c tio n s. T h e m o s t d a n g e ro u s
“s e le c tio n ” o f all is a n in d is c rim in a te a tte m p t to “d o e v e ry th in g ” .
O n a d a y -to -d a y b a sis te a c h e rs n e e d to k e e p s e le c tio n in m in d . T h e m a in
c rite rio n is Will what I am going to say help these particular students?
B e c a u se you k n o w it, it d o e s n o t m e a n th e s tu d e n ts n e e d to k n o w it. T h e re
a re tw o d iffe re n t p ro b le m s — firsd y th e s tu d e n ts m a y n o t n e e d to k n o w a t
that time, se c o n d ly th e y m a y n o t n e e d to k n o w at all. T h e te x tb o o k m ay, fo r
e x a m p le , p re s e n t on the left/right; th e te a c h e r k n o w s it is a lso p o s s ib le to say
on y o u r left/right. T o in tro d u c e th is in a first p re s e n ta tio n o f “fin d in g th e
w ay” w o u ld a lm o st c e rta in ly c o n fu se.
A m o re s e rio u s p ro b le m is th a t m u c h o f w h a t la n g u a g e te a c h e rs h a v e
th e m se lv e s le a rn e d is n o t re le v a n t in th e s ta te sc h o o l c la ss ro o m . T h e re a re , as
m e n tio n e d a b o v e , a b o u t 2 0 0 v e rb s in E n g lish w ith irre g u la r p a s t te n s e fo rm s.
P ro b a b ly a b o u t 1 0 0 o f th e s e a re in c o m m o n u se . It is h e lp fu l fo r s tu d e n ts to
le a rn th e s e w o rd s in g ro u p s w h ic h a re p h o n e tic a lly sim ilar: bring — brought
— brought, catch — caught — caught. U n fo rtu n a te ly it is th e n te m p tin g fo r
th e te a c h e r to p re s e n t com plete g ro u p s b u t w h ile th e s tu d e n t m a y n e e d to
k n o w speak — spoke — spoken, th e r e is less n e e d fo r weave — wove —
woven. T h e m a jo rity o f sc h o o l s tu d e n ts , w h o w ill n o t g o to u n iv e rsity to stu d y
E n g lish , will never n e e d a b o u t h a lf o f th e v e rb s w ith irre g u la r p a s t fo rm s
(cleave — clove — cloven). H e r e is a c le a r c a se w h e re te a c h e rs m u s t select.
A ll te a c h e rs n e e d to b e c a re fu l o f p re s e n tin g to o m a n y a lte rn a tiv e w ays o f
saying so m e th in g , o f p u ttin g to o m u c h v o c a b u la ry o n th e b o a r d a t th e sa m e
tim e , o f g o in g to o q u ick ly a n d , finally, o f tellin g s tu d e n ts o r giving th e m in fo r­
m a tio n w h ic h is n o t re le v a n t to th e m . S to rie s o f th e te a c h e r’s re c e n t visit to
L o n d o n m a y h a v e a m o tiv a tin g e ffe c t o n th e c lass. T h e y c a n a ls o b e v e ry d u ll
a n d b o rin g .
T h e p rin c ip le , a s w ith e a c h o f th e se c tio n s o f th is c h a p te r, is th a t g o o d
te a c h in g is n o t a b o u t sh o w in g s tu d e n ts w h a t y o u k n o w , b u t a b o u t h e lp in g
th e m to im p ro v e their k n o w le d g e , skills a n d p e rfo rm a n c e .

1 0 . A c tiv itie s a n d r e la tio n s h ip s in th e c la s s r o o m c h a n g e

T e c h n iq u e s f o r te a c h in g sp ec ific la n g u a g e skills a n d h a n d lin g p a rtic u la r

le s so n ac tiv itie s will b e d e a lt w ith la te r in th e b o o k . B e fo re lo o k in g a t th e se
 Student and Teacher

p a rtic u la r te c h n iq u e s , h o w ev er, it is w o rth sta tin g a sin g le g e n e ra l p rin c ip le o f

la n g u a g e te a c h in g — a “b a s ic m e th o d ” . T h is c a n b e d o n e p ro v id in g th e
r e a d e r b e a rs in m in d th a t it d o e s n o t m e a n th a t all la n g u a g e te a c h in g s h o u ld
a lw ay s fo llo w th is m e th o d . It p ro v id e s a g e n e ra l fra m e w o rk w h ic h sy ste m a -
tise s th e c o m m o n -s e n s e a p p ro a c h .

If lan g u a g e le a rn in g is to b e a n a tu ra l a n d rela tiv e ly re la x e d p ro c e s s th e

g e n e ra l se q u e n c e will a lm o s t in e v ita b ly b e:

S tu d e n ts m e e t n e w la n g u a g e in in fo rm a l (n a tu ra l) p re s e n ta tio n .
T e a c h e r p re s e n ts th e la n g u a g e fo rm ally .
S tu d e n ts u se th e la n g u a g e in fo rm a l, c o n tro lle d p ra c tic e .
S tu d e n ts u se th e la n g u a g e in fo rm ally .

T h is a p p ro a c h c a n b e e x p a n d e d slig h tly in to “a b a s ic m e th o d ”.

1. T h e te a c h e r u s e s s tru c tu re s o r p h ra s e s w h ic h a re in te llig ib le in c o n te x t
b e fo re th e y a re fo rm a lly p re s e n te d . T h is m e a n s th a t w h e n th e la n g u a g e is
p re s e n te d f o r a c tiv e u s e b y th e s tu d e n t it is n o t c o m p le te ly u n fa m ilia r.
S tu d e n ts fre q u e n tly a c q u ir e p a ssiv ely la n g u a g e w h ic h is la te r to b e a c q u ire d
actively.

2 . T h e te a c h e r d ra w s sp e c ific a tte n tio n to a p a rtic u la r la n g u a g e fe a tu re in a

fo rm a l p re s e n ta tio n . T h is p ro c e s s o fte n inv o lves th e te a c h e r g iving a n e x a m ­
p le , c o m m e n tin g u p o n it, a sk in g a n d a n sw e rin g a q u e s tio n , e tc . It m a y b e
s u m m a ris e d as th e te a c h e r “ta lk in g to h im s e lf’ w h ile th e s tu d e n ts e a v e s d ro p .
It is th e te a c h e r-to -te a c h e r (T-T ) p h a s e .

3 . T h e te a c h e r q u e s tio n s th e c la ss a s a w h o le a n d in v ite s e ith e r a c h o ra l

re s p o n s e , o r a re s p o n s e fro m a v o lu n te e r w ith in th e g ro u p to in d ic a te
u n d e rs ta n d in g , e tc . T h is is th e te a c h e r-to -c la s s (T -C ) p h a se .

4. T h e te a c h e r q u e s tio n s c h o s e n in d iv id u a ls. T h is is te a c h e r-to -s tu d e n t

(T -S ) p h a s e . O n o c c a s io n th e ro le s a re re v e rs e d a n d s tu d e n ts q u e s tio n th e
te a c h e r (S-T).

5 . T h e s tu d e n ts w o rk w ith e a c h o th e r a sk in g a n d re p ly in g to e a c h o th e r in
m o re o r less c o n tro lle d p a ir w o rk . In g e n e ra l th e le s so n d e v e lo p s fro m
stric tly c o n tr o lle d p a ir w o rk , w h e re e a c h in d iv id u a l q u e s tio n a n d a n s w e r is
p re d ic ta b le , to less c o n tro lle d p a ir w o rk w h e re in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts h a v e a
w id e r ra n g e . T h is is th e s tu d e n t-to -s tu d e n t (S -S ) p h a s e .

6 . F re q u e n tly , th e le s so n th e n d e v e lo p s to a p h a s e w h e re s tu d e n ts d o in d i­
v id u a l (w ritte n ) re in fo rc e m e n t, o r to g ro u p activity. In b o th c a se s th is p h a s e is
c h a ra c te ris e d b y th e fa c t th a t th e te a c h e r is n o t d ire c tly d o m in a tin g th e
activity. T h e e m p h a s is is e ith e r o n w o rk in sm a ll g ro u p s , o r o n th e w h o le
g ro u p w o rk in g w ith o u t d ire c t te a c h e r in v o lv e m e n t. It is th e g ro u p w o rk
p h a se .

In g e n e ra l tw o p rin c ip le s d o m in a te th is b a s ic m e th o d — th e re is a
d e v e lo p m e n t fro m c o n tro lle d to fre e p ro d u c tio n , a n d th e re is a d e v e lo p m e n t
fro m te a c h e r-d o m in a te d to s tu d e n t-d o m in a te d activity.
Student and Teacher

T h e m e th o d m a y b e su m m a rise d b rie fly a s follow s:

1. In fo rm a l u se — T.
2. T h e te a c h e r sets a p a tte rn a n d rep lie s — T-T.
3. T h e te a c h e r q u e s tio n s th e c lass a n d in v ites them to re s p o n d — T -C .
4. T h e te a c h e r q u e s tio n s in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts — T-S.
5. S tu d e n ts w o rk in p a irs — S-S.
6. G ro u p w o rk .

A n y activ ity inv o lvin g 3 0 p e o p le c o u ld n e v e r b e as sim p le o r a s lin e a r in its

d e v e lo p m e n t as th e a b o v e m e th o d suggests. T h e m e th o d d o e s, how ever,
p ro v id e a fu n d a m e n ta l p a tte rn w h ich will fre q u e n tly b e b ro k e n a s in div idu a l
d e c is io n s a re m a d e b u t w h ich n o n e -th e -le s s re p re s e n ts a n a p p ro p ria te
m o d e l fo r th e g e n e ra l d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n y class.
T h e c la s sro o m , a n d th e la n g u a g e c la s sro o m in p a rtic u la r, sh o u ld b e a
d y n a m ic p la c e — th e le sso n s sh o u ld b e a lively, v a rie d a n d inv o lvin g e x p e ri­
en c e. If it is to b e d y n a m ic in th is se n se , it is e ss e n tia l th a t te a c h e rs a re a w are
th a t th e ir re la tio n sh ip w ith th e class is c o n sta n tly c h an g ing . If th e te a c h e r
alw ays a ss u m e s a c e n tra l, d o m in a n t ro le m a n y o f th e ac tiv ities e sse n tia l to
g o o d la n g u a g e te a c h in g will b e a u to m a tic a lly e x c lu d e d .

11. S tu d e n ts n e e d to le a r n h o w to lea rn

M a n y s tu d e n ts stu d y in g a fo reig n la n g u ag e h av e v ery stra n g e id e a s o f w h a t

will h e lp th e m to im p ro v e . M o st te a c h e rs h av e m e t s tu d e n ts w h o th in k th a t
b y filling v o c a b u la ry b o o k s th e y will b e a b le to sp e a k b e tte r E n g lish ; m a n y
stu d e n ts p re s e n te d w ith a te x t will a c tu a lly w a n t to g o th ro u g h w o rd -b y -w o rd
a n d will n o t se e th e p o in t of, fo r e x a m p le , re a d in g fo r gist, o r sc a n n in g fo r
p a rtic u la r in fo rm a tio n .
O n e o f th e ta s k s o f th e la n g u a g e te a c h e r is to h e lp th e s tu d e n t to stu d y
m o re e fficien tly a n d m o re enjoyably. A sm all b u t im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e te a c h ­
ing tim e sh o u ld b e s p e n t m a k in g s tu d e n ts a w a re o f w hy c e rta in th in g s will
h e lp th e m , a n d w hy o th e rs will n o t. T h e m o re s tu d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d a b o u t th e
p ro c e ss o f le a rn in g th e fo reig n lan g u ag e, th e m o re th e y will b e a b le to ta k e
re s p o n sib ility fo r th e ir o w n le arn ing .

1 2 . U s e fu l a n d fu n is b e tte r th a n e ith e r a lo n e

S o m e lan g u a g e le a rn in g is n o t p a rtic u la rly e n jo y a b le . N o t m a n y stu d e n ts

e n jo y c o m m ittin g a list o f v o c a b u la ry to m e m o ry o r d o in g lo n g fill-in e x e r­
c ises, b u t le a rn in g a la ng u a g e is a b o u t learning, a n d c a n n o t alw ays b e e xciting
a n d fun.
T h e o th e r sid e o f th e sto ry is e q u a lly tru e . S tu d e n ts a re u n lik ely to b e very
su ccessfu l a t le a rn in g a n y th in g u n le ss th e y e n jo y th e p ro c e ss . It is v ery c le a r
th a t y o u c a n n o t s p e a k a fo reig n lan g u a g e well ju s t by le a rn in g lo n g lists o f
w o rd s, re p e a tin g m ec h a n ic a lly a fte r a ta p e r e c o rd e r a n d so o n.
F req u e n tly , h ow ev er, th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n useful e x e rc ise s a n d “fu n ” is
n o t as d ra m a tic as te a c h e rs th in k . G o o d te a c h e rs try to e n s u re th a t a s m a n y
a ctiv ities as p o ss ib le a re b o th . In s te a d o f a v o c a b u la ry test, w h y n o t play a
v o c a b u la ry g am e; if s tu d e n ts n e e d to d o w ritte n g ra m m a r p ra c tic e s, w hy n o t
m a k e so m e o f th e e x a m p le s a m u sin g .
 Student and Teacher

B e lo w is a lo g ic a l p u z z le . M a n y s tu d e n ts w ill e n jo y s o lv in g s u c h p u z z le s in
th e ir o w n la n g u a g e a n d th e re is n o re a s o n w h y th e y s h o u ld n ’t e n jo y th e m
in E n g lish . T h e a c tiv ity , h o w e v e r, a ls o h a s a v e ry s e rio u s p u rp o s e . T h is p a r ­
tic u la r p u z z le c a n o n ly b e d o n e if s tu d e n ts m a k e s e n te n c e s s u c h a s P eter
w ent to Rom e, o r P eter d id n ’t go to Rom e. It p ro v id e s p ra c tic e o f n e g a tiv e
fo rm s . It h a s a se rio u s, a n d c a re fu lly d e fin e d , s tru c tu ra l p u rp o s e — b u t is
still a p u z z le , a n d still fu n .

If th e ta sk itse lf is w o rth d o in g , a n d th e s tu d e n ts a re a c tiv e ly in vo lv ed , th e

a c tiv ity is likely to fulfil a c rite rio n w h ich te a c h e rs s h o u ld c o n s ta n tly k e e p in
m in d — it c o n ta in s tw o q u e s tio n s c o m p re s s e d in to o n e — Is this usefim ?

Mike, David, Susan, Jane and Richard all went to dif­

ferent places for their holidays. They all travelled in
different ways.

Who went to each place? How did each travel?

1. The person who went to Copenhagen went by

plane. It was not David.
2. Susan went by boat.
3. The person who went to London cycled.
4. Jane went to Rome.
5. Mike went by car. He didn’t go to Athens.

Fill in this table to help you.

Mark a if you know something is true.
Mark a X if you know something is not true.
Copenhagen
London

Athens
Rome

Plane
Paris

Train

Boat
Bike

Car

David

Mike X y
Susan X
Jane X
Richard
X"
Student and Teacher

1 3 . W e a ll le a r n b e st w h e n w e a r e re la x e d

T h e re is a b ig d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n le a rn in g y o u r o w n la n g u a g e in th e m o s t
n a tu ra l w a y p o s s ib le — in y o u r p ra m o r c o t m a k in g n o a p p a re n t e ffo rt, a n d
th e e ffo rt a n d c o n c e n tra tio n u s u a lly d e m a n d e d in s c h o o ls . W h a te v e r te a c h ­
e rs m a y th in k , it re m a in s th e c a s e th a t w e a ll le a rn b e s t w h e n w e a re m e n ­
ta lly re la x e d — o p e n to th e le a rn in g e x p e rie n c e . I f y o u fe e l p re s s u ris e d , o r
te n s e , e v e n i f y o u p e rfo rm a t th a t m o m e n t, y o u w ill p ro b a b ly fo rg e t.
L e a rn in g is a m e d iu m -to -lo n g -te rm p ro c e s s , a n d w e re a lly re ta in la n g u a g e
w h ic h w e u n d e rs ta n d a n d fe e l in v o lv e d w ith w h ile w e a re ‘o p e n ’. T h is is
n o t to d e n y th e v a lu e o f c o n c e n tra tio n — b u t it d o e s m e a n th a t te a c h e rs
s h o u ld a lw a y s try to g e n e ra te a re la x e d a tm o s p h e re , in v itin g ra th e r th a n
d e m a n d in g , a re s p o n se .

1 4 . S tu d e n ts c a n b e s ile n t, b u t s till in v o lv e d

Y o u n g (a n d n o t so y o u n g !) te a c h e rs te n d to ta lk to o m u c h . In a n e ffo rt to
c o u n te ra c t th is , tr a in in g c o u rs e s e n c o u ra g e th e m to re d u c e te a c h e r ta lk in g
tim e a n d in c re a s e s tu d e n t ta lk in g tim e . T h is is o fte n ju s tifie d o n th e g ro u n d s
th a t ‘i t ’s th e stu d e n ts w h o n e e d th e p ra c tic e ’. T h is a d v ic e is tru e — a s fa r
a s it g o e s. O f c o u rs e s tu d e n ts sh o u ld n o t b e le ft lis te n in g to th e te a c h e r d r o n ­
in g o n , a n d o f c o u rs e s tu d e n ts sh o u ld b e in v o lv e d in th e le ss o n . B u t th a t is
v e ry d if fe re n t fro m sa y in g th a t a ll stu d e n ts s h o u ld b e e n c o u ra g e d to sp e a k ,
o r th a t th e s tu d e n t w h o is n o t ta lk in g is n o t p a rtic ip a tin g .
I f y o u w e n t to stu d y a n y s u b je c t e x c e p t a la n g u a g e , y o u w o u ld a ss u m e
th a t y o u w o u ld s p e n d m o s t o f y o u r tim e lis te n in g — w ith n o s u g g e s tio n th a t
th is w o u ld b e b o rin g , o r th a t y o u w o u ld n o t b e in v o lv e d . S tu d e n ts n e e d
p le n ty o f o p p o rtu n itie s to s p e a k in la n g u a g e le s s o n s , b u t te a c h e rs m u s t
a v o id p re s s u ris in g s tu d e n ts in to sp e a k in g — p a rtic u la rly if th e s tu d e n ts a re
a d u lts . S o m e p e o p le n a tu ra lly v o lu n te e r th e ir v ie w s a n d id e a s fre e ly ; o th e rs
a re m o re re fle c tiv e p e rs o n a litie s . It is th e te a c h e r ’s jo b to in v o lv e e v e ry ­
b o d y , b u t n o t n e c e s s a rily to in v o lv e e v e ry b o d y in th e sa m e w a y . S o m e s tu ­
d e n ts c a n p a rtic ip a te fu lly w h ile sa y in g v e ry little . T h is c a n b e fru s tra tin g
fo r th e te a c h e r, b u t it is im p o rta n t to re a lis e th a t y o u a re th e re to a d a p t to
a n d h e lp th e stu d e n ts — n o t to im p o s e y o u r d e m a n d s o n th e m — c re a tin g
s tre ss a n d re d u c in g le a rn in g — a n d c e rta in ly n o t in a n e ffo rt to c h a n g e th e ir
p e rs o n a litie s .
I f y o u a re s e n s itiv e to th e p e o p le a ro u n d y o u , it is e a sy to te ll th e d if fe r­
e n c e b e tw e e n stu d e n ts w h o a re b o re d , a n d s tu d e n ts w h o a re s ile n t b u t
in v o lv e d . In th e fo rm e r c a se , p e rh a p s y o u n e e d to c h a n g e w h a t y o u a re
d o in g ; in th e la tte r c a se , w e su g g e s t th a t y o u sh o u ld re s p e c t th e s tu d e n t’s
p e rs o n a l d e c is io n . M a n y s tu d e n ts m a y g e n u in e ly e n jo y lis te n in g to y o u , o r
to o th e r stu d e n ts a n d , i f th e y a re re la x e d , th e la n g u a g e th a t th e y a re h e a rin g
c a n b e o f re a l b e n e fit to th e m . L e a m to re s p e c t th e fa c t th a t s tu d e n ts m a y b e
in v o lv e d in le a rn in g , w ith o u t n e c e s s a rily m a k in g a c o n trib u tio n to y o u r id e a
o f ‘a g o o d le s s o n ’.
 21

C h a p ter 2

B a s ic P r in c ip le s 2 —
L an gu age and L an gu age
L e a r n in g
M a rk e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u re a d th e c h a p te r.
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
t / if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. H ow y o u say s o m e th in g is s o m e tim e s as im p o rta n t a s what y o u say.

2. It h e lp s to c o n tr a s t th e s tu d e n ts ’ n a tiv e la n g u a g e w ith th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e .

3. T h e d ifficu lty o f a te x t d e p e n d s m o s tly o n th e v o c a b u la ry it c o n ta in s.

4 . N a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n is to o d iffic u lt f o r e le m e n ta ry stu d e n ts .

5. U su a lly s tu d e n ts s h o u ld h e a r s o m e th in g b e fo re th e y say it o r s e e it.

6 . 11 is n e v e r p o ss ib le to say This class has done the present perfect.

7. S tu d e n ts s h o u ld n o t u se th e ir m o th e r to n g u e in th e le sso n s.

8. R e p e titio n is a n im p o rta n t p a r t o f la n g u a g e lea rn in g .

9. T e a c h e rs s h o u ld u s e o n ly E n g lish in th e c la s sro o m .

10. S tru c tu ra l m is ta k e s s h o u ld alw ay s b e c o rre c te d .

B a s ic P r in c ip le s 2
L a n g u a g e a n d L a n g u a g e L e a r n in g

1. L a n g u a g e te a c h in g is te a c h in g la n g u a g e

A la n g u a g e is m a n y thing s — it is a sy stem , a c o d e , a se t o f c o n v e n tio n s, a

m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , to m e n tio n o n ly a few. T e a c h e rs o f a n y su b je c t
m u s t h a v e a c le a r id e a o f th e su b je c t th e y a re te a c h in g — n o t o n ly th e fac ts o f
th e su b je c t, b u t a ls o a n o v e ra ll v iew o f th e n a tu re o f th e su b je c t. T h is is as tru e
fo r th e la n g u a g e te a c h e r as fo r a n y o th e r te a ch e r.
W e h a v e a lre a d y e x p re ss e d th e view th a t le a rn in g is m o re im p o rta n t th a n
te ac h in g . T e a c h in g sh o u ld re fle c t th e s tu d e n ts ’ n e e d s . It sh o u ld a ls o re fle c t
th e n a tu re o f th e su b je c t. L a n g u a g e is a c o m p le x p h e n o m e n o n ; it c a n b e
v iew ed as m a n y d iffe re n t th ing s. G o o d la n g u ag e te a c h in g will re fle c t a v a rie ty
o f a sp e c ts o f lan g u ag e.

L a n g u a g e is a s y s te m
C e rta in ite m s in a la n g u a g e a c q u ire m e a n in g o n ly b y re la tio n to o th e r ite m s
in th e la n g u a g e — w o rd s su c h as I, with, which. M o r e im p o rta n tly c e rta in
s tru c tu re s in th e la n g u a g e c a n o n ly b e u n d e rs to o d in c o n tra s t w ith o th e r
s tru c tu re s — in E n g lish , fo r e x a m p le , th e p re s e n t sim p le a n d p re s e n t c o n tin ­
u o u s, o r th e p a s t sim p le a n d p re s e n t p e rfe c t. T h e s e a s p e c ts o f la n g u ag e as a
sy s te m n e e d to b e understood and internalised. T h e y c a n n o t sim p ly b e
le a rn e d b y h e a r t if le a rn e rs a re e v e r g o in g to b e a b le to u s e th e ta rg e t
la n g u ag e in a n o rig in a l way.
T h e te a c h e r w h o u n d e rs ta n d s la n g u a g e a s a sy ste m w ill se e th e n e c e ssity
f o r activ ities w h ic h le a d to u n d e rs ta n d in g .

L a n g u a g e is a h a b it
M a n y p ie c e s o f la n g u a g e a re le a rn e d in q u ite la rg e w h o le s (A Hello, how are
you ? B Fine thanks. A nd you ? It is norm al in m a n y v a rie tie s o f E n g lis h fo r B
to m a k e a positive re s p o n s e , a n d follo w w ith a n e n q u iry a b o u t th e o th e r p e r ­
so n .) H e r e th e e m p h a s is is n o t o n u n d e rs ta n d in g , b u t o n th e a b ility to
r e s p o n d a u to m a tic a lly . T h e te a c h e r w h o se e s la n g u a g e as h a b it w ill se e th e
n e c e ss ity fo r re p e titio n a n d in te n siv e o ra l p ra c tic e .

L a n g u a g e is a s e t o f c o n v e n tio n s
T h e p o sitiv e re s p o n s e re fe rre d to a b o v e (Fine thanks. A n d you ?) is p a rt o f a
so c ia l c o n v e n tio n . S o cial c o n v e n tio n s v a ry fro m c o u n try to c o u n try . U sin g
th e so c ia l c o n v e n tio n s o f o n e c o u tn ry in a n o th e r m a y le a d to
e m b a rra s s m e n t, c o n fu s io n o r m is u n d e rs ta n d in g . S u c h c o n v e n tio n s a re n o t
o n ly in th e s p o k e n la n g u a g e — a n o rm a l le tte r in E n g lish , e v e n a b u sin e ss le t­
ter, b e g in s D ea r . . . .
 Language and Language Learning

T h e te a c h e r w h o se e s la n g u a g e a s a s e t o f c o n v e n tio n s w ill se e th e n e c e s sity

o f c o n tr a s tin g th e c o n v e n tio n s o f th e la n g u a g e th e s tu d e n t is le a rn in g w ith
th o s e o f th e s tu d e n t’s o w n la n g u a g e o r society.
L a n g u a g e is a m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n
M o s t m o d e m te x tb o o k s a re b a s e d o n “th e c o m m u n ic a tiv e a p p r o a c h ” . T h e
e m p h a s is is o n th e fa c t th a t la n g u a g e is n o t u s e d in a v a c u u m b u t b y o n e p e r ­
so n to a n o th e r in o r d e r to c o m m u n ic a te a m e ssa g e . T h is v iew se e m s o b v io u s
b u t th e ac tiv ities o f th e tra d itio n a l la n g u a g e c la s s ro o m ig n o re d th is a s p e c t o f
la n g u a g e . S tu d e n ts fre q u e n tly r e a d te x ts in o r d e r Ito a n s w e r q u e s tio n s a b o u t
th e tex t. T h e only p u r p o s e o f s u c h te x ts w as f o r th e s tu d e n ts to e x a m in e th e
la n g u a g e o f te x t — th e la n g u a g e o f th e te x tb o o k w as n o t u s e d to
c o m m u n ic a te a n y th in g else; th e “c o m p r e h e n s io n ” q u e s tio n s w h ic h fo llo w e d
s u c h te x ts in v o lv e d th e s tu d e n ts tellin g th e te a c h e r w h a t th e te a c h e r a lre a d y
k new . If s u c h a c tiv itie s w e re c o m m u n ic a tiv e in a n y way, th e y c o m m u n ic a te d
n o t th e c o n te n t o f th e te x t, b u t th e fa c t th a t th e s tu d e n t h a d , o r h a d n o t,
m a s te re d th e la n g u a g e o f th e tex t. N o w a d a y s it is g e n e ra lly a g re e d th a t c o n ­
c e n tra tin g o n th e la n g u a g e a s a sy s te m “to b e le a r n e d ” is u n n e c e s s a rily
n a rro w . I t is p o s s ib le f o r s tu d e n ts to s tu d y m a te ria l o f re a l in te re s t to th e m ,
a n d to c o m m u n ic a te re a l id e a s o f th e ir o w n th r o u g h th e m e d iu m o f th e
la n g u a g e th e y a re le a rn in g .
T e a c h e rs w h o re c o g n is e la n g u a g e a s c o m m u n ic a tio n w ill s e e th e
n e c e s sity fo r g e n u in e ly in te re stin g te x ts, in d iv id u a lis e d te a c h in g , p a ir w o rk ,
fr e e p ra c tic e s , liste n in g p ra c tic e s a n d m a n y o th e r c la s s ro o m a ctiv ities.
A w o rd o f w a rn in g is, h o w e v e r, n e c essa ry . C o m m u n ic a tiv e la n g u a g e
te a c h in g h a s so m e tim e s b e e n m is u n d e rs to o d a n d te a c h e rs h a v e th o u g h t th a t,
f o r e x a m p le , a n y p a ir w o rk is c o m m u n ic a tiv e . T h is is n o t th e c a se . It is n o t th e
activity, b u t th e task a n d th e purpose f o r w h ic h th e la n g u a g e is u s e d , w h ic h
m a k e th e a ctiv ity a u th e n tic a lly c o m m u n ic a tiv e .
L a n g u a g e is a m e a n s to a n e n d
T h is is a n e x te n s io n o f th e id e a o f la n g u a g e as c o m m u n ic a tio n . L a n g u a g e is
n o t u s e d f o r its o w n sak e; it is u s e d f o r a p u r p o s e — to c o n v e y in fo rm a tio n ,
e m o tio n o r a ttitu d e ; to h e lp th e m e m o ry in n o te ta k in g ; to e n te r ta in a n d
in s tru c t in a play; to e x p lo re feelin g s a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g in p o e try . T h e list o f
u se s is a lm o s t e n d le s s b u t th e im p o r ta n t p o in t f o r th e la n g u a g e te a c h e r is th a t
la n g u a g e is u s e d f o r a p u rp o s e .
A t th is p o in t th e n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e c o n n e c ts to s o m e o f th e im p o rta n t
id e a s in th e p re v io u s c h a p te r. If th e te a c h e r c a n id e n tify th e p u r p o s e fo r
w h ic h th e s tu d e n ts n e e d la n g u a g e , th e te a c h in g c a n b e d ir e c te d to w a rd s h e lp ­
ing a c h ie v e th o s e o b je c tiv e s. T h is se e m s o b v io u s , b u t h a s v e ry ra d ic a l
im p lic a tio n s f o r m u c h la n g u a g e te a c h in g . M a n y s tu d e n ts o n a tr a d itio n a l
c o u rs e fo u n d th a t th e y k n e w a lo t o f s tru c tu re s b u t th a t th e y c o u ld n o t, f o r
e x a m p le , e x p re ss ir rita tio n o r o th e r e m o tio n s in th e la n g u a g e th e y h a d
le a rn e d . M o s t e le m e n ta ry s tu d e n ts o f a fo re ig n la n g u a g e w ill b e re a s o n a b ly
g o o d a t c o n v e y in g in fo rm a tio n b u t a lm o s t c o m p le te ly h o p e le s s a t c o n v e y in g
a n y s o r t o f e m o tio n . P e rh a p s s o m e sm all sy llab u s c h a n g e s c o u ld h e lp
stu d e n ts in th is a re a .
T h e te a c h e r w h o re c o g n ise s la n g u a g e as a m e a n s to a n e n d w ill se e
th e n e c e ss ity f o r lo o k in g a t why p a rtic u la r p ie c e s o f la n g u a g e a re u se fu l a n d ,
h a v in g s e e n th e ir p u rp o s e , w ill th e n b e a b le to se e th e ir u s e fu ln e ss (o r
o th e rw is e ) fo r stu d e n ts . A sim p le e x a m p le m a k e s th is m u c h c le a re r — n u r s ­
e ry rh y m e s a re p o p u la r w ith y o u n g c h ild re n , b u t why — w h a t is th e ir
Language and Language Learning

p u rp o s e ? T h e ir p o p u la rity re sts o n re g u la r rh y th m s a n d rh y m e s. In o th e r
w o rd s, th e y a re o fte n e x c e lle n t e x a m p le s o f th e s o u n d a n d stre s s sy ste m o f
th e lan g u ag e. T h e te a c h e r w h o se e s th is will s o o n see a u se fo r th e m in th e
c la ss ro o m ; th e te a c h e r w h o sim p ly th in k s o f th e m a s “c h ild ish ” will n o t see
th a t use.

L a n g u a g e is a n a tu r a l a c tiv ity
P e o p le w h o stu d y la n g u ag e so m e tim e s ta lk a b o u t language-like behaviour.
T h e te rm re fe rs to th e la n g u a g e o fte n fo u n d in o ld e r te x tb o o k s o r h e a rd in
to o m a n y c la ssro o m s;

A Is P e te r s h o r te r o r ta lle r th a n A la n ?
B A la n is s h o r te r th a n P eter.
A A h , so A la n is n o t a s tall a s Peter.
T h e w o rd s a re E n g lish ; th e s tru c tu re s a re E n g lis h b u t, s o m e h o w , w e d o n o t
b e lie v e th a t tw o re a l p e o p le w o u ld ever ta lk to e a c h o th e r lik e th a t. In th e
sa m e w a y te x tb o o k s c o n ta in te x ts w h ic h c o n ta in tw e lv e u s e s o f th e p re s e n t
c o n tin u o u s a n d n o o th e r te n s e fo rm . T h e y a re n o t la n g u a g e , th e y a re la n -
g u a g e -lik e b e h a v io u r.
T e a c h e rs w h o re c o g n ise th e d is tin c tio n im m e d ia te ly se e th e a b su rd ity o f
Yes, th a t’s right. N ow can you say it in a whole sentence please? T h is c a n b e
tr a n s la te d a s You have answered correctly using language,now please do it
again using language-like behaviour !
L a n g u a g e is a c o m p le x p h e n o m e n o n ; lan g u a g e te a c h in g sh o u ld re flec t th e
d iffe re n t a s p e c ts o f lan g u ag e. T h is sh o u ld b e q u ite e n o u g h to k e e p m o st
s tu d e n ts a n d te a c h e rs b u sy w ith th e ir lan g u a g e lesso n s. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e re
a re so m e th in g s w h ic h lan g u a g e is not, a n d th e s e sh o u ld not in te rfe re w ith
la n g ua g e lesso n s.

E n g lis h is n o t E n g la n d .
F o r s tu d e n ts w h o visit B rita in , it c a n b e in te re s tin g to k n o w so m e th in g a b o u t
th e c o u n try b u t it is e q u ally im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th a t m a n y s tu d e n ts re a d
E n g lish w h o will n e v e r visit B rita in . F o r som e s tu d e n ts it m a y m a k e se n s e to
d o a n e x e rc ise w h ic h u s e s a m a p o f L o n d o n ; fo r o th e r s tu d e n ts it m a y m a k e
m o re se n s e to u se a m a p o f th e ir o w n h o m e city. T h e re is a te m p ta tio n fo r
m a n y te a c h e rs — e ith e r n a tiv e B ritish te a c h e rs o r te a c h e rs w h o h av e v isited
B rita in , to th in k th a t w h a t th e y k n o w a b o u t B rita in sh o u ld fo rm p a rt o f th e ir
E n g lish lesso n s. W h ile all le sso n s a re im p ro v e d b y th e p e rs o n a l
to u c h ,te a c h e rs sh o u ld re m e m b e r th e y a re p rim a rily te a c h in g la n g u a g e , n o t
c u ltu re.

E n g lis h is n o t a sy lla b u s
S ch o o l sy stem s e ith e r h av e a n e xp licit sy lla b u s, o fte n s tru c tu ra lly a rra n g e d ,
o r a sy llab u s w h ic h is d e fin e d b y a n e x a m in a tio n sy stem . T h e re a re e xa m s,
w h ich a re im p o rta n t fo r stu d e n ts , a n d te a c h e rs c le a rly n e e d to ta k e a c c o u n t
o f th e e x a m re q u ire m e n ts . T h is d o e s n o t, h o w ev er, m e a n th a t ‘E n g lish ’ c a n b e
id e n tifie d w ith th e e x a m in a tio n syllabus. A s fa r as p o ss ib le it sh o u ld b e th e
s tu d e n ts ’ n e e d s, a n d th e real n a tu re o f la n g u a g e , w hich in flu e n c e w h a t h a p ­
p e n s in th e c la s sro o m , n o t th e a rb itra ry d e fin itio n s o f a n e x a m in a tio n syste m
w hich, u n fo rtu n a te ly ra th e r to o freq u e n tly , is o u t o f d a te o r in a p p ro p ria te .

E n g lis h is n o t “ m y ” E n g lish
N a tive s p e a k e rs h av e a te n d e n c y to b eliev e th a t “b e c a u se I say it”, a la ng ua g e
 Language and Language Teaching

ite m c o u ld , o r e v e n s h o u ld , b e ta u g h t to stu d e n ts. L a n g u a g e te a c h in g is a b o u t

selection , a n d th e c rite rio n I say it is a v e ry p o o r o n e .
N o n -n a tiv e te a c h e rs h a v e a sim ila r p ro b le m — th e y h a v e a te n d e n c y to
b elie v e th a t b e c a u s e th e y k n o w s o m e th in g , th e ir s tu d e n ts a ls o n e e d to k n o w
it. T h is m a y m e a n in tro d u c in g ‘e x c e p tio n s ’ to s tu d e n ts to o early, giving a lt­
e rn a tiv e w ays o f sa yin g th in g s, giving c o rre c t b u t c o n fu sin g in fo rm a tio n
{Subway in British English m eans a way under the road, b u t it’s the word fo r
an underground train in A m erican English. In British English that's called a
tube. A ll o f th a t is tru e , b u t d o s tu d e n ts n e e d to k n o w it?)
P e rh a p s m o s t te a c h e rs s h o u ld re m in d th e m se lv e s o n c e a w e e k th a t
w h a te v e r E n g lis h is, it is n o t a n o p p o r tu n ity fo r th e m to sh o w o ff w h a t th e y
k n o w in th e c la s sro o m .

E n g lis h is n o t a n a e s th e tic e x p e r ie n c e
M a n y n o n -n a tiv e lan g u a g e te a c h e r s h a v e stu d ie d E n g lis h e x te n siv e ly a n d
h a v e a c h ie v e d a very h ig h s ta n d a rd th e m se lv e s. T h e y m a y h a v e ta k e n real
p le a s u re in stu d y in g S h a k e s p e a re , D ic k e n s, o r m o d e m p o e try . F o r th e
m a jo rity o f th e ir s tu d e n ts , h o w ev er, s u c h a n id e a o f E n g lis h is v e ry fa r away.
S tu d e n ts m ay b e stu d y in g E n g lis h in o r d e r to re a d e c o n o m ic s o r c h e m istry ;
th e y m a y b e stu d y in g it f o r p ra c tic a l re a s o n s to d o w ith im p ro v in g th e ir jo b
p ro s p e c ts , o r th e y m a y b e stu d y in g it sim p ly b e c u a s e th e y h a v e to . S u ch
s tu d e n ts a re h a rd ly likely to b e e n c o u ra g e d if te a c h e rs try to p ro m o te th e
v iew th a t, fo r e x a m p le , “E n g lis h is a b e a u tifu l la n g u a g e ” . T h is is sim p ly
a n o th e r w ay o f th e te a c h e r sh o w in g off.
A s f a r as p o ss ib le e v e ry th in g w h ic h h a p p e n s in th e c la s s ro o m s h o u ld b e
in flu e n c e d b y tw o d e c isiv e crite ria :

Is this going to help these students to achieve their objectives ?

Does this activity reflect the nature o f language?
L a n g u a g e is a m e a n s to a n e n d ; la n g u a g e te a c h in g is, th e re fo re , a m e a n s
to a m e a n s to a n e n d . It is a ll to o e a s y f o r te a c h e rs to lo s e s ig h t o f th e u lti­
m a te g o a ls o f th e ir a c tiv ity . T h e y w ill re m a in c lo s e to th e s e i f th e y c o n ­
s ta n tly th in k o f th e ir s tu d e n ts , a n d th e n a tu re o f la n g u a g e .

2 . L a n g u a g e s a r e d iffe r e n t

L a n g u a g e s a re d iffe re n t in th e o b v io u s se n s e th a t a c e rta in o b je c t is re fe rre d

to as a table in E n g lish , ett bord m S w e d ish , a n d ein tisch in G e rm a n , b u t a lso
o fte n m o re fu n d a m e n ta lly in th e w ay th e y sy s te m a tis e reality.
T h e d iffe re n c e m a y o c c u r in a n y fe a tu re o f th e la n g u a g e . M a n y E u r o p e a n
la n g u a g e s p o ss e s s tw o ( o r m o re ) w o rd s w h ich a re th e e q u iv a le n t o f th e sing le
E n g lish w o rd you. E n g lish p o ss e ss e s tw o p o ssib ilitie s fo r “th e p re s e n t te n s e ” :
I think so . I ’m thinking a b o u t it.
w h ile m o s t E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e s p o s s e s s o n ly o n e fo rm e q u iv a le n t in p a r t to
b o th o f th e E n g lish fo rm s.
O n c e o u ts id e th e g ro u p o f c lo s e ly -a s so c ia te d E u r o p e a n lan g u a g e s, d iffe r­
e n c e s a p p e a r in m a n y o th e r a re a s. H e re a re s o m e m o r e u n u s u a l e x a m p le s:

In C h in e s e in to n a tio n c a n c h a n g e th e a c tu a l m e a n in g o f a w o rd — M A
sa id o n a level p itc h m e a n s m other ; b u t w ith a rise o f p itc h m e a n s horse.
Language and Language Learning

C e rta in la n g u a g e s e m p lo y g ra m m a tic a l c a te g o ris a tio n s w h ic h m e a n th a t th e

‘o b v io u s ’ d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n a n o u n a n d a v e rb in E n g lis h is n o t u se d.
F in n is h d o e s n o t u s e p re p o s itio n s , b u t its n o u n s h a v e a n e n o rm o u s
n u m b e r o f d iffe re n t fo rm s (cases).

R u ss ia n d o e s n o t p o ss e ss a rticles.

P ro n o u n s a re fre q u e n tly o m itte d in s p o k e n Ita lia n w h e re th e y w o u ld b e

n e c e ss a ry in E n g lish .

F re n c h a d je c tiv e s a g re e w ith n o u n s w h ile E n g lish a d je c tiv e s d o n o t

c h a n g e th e ir fo rm .

T h e list is a lm o s t e n d le ss.
W h ile la n g u a g e te a c h e rs d o n o t n e e d to b e c o n c e rn e d w ith p o ss ib le v a r­
ia tio n s, th e y d o n e e d to re c o g n ise th a t th e y c a n n o t ta k e fo r g ra n te d th a t
stu d e n ts w ill b e a b le to se e d iffe re n c e s w h ic h a re ‘o b v io u s ’ to n a tiv e sp e a k e rs ,
o r th o s e w ith a g o o d k n o w le d g e o f E n g lish .
In g e n e ra l, s tu d e n ts te n d to a ss u m e th a t th e la n g u ag e th e y a re le a rn in g
b e h a v e s sim ila rly to th e ir o w n n a tiv e lan g ua ge . T h is a s s u m p tio n w ill re s u lt in
th e m m a k in g in te rfe re n c e m ista k e s — c a rry in g o v e r th e p a tte rn s o f th e ir o w n
la n g u a g e in a p p ro p ria te ly to th e la n g u a g e th e y a re le arn in g . T e a c h e rs n e e d ,
o v e r a p e rio d o f tim e a n d in d iffe re n t w ays, to p e rs u a d e s tu d e n ts th a t
la n g u ag es a re d iffe re n t a n d th a t th e y m u s t n o t b e s u rp ris e d b y d iffe re n c e s.
W h e n o b v io u s d iffe re n c e s o c c u r, a tte n tio n sh o u ld b e d ra w n to th e m in
th e tea ch in g . M o re g en erally , h o w ev er, s tu d e n ts s h o u ld b e d is c o u ra g e d fro m
w o rd -fo r-w o rd tra n s la tio n a n d e n c o u ra g e d to u n d e rs ta n d , a n d to feel th a t
le a rn in g a fo re ig n la n g u a g e is le a rn in g to s e e th e w o rld th ro u g h n e w eyes.

3 . L a n g u a g e is w h a t, h o w a n d w h y

A lth o u g h m o s t c o u rs e b o o k s a re a rra n g e d stru c tu ra lly , k n o w in g a la n g u a g e

is m u c h m o re th a n k n o w in g th e stru c tu re s. T h e la n g u a g e c a n b e se e n in m a n y
w ays, b u t f o r te a c h in g p u rp o s e s th re e a re p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t — v o c a b u ­
la ry a n d s tru c tu re s a re what is said; p ro n u n c ia tio n , stre s s a n d in to n a tio n a re
how it is said , a n d fu n c tio n is why it is said. G o o d te a c h in g n e e d s to ta k e
a c c o u n t o f all th re e .
T h e w o rd s ‘s tru c tu re ’ a n d ‘g ra m m a r' a re o fte n m ix ed u p b u t th e re is a n
im p o rta n t d iffe re n c e in th e ir m e an in g . In th e s p o k e n lan g u a g e stre ss a n d
in to n a tio n a re p a r t o f th e g ra m m a r o f th e lan g u a g e a n d o fte n c o n trib u te as
m u c h as s tru c tu re to m e a n in g :

A Is th e re a n y th in g e lse w e n e e d ? A M ilk a n d su g a r?
B M ilk a n d sug ar. B P lease.

S tru c tu re s a re fre q u e n tly n o t e q u iv a le n t fro m la n g u ag e to lan g u ag e. T h e

sa m e is a lso tr u e o f stre s s a n d in to n a tio n p a tte rn s a n d o f h o w la n g u a g e fu n c ­
tio n s a re re a lise d in d iffe re n t lan g u ag es.
E n g lish, f o r e x a m p le , fre q u e n tly in d ic a te s d o u b t b y a risin g in to n a tio n a t
th e e n d o f a v e rb p h ra s e ; th is is n o t tru e in m a n y o th e r lan g u ag es.
Sim ilarly, E n g lis h p o ss e s se s a w o rd w h ic h m a rk s th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n a
n o rm a l a n d a n a b r u p t re q u e st — please — w hile a la n g u a g e a s c lo s e to E n g lish
as S w ed ish d o e s n o t p o s se ss this; c o n v e rse ly m a n y E u ro p e a n lan g u a g es
 L a n g u a g e a n d L a n g u a g e L e a r n in g

p o ss e s s a p h ra s e d ire c tly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e a c t o f o ffe rin g — s ’il vom plait,

bitte — w h ile E n g lis h d o e s n o t.
A c o u rs e w h ic h c o n c e n tr a te s to o m u c h o n s tru c tu re will le a ve s tu d e n ts
w ith a n u n b a la n c e d k n o w le d g e o f E n g lis h . L a n g u a g e te a c h e rs n e e d to m a in ­
ta in a b a la n c e s o s tu d e n ts a re a w a r e of, a n d p ra c tis e , e a c h o f s tru c tu re , stre ss
a n d in to n a tio n , a n d fu n c tio n . A lth o u g h in d iv id u a l p ra c tic e s fre q u e n tly
c o n c e n tr a te o n o n e o r o th e r o f th e s e , th e te a c h e r s h o u ld c o n s ta n tly h a v e all
th r e e in m in d a n d b e p r e p a r e d to a d d c o m m e n ts to p re s e rv e a b a la n c e .

4 . ‘L e v e l ’ is a c o m p l e x i d e a

S tu d e n ts le a rn in g a fo re ig n la n g u a g e fo llo w a syllab u s; th is m a y b e d e fin e d b y

a m in is try o f e d u c a tio n , b y th e sc h o o l, o r b y th e te x tb o o k b e in g fo llo w ed .
W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f s tu d e n ts w h o a re le a rn in g a la n g u a g e w h ile v isiting th e
c o u n tr y w h e re it is s p o k e n , h o w e v er, m o s t s tu d e n ts w ill b e e x p o s e d to th e
la n g u a g e in so m e s o r t o f s te p -b y -s te p a p p ro a c h . If th e sy llab u s is d e sig n e d
w ith re fe re n c e o n ly to s tru c tu r e th is a p p ro a c h c re a te s n o p ro b le m . T h e sylla­
b u s lists a n d se q u e n c e s th e s tru c tu re s th e s tu d e n t n e e d s to “k n o w ” . It is
p o ss ib le to say th a t s tu d e n ts ‘h a v e d o n e th e p re s e n t p e rfe c t’ a n d th a t th e n e x t
s te p is th e p re s e n t p e rfe c t c o n tin u o u s . U n fo rtu n a te ly , w e h a v e a lre a d y se e n
th a t la n g u a g e is m u c h m o r e th a n s tru c tu re , s o a n y sy lla b u s b a s e d only o n
s tru c tu re w ill h a v e se rio u s d e fe c ts.
A s s o o n as th e use o f la n g u a g e is in tro d u c e d , th e c o n c e p t o f level b e c o m e s
m u c h m o re d ifficu lt. H e r e a re s o m e o f th e fa c to rs w h ic h m a k e la n g u a g e
‘d iffic u lt’:
1. T h e o c c u rre n c e o f a lo t o f w o rd s th e r e a d e r o r lis te n e r d o e s n o t k now .
2 . R e a d in g a te x t w h ic h is w ritte n in c o m p le x r a th e r th a n s im p le s e n te n c e s .
3 . R e a d in g a te x t w ritte n in a p a rtic u la r sty le — n e w s p a p e r h e a d lin e s , official
le tte rs , sc ie ntific re p o rts .
4 . L is te n in g to a n o n -s ta n d a rd o r u n fa m ilia r a c c e n t.
5 . T h e density o f n e w la n g u a g e o r n e w id e a s.
6 . T h e le n g th o f th e te x t, e ith e r w ritte n o r sp o k e n .
In a d d itio n to all o f th e s e fa c to rs , th e r e is, fro m th e la n g u a g e te a c h in g p o in t o f
view , th e d ifficu lty o f th e task w h ich th e s tu d e n t is a s k e d to p e rfo rm . T h e re is,
fo r e x a m p le , a d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n h a v in g to u n d e r s ta n d e v e ry w o rd o f a tex t,
b e in g a b le to give a g e n e ra l id e a o f its m e a n in g , a n d b e in g a b le to p ro v id e a n
a c c u ra te p re c is o f it; th e re is a d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n h a v in g to u n d e r s ta n d all
th e d e ta ils o f a re c o r d e d ta lk o r d ia lo g u e a n d b e in g a b le to a n s w e r a single
sp e c ific q u e stio n .
T ra d itio n a l e le m e n ta ry la n g u a g e te a c h in g m a te ria l w as alw ay s w ritte n
specially. L a n g u a g e p re s e n te d to s tu d e n ts in th e e a rly sta g e s o f le a rn in g w as
sp e c ia lly ‘p ro c e s s e d ’ u s in g s tru c tu ra l c rite ria . A s th e level o f c o u rs e
in c re a s e d , m o re c o m p lic a te d s tru c tu re s w e re in tro d u c e d a n d te x ts g re w
lo n g e r b u t, o n th e w h o le , th e ta s k s th e s tu d e n ts w e re a s k e d to p e rfo r m
re m a in e d sim ilar.
M o d e m m e th o d s su g g est a w id e r c o n c e p t o f level is b e tte r. A c le a r
d is tin c tio n , fo r e x a m p le , n e e d s to b e m a d e b e tw e e n w h a t s tu d e n ts m u s t p ro ­
duce a n d w h a t th e y m u s t u n d e rs ta n d . A s s o o n a s th is is a c c e p te d , m a te ria l
w h ic h is s tru c tu ra lly b e y o n d th e s tu d e n ts ’ p ro d u c tiv e level m a y b e
in tro d u c e d to p ra c tis e understanding. T h is m e a n s th e w h o le p ro c e s s o f
la n g u a g e le a rn in g c a n b e m a d e m o r e n a tu ra l — re a l m a te ria ls , u sin g n a tu ra l
la n g u a g e , c a n b e in tro d u c e d in to a c o u rs e a t a m u c h lo w e r level th a n w o u ld
Language and Language Learning

b e p o ss ib le if o n ly s tru c tu ra l c rite ria w e re c o n s id e re d . S tu d e n ts c a n b e se t

re al, y et sim p le, ta s k s b a s e d o n a u th e n tic m a te ria l. S o m e tim e s te a c h e rs w ith a
stro n g ly s tru c tu ra l b a c k g ro u n d th e m s e lv e s a re c o n fu s e d b y th is m o d e m
a p p ro a c h . It m e a n s , fo r e x a m p le , th a t in s tru c tio n s g iven to s tu d e n ts in th e ir
te x tb o o k m a y in c lu d e s tru c tu re s w h ic h th e s tu d e n ts h a v e n o t officially m e t as
p a r t o f th e ir ‘le a rn in g f o r p ro d u c tio n ’ syllab u s.
T h e p rin c ip le is th a t level is a c o m b in a tio n o f fa c to rs — th e le n g th , d e n sity
a n d c o n te n t o f th e m a te ria l a n d , p e rh a p s m o s t im p o rta n d y , th e d ifficu lty o f
th e ta s k w h ic h th e s tu d e n t h a s to p e rfo rm .

5 . N a tu r a l la n g u a g e h a s a p la c e in a ll c o u r s e s

O n c e th e w id e r c o n c e p t o f level ju s t d is c u ss e d h a s b e e n a c c e p te d , it is self-
e v id e n t th a t th e re is o p p o rtu n ity to p ro v id e a m o re n a tu ra l a n d in te re stin g
b asis fo r la n g u a g e le a rn in g a t all levels b y in tro d u c in g a u th e n tic m a te ria l.
T e a c h e rs w h o th e m se lv e s le a rn e d a la n g u a g e th ro u g h a tra d itio n a l
s tru c tu re -b a s e d c o u rs e will re c a ll th e fru s tra tio n o f re a c h in g a g o o d
in te rm e d ia te level in th e ir c la s s ro o m s tu d ie s, o n ly to b e d is a p p o in te d w h e n
fa c e d f o r th e firs t tim e w ith try in g to u s e th e ir la n g u a g e in a n a tu ra l situ a tio n
— p e rh a p s e ith e r o n a visit to a c o u n try w h e re th e la n g u a g e w as sp o k e n , w ith
a n a tiv e sp e a k e r, o r w h e n th e ir te a c h e r finally ‘d a r e d ’ to b rin g a n a u th e n tic
te x t o r ta p e in to th e c la s sro o m .
O f c o u rs e it is n e c e s s a ry to p re -s e le c t a n d a rra n g e th e m a te ria ls f o r te x t­
b o o k s . T h e r e a re stro n g a rg u m e n ts fo r u sin g m a te ria ls w h ic h h a v e b e e n
spe c ia lly w ritte n , b u t n o t exclusively so. If s tu d e n ts a re e v e r to u s e th e
lan g u a g e o u ts id e th e c la s sro o m , su c h p re -s e le c tio n is n o t p o ssib le . A s tu d e n t
m a y a sk a sim p le q u e s tio n b u t th e r e is n o w ay o f m a k in g s u re th a t th e re p ly is
a lso sim p le. T h e b e g in n e rs ’ te x tb o o k m a y h av e ta u g h t a n sw e rs to Excuse me,
can you tell m e the way t o ... please? b u t th e s tu d e n t w h o a sk s fo r C ro w th e r
R o a d in a re a l situ a tio n m a y m e e t th e a n s w e r A re you going to the match
then ? T h e s tu d e n t visiting B rita in h a s to u n d e rs ta n d th e sa m e tim e ta b le o r
m e n u a s th e o n e u s e d b y n a tiv e sp e a k e rs . E v e n if th e te x tb o o k h a s n o t
e x p la in e d th e m e a n in g o f sats ex s tu d e n ts w ill n e e d to u n d e rs ta n d it if th e y
a re to a v o id b e in g la te f o r th e p e rfo rm a n c e !
R e a l m a te ria ls sh o w s tu d e n ts th a t, e v e n a t th e e a rlie st sta ge s o f th e ir le a rn ­
ing, w h a t th e y a re le a rn in g is u sefu l o u ts id e th e c la ss ro o m . T h e y a ls o re a ss u re
s tu d e n ts th a t w h a t th e y a re stu d y in g is real. T o o o fte n , p a rtic u la rly in sta te
sch o o ls, a fo re ig n la n g u a g e is n o t s o m e th in g real; it is a s u b je c t o n th e
tim e ta b le th r e e tim e s a w e ek , a s tra n g e in te lle c tu a l g a m e p la y e d w ith o n e o f
th e te a c h e rs.
F o r all th e s e re a so n s , it is a g o o d id e a to in tro d u c e so m e th in g re al in to th e
c la s sro o m — a short ta p e -re c o rd in g o f n a tu ra l sp e e c h , o r a p ie c e o f real
p rin te d m a te ria l — a tim e ta b le , a n a d v e rt, m e n u , fo rm , e tc. — e v e n if su ch
m a te ria l m ay in one sense b e ‘to o d iffic u lt’ fo r th e stu d e n t.
T h e p rin c ip le is th a t p ro v id in g th e ta s k th e s tu d e n ts a re a s k e d to p e rfo rm
w ith this m a te ria l is su fficien tly sim p le , su c h m a te ria ls a re m o tiv a tin g , a n d
e n s u re th a t th e su b je c t se e m s m o r e lively a n d re a l fo r s tu d e n ts a t a //le v e ls.

6 . K n o w in g th e la n g u a g e is n o t e n o u g h

E v e ry c la s s ro o m a c tiv ity s h o u ld h a v e a sp e cific lin g u istic p u rp o s e . A ll

 Language and Language Learning

n a tu ra l la n g u a g e u s e h a s a p u r p o s e — to give in fo rm a tio n , to e x p re s s e m o ­
tio n , to a d v a n c e a n a rg u m e n t, e tc . A m o m e n t’s th o u g h t re v e a ls th a t m u c h o f
th e la n g u a g e o f th e la n g u a g e c la s s ro o m d o e s n o t h a v e a p u r p o s e in th is way.
Is o la te d se n te n c e s p ra c tis e fo rm s a n d a r e in te n d e d to e n c o u ra g e th e s tu d e n t
to re m e m b e r th e fo rm , b u t th e y h a v e n o re a l c o m m u n ic a tiv e p u rp o s e . A s fa r
a s p o s s ib le , c la s s ro o m a ctiv itie s s h o u ld b e p la n n e d so th a t th e y d o h a v e a
re al, n a tu r a l c o m m u n ic a tiv e p u rp o s e .
T h e p u r p o s e o f m a n y la n g u a g e te a c h in g te x ts is to p r e s e n t la n g u a g e. T h is
u s e n e v e r o c c u rs o u ts id e th e la n g u a g e c la s s ro o m . I t is b e tt e r to p re s e n t th e
la n g u a g e in a te x t w h ic h is s tu d ie d f o r a p u r p o s e o th e r th a n la n g u a g e itself.
T h e s tu d e n t w h o is in te re s te d in le a rn in g to w in d s u rf w ill b e m o r e m o tiv a te d
to w o rk w ith a te x t w h ic h te a c h e s h im h o w to w in d s u rf th a n a te x t w h ic h
p re s e n ts e x a m p le s o f th e p r e s e n t p e rfe c t. N o b o d y re a d s a re c ip e w ith o u t
w o n d e rin g if th e y w ill e n jo y th e dish!
T h e m o s t effectiv e la n g u a g e te a c h in g w ill m e a n th a t th e s tu d e n ts a re s e t
re a listic ta s k s w h e re th e y use la n g u a g e f o r a p u r p o s e r a th e r th a n m a n ip u la te
it fo r its o w n sak e.
A n a p p ro a c h w h ic h is b a s e d o n th e p e rfo r m a n c e o f ta s k s b o th m o r e a c c u ­
ra te ly re fle c ts th e n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e , a n d is m o re lik ely to b o o s t th e s tu d e n ts ’
se lf-c o n fid e n c e . M a n y s tu d e n ts w h o “fail” o r a re d e -m o tiv a te d b y a n
a p p ro a c h b a s e d o n la n g u a g e f o r its o w n sak e , in c re a s e in c o n fid e n c e , a n d a re
h ig h ly m o tiv a te d by, a n a p p ro a c h w h ic h is b a s e d o n re a listic ta sk s. T h e
im p o rta n c e o f th e b o o s t to s tu d e n ts ’ c o n fid e n c e c a n n o t b e o v e r-e s tim a te d .

7. M o s t la n g u a g e s k ills c a n b e d iv id ed in to s u b -s k ills

W e h a v e se e n th a t level d e p e n d s o n m o r e th a n th e s tru c tu re s u s e d . A m o n g
o th e r th in g s it a ls o d e p e n d s o n th e le n g th o f th e te x t a n d th e d ifficu lty o f th e
task . O n e o f th e skills o f la n g u a g e teaching, is to h e lp s tu d e n ts b y b re a k in g
d o w n la rg e ta s k s in to sm alle r, m o r e d e ta ile d , ta s k s a n d se le c tin g th e c o rre c t
le n g th o f ‘te x t’. (T h e te r m ‘te x t’ re fe rs h e re to e ith e r a p r in te d tex t, o r a r e c o r d ­
ing).
T ra d itio n a l la n g u a g e te a c h in g h a s c o n c e n tr a te d o n th e s e n te n c e . M o d e m
th e o ry a n d re s e a rc h h a v e s h o w n th a t th is is n o t su fficie n t, f o r a t le a s t tw o
re a s o n s . F irstly, th e s tu d e n t w h o u n d e rs ta n d s in d iv id u a l s e n te n c e s w ill n o t
n e c e ss a rily b e a b le to tr a n s fe r th a t k n o w le d g e to th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
e x te n d e d (p rin te d ) tex t. E x te n d e d te x t h a s c e rta in fe a tu re s w h ic h d o n o t
o c c u r in in d iv id u a l s e n te n c e s — f o r e x a m p le , p a ra g ra p h s b e g in n in g w ith a
‘to p ic s e n te n c e ’ w h ic h is th e n e x p a n d e d ; th e re la tio n b e tw e e n g e n e ra l
s ta te m e n ts a n d e x a m p le s in c e rta in ty p e s o f a c a d e m ic w riting ; th e u s e o f c e r­
ta in w o rd s a n d p h ra s e s to s tru c tu r e e x te n d e d te x t (o n the other hand,
however, in a sim ilar way, conversely).
T h e s a m e p ro b le m a p p lie s to d ia lo g u e — c e rta in la n g u a g e u se s a re
c h a ra c te ris tic o f responses s o th a t if te a c h in g c o n c e n tr a te s o n in d iv id u a l
s e n te n c e s su c h im p o r ta n t u se s w ill n e v e r o c c u r. A s im p le e x a m p le is th e
m a n ip u la tiv e u s e o f th e a u x ilia ry in d ia lo g u e s s u c h as:

A I’v e ju s t g o t b a c k fro m h o liday . A W e w e n t to B ritta n y .

B O h h a v e y o u ? W h e re d id y o u g o ? B O h d id y o u ? D id y o u h a v e a g o o d
tim e ?

T h e s e c o n d d iffic u lty is r a th e r d iffe re n t; e x a m in a tio n o f tr a n s c rip ts o f n a tu ra l

Language and Language Learning

c o n v e rs a tio n sh o w th a t p e o p le v e ry ra re ly s p e a k in full se n te n c e s . A single

sp e a k e r o fte n p iles p h ra s e s o r c la u se s o n e o n to p o f th e o th e r; altern ative ly ,
s p e a k e rs m a y ‘in te rru p t’ e a c h o th e r u sin g p a r t o f w h a t th e p re v io u s s p e a k e r
sa id to c o m p le te th e ir o w n id ea . A t th e s a m e tim e n a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n is n o t
a d is o rg a n is e d ju m b le o f p h ra s e s ; o n th e c o n tra ry , it is c a refu lly s tru c tu re d
b u t, a n d h e re is th e im p o rta n t p o in t, th e s tru c tu re e x te n d s b e y o n d th e single
s e n te n c e a n d e v e n b e y o n d th e single ‘tu r n ’ o f o n e sp e ak e r.
In su m m a ry , n a tu ra l te x t is s tru c tu re d a t d iffe re n t levels — p h ra s e s , s e n ­
te n c e s , p a ra g ra p h s , a n d e v e n la rg e r u n its su c h as a w h o le c h a p te r o f a b o o k
o r a c o m p le te le c tu re . T h e a b ility to u se a lan gu ag e, b o th re c e p tiv e ly a n d
p ro d u ctiv ely , im p lie s a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s tru c tu re o f su c h sm all u n its as
p h ra s e s , a n d su c h la rg e u n its a s c h a p te rs. T ra d itio n a l la n g u a g e te a c h in g h a s
te n d e d to c o n c e n tr a te o n o n ly tw o u n its — th e s e n te n c e (fo r s tru c tu re ), a n d
th e in d iv id u a l p h o n e m e (fo r p ro n u n c ia tio n ). If lan g u a g e te a c h in g is to re flec t
w h a t la n g u a g e rea lly is, a n d h o w it is u s e d , te a c h e rs n e e d to b e a w a re o f a
w id e r ra n g e o f s tru c tu ra l d e v ic e s, a n d a w id e r ra n g e o f skills w h ich s tu d e n ts
n e e d in o r d e r to e n c o d e a n d d e c o d e la n g u ag e successfully. H e r e a re so m e
ex am p le s:
If a s tu d e n t’s la n g u a g e d o e s n o t p o s s e ss th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n / p / a n d / b /
a n d th e te a c h e r says No, not bin, pin. Listen, not bin, pin a n d th e s tu d e n t
p ro m p tly re p e a ts bin it is e a sy to a s su m e th a t th e stu d e n t c a n n o t m a k e th e
so u n d / p / ; in fact, it is p o s s ib le th a t th e s tu d e n t c a n n o t hear th e d istin c tio n .
T h e skill o f re c o g n itio n p re c e d e s th a t o f p ro d u c tio n . If te a c h e rs a re in a n y
d o u b t a b o u t th is th e y s h o u ld c o n s id e r th e d ifficu lty th e y w o u ld fa c e (a s su m ­
ing th e y d o n o t w rite A ra b ic ) in c o p y in g a n A ra b ic s e n te n c e a c c u ra te ly — th e
d ifficu lty is w e a re n o t s u re w h ic h o f th e “d o ts a n d squ igg les” a re significant;
w ith o u t re c o g n isin g w h a t is im p o rta n t, it is a m a tte r o f c h a n c e w h e th e r o r n o t
it is a c c u ra te ly re p ro d u c e d . T o o o fte n te a c h in g fails to m a k e th e d istin c tio n
b e tw e e n re c o g n itio n a n d p ro d u c tio n .
A n o th e r d ifficu lty a p p lie s w ith listening. L iste n in g is a g lo b a l te rm ; it involves
e v e ry th in g th a t w e h e a r — s o u n d s , stre s s p a tte rn s , in to n a tio n , c h a n g e s o f
p itc h , e tc. T h e w h o le m e s sa g e is c o n v e y e d b y a c o m b in a tio n o f th e s e fa c to rs.
F re q u e n tly lan g u a g e te a c h e rs a ss u m e th a t s tu d e n ts ’ u n d e rs ta n d in g o f w h a t
th e y h e a r is g lob al; in fa c t it c a n b e b ro k e n d o w n in to sub -sk ills. A single
w o rd re p e a te d o n a h ig h p itc h in E n g lish , fo r e x a m p le , c a n b e u s e d to sh ow
su rp ris e . A sim p le te a c h in g s e q u e n c e su c h a s th e fo llo w ing m a k e s th is c le a r
fo r stu d e n ts:
S tu d e n ts liste n to a ta p e o f a tw o -lin e d ia lo g u e :
A W e’re g o in g to K e n y a fo r o u r h o lid ay s.
B K enya!
T h e te a c h e r asks:
W h e re a re th e y g o in g f o r th e ir h o lid a y ? (Kenya).
H o w d o e s B feel! (Surprised).
H o w d o y o u k n o w ? (His voice goes up a lot).

T h is sim p le se q u e n c e e n s u re s th a t th e te a c h e r b re a k s d o w n th e g e n e ra l skill
o f u n d e rs ta n d in g (B is s u rp ris e d ) by d ra w in g a tte n tio n to th e su b -sk ill (listen
to p itc h , a n d p itc h c h an g e ).
In th e c a se o f listen ing , th e q u e s tio n p a ir H ow does X feel? H ow do you
know ? will o fte n e n s u re th e s tu d e n t c a n u n d e r s ta n d /in te r p r e t a re s p o n s e
a n d , th ro u g h th e s e c o n d q u e s tio n , b e led to a n a w a re n e ss of- th e source o f
 Language and Language Learning

su c h u n d e rs ta n d in g .

In a sim ila r w ay s tu d e n ts c a n b e e n c o u ra g e d to se e th e d e ta ils o f th e w ay a

w ritte n te x t is s tru c tu r e d b y th e te a c h e r a sk in g q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e u s e o f
s tru c tu rin g w o rd s su c h a s conversely, moreover, despite. In s u c h c a se s it is
a p p r o p r ia te fo r th e te a c h e r to a s k s tu d e n ts w h a t s o r t o f id e a th e w rite r is
g o in g to e x p re ss n ex t. O n c e a g a in , th e g e n e ra l p ro b le m o f ‘u n d e rs ta n d in g th e
te x t’ c a n b e b r o k e n d o w n in to a s e q u e n c e o f m o re sp e c ific p ro b le m s .
T h e p rin c ip le is th a t a lm o s t all la n g u a g e skills, b o th re c e p tiv e a n d p r o d u c ­
tive, c a n b e b ro k e n d o w n in to su b -sk ills th ro u g h th e u s e o f sp ec ific q u e stio n s.
T e a c h e rs m u s t re c o g n is e th a t it is u n re a lis tic to a s k s tu d e n ts to g o fro m
w ritin g a s e n te n c e to w ritin g a n essay, o r fro m a n sw e rin g a q u e s tio n to
e n g a g in g in n a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n . S tu d e n ts n e e d to b e h e lp e d b y b e in g
sh o w n , a n d sp ecifically ta u g h t, th e s tru c tu r e o f a p a ra g ra p h , h o w to lin k w h a t
th e y h a v e sa id to th e p re v io u s sp e a k e r, e tc . Skills n e e d to b e b r o k e n in to
su b -sk ills, a n d te a c h in g n e e d s to b u ild fro m sm a ll u n its to la rg e r, n o t le a p
fro m a d e ta il to th e w h o le .

8 . H e a r , s p e a k , r e a d , w r ite is a g o o d s e q u e n c e

O f c o u rs e th e re c a n b e n o a b s o lu te ru le s fo r th e “b e s t” o r d e r f o r p re s e n ta tio n
o f th e fo u r skills. In g e n e ra l, h o w e v e r, in th e c a se o f E n g lis h w h e re sp e llin g is
o fte n c o n fu sin g , th e s e q u e n c e a b o v e is u su a lly b e st. It is in te re stin g to n o te
th a t th is s e q u e n c e is n o t th e o n e e m p lo y e d in m o s t s c h o o l sy stem s, a t le a s t
u n til rec en tly. M a n y s tu d e n ts s ta rte d w ith w ritte n te x t, d id w ritte n e x e rc ises
w h ic h e n c o u ra g e d th e ir o w n w ritin g skills, a n d o n ly s u b s e q u e n tly liste n e d to
th e n a tu ra l lan g u a g e a n d s p o k e th e m se lv e s.
C o n s id e ra tio n o f h o w p e o p le le a r n th e ir o w n la n g u a g e s o o n le a d s to th e
o b v io u s p rim a c y o f listen ing . S o m e m o d e m th e o re tic ia n s m a k e th e d is tin c ­
tio n b e tw e e n la n g u a g e le a rn in g (c o n s c io u s) a n d la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n
(u n c o n s c io u s). If th is d is tin c tio n is a c c e p te d , it is c le a r th a t liste n in g o n c e
a g a in a s s u m e s p a rtic u la r sig n ific a n c e as, in a d d itio n to w h a t is lis te n e d to ,
m u c h o f w h a t is o n ly h e a rd in flu e n c e s th e u n c o n s c io u s a c q u is itio n a l p ro c e ss .
S o m e ra d ic a l e x p e rim e n ts h a v e b e e n d o n e w h ich sug ge st th a t it is p o ss ib le
to te a c h a la n g u a g e su c c e ssfu lly w h ile re q u irin g v e ry little o f th e p ro d u c tiv e
skills fro m th e s tu d e n ts d u rin g th e e a rly sta g e s o f te a c h in g . C a re fu lly se le c te d
liste n in g a n d re a d in g p a ss a g e s, c h o s e n so th a t th e m a jo rity o f th e c o n te n t will
b e c o m p re h e n s ib le to th e s tu d e n ts , h e lp a c q u is itio n a n d b u ild th e s tu d e n ts ’
c o n fid e n c e in th e ir ab ility to “m a n a g e ” th e fo re ig n la n g au g e. T h e s e e ffec ts
a re se e n la te r w h e n s tu d e n ts m a k e b e tte r th a n a v e ra g e p ro g re s s in th e
p ro d u c tiv e skills.
W ritin g a w o rd o n th e b la c k b o a r d b e fo re s tu d e n ts say it c a n c re a te u n n e ­
c e s s a ry p ro b le m s. T ry to fo llo w th e p a tte r n “say then see”.
If y o u u s e th e b la c k b o a rd f o r p ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e s , u s e p h o n e tic s o r
q u a si-p h o n e tic s.
A s o u n d c a n o fte n b e re p re s e n te d b y sev eral d iffe re n t sp ellin g s. / / / , fo r
e x a m p le , c a n a p p e a r a s “s h ”, “ss” o r “ti”. T h e la st se e m s to b e a r little
re s e m b la n c e to th e a c tu a l s o u n d a n d , if th e w o rd station is o n th e b la c k b o a rd ,
m e re ly p o in tin g a t th e w o rd will n o t n e c e ss a rily h e lp s tu d e n ts to p ro d u c e th e
rig h t so u n d .
If s tu d e n ts k n o w th e p h o n e tic sy m b o ls, u se th e se . If n o t, re p re s e n t th e
s o u n d s b y u sin g q u a s i-p h o n e tic s . T h e in itial s o u n d o f judge m ay, f o r e x a m -
Language and Language Learning

p ie, b e re p re s e n te d b y “d y ” a n d s tu d e n ts h e lp e d b y a sk in g th e m to re p e a t th e
se q u e n c e :
y e s, d -y e s, dy, dy
W ith o u t b e in g d o g m a tic a b o u t a se q u e n c e it is h e lp fu l to b e a r th e a b o v e , a n d
in p a rtic u la r th e p rim a c y o f listen ing , in m in d .

9 . L a n g u a g e le a r n in g is c y c lic a l

O ld -fa s h io n e d sy lla b u se s a s s u m e d th a t la n g u a g e le a rn in g w a s lin e a r; th e

s tru c tu re s o f th e la n g u a g e w e re p re s e n te d in a single se q u e n c e . T h e re c a m e a
p o in t w h e n s tu d e n ts h a d ‘d o n e th e p re s e n t p e rfe c t’. N o w a d a y s n o b o d y
b eliev es la n g u a g e le a rn in g is lin e a r; th e sa m e la n g u a g e ite m n e e d s to b e
stu d ie d a g a in a n d a g a in th ro u g h o u t a c o u rs e . T h e re a r e a t le a st th r e e re a so n s
w h y th is n e e d s to b e d o n e :

a . L e a rn e rs fo rg e t, so stra ig h tfo rw a rd re v isio n is n e c e ss a ry fro m tim e to tim e.

b. A d d itio n a l u se s o f a s tru c tu re n e e d to b e stu d ie d — irre g u la r p a s t te n s e

fo rm s a re n e e d e d to fo rm th e p a s t sim p le, b u t a re a ls o n e e d e d in m a n y c o n d i­
tio n a l se n te n c e s.

c . M o s t im p o rta n tly o f all, b u t th e re a s o n w hich is m o s t fre q u e n tly

o v e rlo o k e d , is th a t a s le a rn e rs a d v a n c e th e y n e e d to deepen th e ir
u n d e rs ta n d in g . It m ay, f o r e x a m p le , b e a g o o d id e a to te a c h th e p re s e n t
sim p le fo r r e p e a te d a c tio n s a n d th e p re s e n t c o n tin u o u s f o r a c tio n s a t th e
m o m e n t o f sp e a k in g a t o n e sta g e o f a s tu d e n t’s c o u rs e , b u t th is is in n o se n se
the re a s o n fo r u sin g th e s e te n s e fo rm s. N o r is th is a n e x p la n a tio n o f th e
fu n d a m e n ta l d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o v e rb fo rm s. A s s tu d e n ts m e e t u se s
w h ic h c o n tr a d ic t th a t e x p la n a tio n (fo r e x a m p le , th e p re s e n t c o n tin u o u s
re fe rrin g to fu tu re tim e , I ’m playing tennis on Saturday; th e p re s e n t sim p le to
re fe r to m o m e n ta ry a c tio n s p re c is e ly a t th e m o m e n t o f sp e a k in g , A h , now I
see what you m ean) it is n e c e s s a ry to re -e x a m in e all p re v io u s stu d y of, in th is
c a se, th e p re s e n t sim p le a n d p re s e n t c o n tin u o u s , so th a t s tu d e n ts g ra d u a lly
b u ild u p a c o m p re h e n s iv e view o f th e u n d e rly in g d iffe re n c e in th e u se o f
th e s e fo rm s. It is u n re a s o n a b le to e x p e c t th a t th e y w ill d o th is b y h av in g a p a r ­
tic u la r d iffe re n c e e x p la in e d to th e m w h e n th e y first m e e t th e fo rm , a n d th e n
a llo w in g s tu d e n ts to m e e t e x a m p le s o f d iffe re n t u ses. L a n g u a g e is a sy ste m
a n d , if th e te a c h in g is to re fle c t th is, te a c h e rs m u s t b e p re p a r e d to re tu rn a g a in
a n d a g a in to e x a m in in g c e rta in fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m s o f th e lan g u ag e.
S tr u c tu ra l e x a m p le s in E n g lis h w o u ld b e th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n c o u n ta b le
a n d u n c o u n ta b le n o u n s , th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n c o n tin u o u s a n d
n o n -c o n tin u o u s fo rm s, a n d th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n p re s e n t p e rfe c t a n d p a st
sim ple.
T h e cyclical n a tu re o f lan g u a g e le a rn in g is n o t, h o w ev er, c o n fin e d to
s tru c tu re ; it re la te s to all a re a s o f la n g u a g e le arn ing . A sim p le a n d o b v io u s
e x a m p le is p ro n u n c ia tio n . T h e re is n o g u a ra n te e th a t, o n c e s tu d e n ts h av e
p ro d u c e d a s o u n d in th e la n g u a g e c o rre c tly th e y will n e v e r m is -p ro n o u n c e it
again; o n th e c o n tra ry , c e rta in ty o f p ro n u n c ia tio n c o m e s o n ly a fte r lon g
p ra c tic e .
W e h a v e a lre a d y d is c u s s e d th a t th e c o n c e p t o f level is p a rtly a q u e s tio n o f
extent It is a ls o , a s s tu d e n ts im p ro v e , a q u e s tio n o f appropriacy — it m a y b e
su ffic ien t f o r b e g in n e rs to “say w h a t th e y m e a n ” u sin g th e few w o rd s a n d
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p h ra s e s a t th e ir d is p o s a l b u t, a s th e ir la n g u a g e p ro g re s s e s , th e la n g u a g e
c h o s e n s h o u ld b e a p p ro p ria te . In c o n v e rs a tio n , f o r e x a m p le , th is w ill m e a n
th e y le a rn n o t sim p ly to a n s w e r q u e s tio n s , b u t a ls o to ta k e m o r e in itiativ es.
A n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th is is re fle c te d in c y clical la n g u a g e te a c h in g n o t fro m
w e e k to w eek , b u t w ith a s h o r t s e q u e n c e w ith in a sing le le s so n . A n e x a m p le
w o u ld b e th e u s e o f c o m m u n ic a tiv e p a irw o rk — p a irs o f s tu d e n ts a re a sk e d
to d o a n in fo rm a tio n g a p p ro b le m . O n e o f th e p a irs is a s k e d to ‘p e rfo r m ’ th e ir
d ia lo g u e f o r th e c lass. A ll o f th e c la s s a re th e n in v ite d to c o m m e n t — n o t o n ly
o n “m ista k e s”, b u t a ls o o n a lte rn a tiv e , b e tt e r w ays o f sa yin g th in g s a n d , m o s t
im p o rta n tly o f all, o n a n y th in g w h ic h th e p a ir m iss e d o u t c o m p le te ly .
A n o th e r p a ir is th e n a s k e d to p e rfo r m , a v o id in g th e m is ta k e s a n d p ro d u c in g
a fuller, m o r e n a tu ra l, v e rs io n o f th e d ia lo g u e . I f n e c e s s a ry th e p ro c e s s is
re p e a te d . A p ra c tic e o f th is k in d is n o t fin is h e d w h e n it h a s b e e n d o n e o n c e , it
n e e d s to b e r e p e a te d b o th in th e le s so n , o n a s h o r t te r m cy cle, a n d , p e rh a p s , a
n u m b e r o f le s so n s la te r, o n a lo n g e r-te rm cycle.
T e a c h e rs a n d s tu d e n ts a re w ell a w a r e th a t d o in g e x a c tly th e s a m e th in g
tw ice is b o rin g . It is th e r e fo re o f p a rtic u la r im p o r ta n c e th a t te a c h e rs re c o g ­
n is e th a t th e “re p e a ts ” w ith in a n y c y clical le a rn in g a re n o t e x a c t re p e a ts —
e a c h r e p e a t m u s t b e a d e v e lo p m e n t. T e a c h e rs m u s t n o t b e a fra id o f d o in g
w h a t se e m s to th e s tu d e n ts th e s a m e th in g m o re th a n o n c e . If it d o e s a p p e a r
so to th e s tu d e n ts th e n th e te a c h e r s h o u ld b e p r e p a r e d to e x p la in why
s o m e th in g is b e in g d o n e a g a in , a n d how the r e p e a t w ill b e d iffe re n t fro m th e
p re v io u s p e rfo rm a n c e . T h e p a th fro m k n o w in g n o th in g to b e in g a b le to
p e rfo rm n a tu ra lly a n d s p o n ta n e o u s ly is a d iffic u lt o n e . It is e s s e n tia l fo r
s tu d e n ts to g o fo rw a rd s te p -b y -s te p a n d , if th e r e a r e d ifficu lties, to r e p e a t
th o s e s te p s w h ic h th e y fin d d ifficu lt.
V e ry o fte n s tu d e n ts fin d th e e a rlie s t sta g e s o f le a rn in g a fo re ig n la n g u a g e
fu n b e c a u s e th e y fe e l th e y a re m a k in g c o n s id e ra b le p ro g re s s. A fte r a w h ile
p ro g re s s se e m s slo w e r a n d th e e x c ite m e n t is lost. T e a c h e rs c a n h e lp s tu d e n ts
a t th is level b y e m p h a s is in g th a t la n g u a g e le a rn in g is n o t o n ly a b o u t le a rn in g
n e w la n g u a g e , b u t a ls o a b o u t le a rn in g to p e rfo r m m o r e d iffic u lt ta s k s w ith
th e la n g u a g e y o u a lr e a d y know .
L a n g u a g e le a rn in g d o e s n o t c o n s is t o f p ilin g little b ric k s o f k n o w le d g e o n e
o n to p o f th e o th e r. T h e p ro c e s s is m o r e c o m p lic a te d th a n th a t a n d in v o lves
rev isin g , e x te n d in g k n o w le d g e o f th e u s e o f, a n d e x te n d in g u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
th in g s w h ic h y o u h a v e a lre a d y m e t.

1 0 . L a n g u a g e is u s e d fo r d iffe r e n t p u r p o s e s in th e c la s s r o o m

C o n s id e r a le s so n w h ic h s ta rts in th e fo llo w in g way:

T is th e te a c h e r, C is th e w h o le c la ss, S I , S 2 e tc . in d iv id u a l stu d e n ts .
T G o o d m o rn in g e v e rb o d y , p le a s e sit d o w n .
C G o o d m o rn in g .
T N o w , S I , d id y o u w a tc h th e g a m e la s t n ig h t?
SI I d id n ’t g o , b u t I se e d it o n TV.
T Y o u d id w h a t?
51 I s e e d it o n T V
T S e e d ? Is th a t r i g h t ? . . . re m e m b e r, it’s i r r e g u l a r . . . W e say w a tc h ,
w a tc h e d , b u t w e d o n ’t say se e, se e d . W h a t d o w e sa y ... ?
52 Saw.
T T h a t’s rig h t, saw. S o w h a t d id y o u d o S 1 ?
Language and Language Learning

SI I saw it o n TV.
T G o o d . E v e ry b o d y say th a t p lease.
C I saw it o n TV.
T W h a t a b o u t y o u , S 3 ? D id y o u go o r d id y o u se e it o n T V ?

It is e a sy to se e th a t th e te a c h e r’s la n g u ag e is u s e d f o r v e ry d iffe re n t re a so n s
h e re . W h a t b e g in s so c ia lly — p e rh a p s th e c la ss ta lk e d in a p re v io u s lesso n
a b o u t s o m e lo c a l s p o r t — s o o n b e c o m e s te a c h in g w h e re th e te a c h e r h a s to
c o rre c t, give a n e x a m p le , give a n in s tru c tio n , c o m m e n t a n d e x p lain .
In a c h e m is try le s so n n o b o d y c o n fu se s w h a t is b e in g ta u g h t (c h e m istry )
w ith th e m e d iu m w h ich is b e in g u s e d to te a c h it, b u t su c h c o n fu s io n c a n a rise
in a n E n g lis h lesson . T e a c h e rs s h o u ld try alw ays to b e a w a re o f why th e y a re
u sin g a p a rtic u la r p ie c e o f la n g u a g e in th e le sso n . If s tu d e n ts a re g o in g to u se
th e la n g u a g e ite m it m u s t b e s u ita b le f o r th e ir a ctiv e v o c ab u lary . O n th e o th e r
h a n d th e re is n o re a s o n a t all w h y th e te a c h e r sh o u ld n o t u se la ng ua g e
so cially w h ic h is o u ts id e th e s tu d e n ts ’ p re s e n t a c tiv e k n o w le d g e ( What are
you up to ? w h e n a s tu d e n t is c a u g h t d o in g s o m e th in g u n e x p e c te d ).
M a n y B ritis h s c h o o lte a c h e rs re ly h ea vily o n iro n y a n d p le a s a n t sa rc a s m
to c re a te th e g e n e ra l a tm o s p h e re o f th e ir c lasses a n d e v e n a s a fe a tu re o f d is ­
cipline . T h is k in d o f lin g u istic b e h a v io u r is v ery s o p h is tic a te d — o fte n
d e p e n d in g o n w id e k n o w le d g e o f th e la n g u a g e , slang, a n d a n e a r fo r
in to n a tio n . It is e a sy to see th a t it is th e re fo re in a p p r o p ria te to in tro d u c e th is
k in d o f ling u istic b e h a v io u r in to fo reig n lan g u a g e c lasses.
T h is d o e s n o t m e a n th a t c la sse s n e e d to b e h u m o u rle s s — v isua l jo k e s,
jo k e s w h ic h d e p e n d u p o n th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n y o u a n d y o u r stu d e n ts ,
a n d fu n n y sto rie s , w h e re th e jo k e h a s a n a rra tiv e line, c a n all b e u se d .
L in gu istic jo k e s , o n th e o th e r h a n d , will u su ally fall flat, a n d n o t in fre q u e n tly
re s u lt in y o u b e in g a s k e d f o r e x p la n a tio n s w h ic h tu r n o u t to b e lon g , ra m b l­
ing, a n d slightly e m b a rra ssin g !
T h e p rin c ip le is th a t te a c h e rs n e e d , e v en in th e h u rly -b u rly o f a le sso n , to
b e a w a re o f th e fu n c tio n o f th e d iffe re n t th in g s th e y a re saying if th e y a re to
a v o id sw a m p in g th e ir s tu d e n ts w ith u n n e c e s s a ry a n d c o n fu sin g lan g u a ge .

11. D o n o t b e afraid o f th e s tu d e n ts ’ m o th e r to n g u e

T h e re is a re a l d a n g e r in w o rd -fo r-w o rd tr a n s la tio n b u t th is d o e s n o t m e a n

th a t it is a g o o d id e a to b a n th e s tu d e n ts ’ m o th e r to n g u e fro m th e c la s sro o m .
T h e re a re situ a tio n s w h e re th e s tu d e n ts ’ m o th e r to n g u e is o f p a rtic u la r use:

a . If s tu d e n ts n e e d to d is c u ss a d ifficu lty w ith th e te a c h e r, a n d th e te a c h e r

u n d e rs ta n d s a n d c a n s p e a k th e s tu d e n ts ’ m o th e r to n g u e w ell, th e r e is n o
re a s o n to m a k e th e d is c u ss io n artificially d ifficu lt b y in sistin g th a t it ta k e s
p la c e in E n g lish.

b. If s tu d e n ts a re w o rk in g in g ro u p s p re p a rin g o r d isc u ssin g m a te ria l a n d all

th e s tu d e n ts h a v e th e sa m e m o th e r to n g u e it is not e sse n tia l th a t th e w h o le
d is c u ss io n ta k e s p la c e in E n g lish . W h ile th is m ay b e d e s ira b le , w ith m o s t
c la sse s it is su fficie n t to e n s u re th e a ctivity is u se fu l if th e re p o rts o f th e
g ro u p s , a n d th e general c la ss d is c u ss io n o f th e in d iv id u a l g ro u p re p o rts , is in
E n glish .

T h e re a re c o n s id e ra b le a d v a n ta g e s to a llo w in g b o th la n g u a g e s in th e c la ss­
 Language and Language Learning

ro o m — so m e s tu d e n ts will h a v e id e a s b u t n o t th e E n g lis h to e x p re ss th e m ;
o th e rs will h a v e th e E n g lis h b u t n o t th e id e a s. P e rm ittin g b o th la n g u a g e s —
p re fe ra b ly in c le a rly d e fin e d a re a s — u s u a lly e n s u re s th a t m u c h o f th e w o rk is
m o r e in te re s tin g , a n d th a t u ltim a te ly a h ig h e r s ta n d a rd o f E n g lis h is a c h ie v e d .

1 2 . M o to r s k ills n e e d p r a c tic e

L a n g u a g e is a c o m p lic a te d p h e n o m e n o n , a n d la n g u a g e le a rn in g a c o m p li­
c a te d p ro c e ss . It in v o lv es skills o f d iffe re n t ty p e s, a n d s o m e o f th e s e skills a re
p u re ly p h ysical. R e c o g n isin g a n d m a k in g th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n / b / a n d
/ p / , o r / l / a n d / r , if y o u a re n o t fa m ilia r w ith th e s e d is tin c tio n s in y o u r o w n
la n g u a g e , re q u ire s a lo t o f p ra c tic e .
A t all stag es o f le a rn in g , b u t p a rtic u la rly th e e a rly sta ge s, s tu d e n ts n e e d a
lo t o f p ra c tic e o f sim p ly “g e ttin g th e ir to n g u e s a r o u n d th e w o rd s ”.
T ra d itio n a l q u e s tio n a n d a n s w e r te c h n iq u e s a re v ery in e ffic ie n t fo r this.
T e a c h e rs c a n im m e d ia te ly im p ro v e b y m a k in g it a general p ra c tic e to a s k th e
w h o le class to r e p e a t n e w w o rd s in c h o ru s , o r to r e p e a t th e c o rre c t a n s w e r
a fte r a n in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t h a s g iven it.
A s k in g f o r re p e titio n s in th is w ay n e e d n o t slo w th e class u p . If s tu d e n ts
u n d e rs ta n d th a t th e y a re re g u la rly e x p e c te d to r e p e a t a n e w ite m c h o ra lly
tw o o r th r e e tim e s, a fte r it h a s b e e n in tro d u c e d , su c h p ra c tic e c a n se rv e to
b rin g th e c lass to g e th e r a n d to s p e e d u p le sso n s.
F o r th o s e s tu d e n ts w h o se w ritin g sy s te m d o e s n o t u s e th e s a m e a lp h a b e t
a s E n g lis h th e re will b e sim ila r d ifficu ltie s in th e m o to r skills a s s o c ia te d w ith
w ritin g .
T e a c h e rs w h o h a v e b e e n b ro u g h t u p o n “a c o m m u n ic a tiv e a p p ro a c h ”
so m e tim e s fo rg e t th e im p o rta n c e o f p ra c tis in g b a s ic m o to r skills. If y o u c a n ­
n o t a rtic u la te w h a t y o u w a n t to say, o r if y o u r w ritin g is c o m p le te ly illegible,
y o u will c o m m u n ic a te n o th in g !

1 3 . D is tin g u is h c le a r ly b e tw e e n accuracy and flu e n c y

p r a c tic e s

L a n g u a g e le a rn in g h a s tw o d is tin c t o b je c tiv e s — le a rn in g to u s e th e la n g u a g e
a s a n effectiv e m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , a n d , m o r e fo rm a lly , u sin g th e
la n g u a g e a c c u ra te ly . T o s o m e e x te n t th e tw o o b je c tiv e s o v e rla p — th e s tu d e n t
w h o m a k e s too m a n y m is ta k e s w ill n o t c o m m u n ic a te w ell. O n th e o th e r
h a n d , it is fre q u e n tly p o s s ib le , a n d f o r s o m e s tu d e n ts n e c e ssa ry , to
c o m m u n ic a te effectiv ely e v e n if th e m e s sa g e c o n ta in s a fa irly h ig h
p r o p o r tio n o f fo rm a l e rro rs .
T ra d itio n a l la n g u a g e te a c h in g p la c e d a g re a t e m p h a s is o n a c c u ra c y a n d
te a c h e rs w e re e n c o u ra g e d to c o r r e c t m ista k e s. T h e m is ta k e s th e y c o rre c te d
w e re a lm o s t alw ays th o s e w h ic h th e s tu d e n ts h a d p o sitiv e ly m a d e — m o s tly
e rro r s o f p ro n u n c ia tio n a n d s tru c tu re . M is ta k e s w h ic h s tu d e n ts d id n o t m a k e
— o m iss io n s — th in g s th e y d id n o t e v e n a tte m p t to say — w e re n o t
“c o r r e c te d ”. T e a c h e rs w o rrie d a lo t a b o u t when to c o r r e c t — im m e d ia te ly a
m is ta k e w as m a d e , o r as a fo llo w -u p a fte r th e e n d o f a p ra c tic e .
T h e d ile m m a h a s b e c o m e m o r e a c u te a s m o r e a n d m o r e e m p h a s is is
p la c e d o n c o m m u n ic a tiv e la n g u a g e te a c h in g . T h is h a s re s u lte d , fo r e x a m p le ,
in m o re s tu d e n ts d o in g p a ir o r g ro u p w o rk . M o s t te a c h in g s e q u e n c e s n o w
inv o lv e b o th c o n tro lle d a n d fre e p ra c tic e s.
Language and Language Learning

M o s t o f th e d ile m m a s a re so lv ed p ro v id in g th e te a c h e r h a s c le a rly in m in d a
single d is tin c tio n — is th e e m p h a s is o f th is a c tiv ity o n accuracy, o r o n flu ­
ency ?
T h e r e is a te n d e n c y fo r te a c h e rs to b e lie v e b e g in n e rs re q u ire o n ly
a c c u ra c y p ra c tic e , a n d m o re a d v a n c e d s tu d e n ts only flu e n c y p ra c tic e . T h is is
n o t tr u e — th e b e s t la n g u a g e te a c h in g o ffe rs b o th k in d s o f p ra c tic e a t all
levels.

T e a c h e rs s h o u ld m a k e c le a r to th e ir s tu d e n ts th a t in a p ra c tic e w h ic h
c o n c e n tra te s o n a c c u ra c y all im p o rta n t m ista k e s w ill b e c o rre c te d . A c c u ra c y
p ra c tic e s a re e ss e n tia lly c la s s ro o m a ctiv ities — th e y p la c e th e e m p h a s is o n
la n g u a g e learning. T h e y a re , u n fo rtu n a te ly , n o t v e ry ex citing , b u t a re a n
im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss.
In flu e n c y p ra c tic e s te a c h e rs m u s t not c o rre c t e v e ry m ista k e , a n d in d e e d
m u s t p o sitiv e ly e n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts to u s e all m e a n s a t th e ir d is p o sa l to g e t
th e ir m e s sa g e a c ro ss . I f th is in v o lves u sin g th e ir h a n d s , d ra w in g , m a k in g u p
n e w w o rd s, e tc. th is is all to th e g o o d . T h is is w h a t p e o p le d o in re a l life w h e n
th e y h a v e to g e t a m e s sa g e a c ro ss in a la n g u a g e th e y k n o w o n ly im p e rfe ctly .

1 4 . I n te r e s tin g c o m m u n ic a tiv e ta s k s in c r e a s e m o tiv a tio n

S p e a k in g a fo re ig n la n g u a g e is a c o m p le x skill. N o t su rp ris in g ly la n g u a g e
te a c h e rs try to sim p lify f o r th e ir s tu d e n ts . S o m e tim e s, h o w ev er, th e p ro c e s s
o f sim p lific a tio n c a n b e c o u n te r-p ro d u c tiv e . V e ry few in te re stin g te x ts c o n ­
tain o n ly o n e te n s e fo rm a n d n o n a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n o c c u rs in w h ic h th e
s p e a k e rs c o n c e n tr a te e n tire ly o n s tru c tu re a n d ig n o re in to n a tio n . In so m e
w ays, as s o o n a s th e la n g u a g e is d is se c te d , lik e th e ra b b it w h ic h is d is s e c te d in
th e la b o ra to ry , it is d e a d . W h ile th e b io lo g y te a c h e r c a n ju stify d is se c tin g one
ra b b it, it is im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th a t m o s t c h ild re n w o u ld r a th e r p la y w ith
ra b b its th a n d is se c t th e m .
S o m e tim e s th e la n g u a g e te a c h e r c a n ju stify d is se c tin g w h a t is h a p p e n in g .
It m a y h e lp to is o la te a s tru c tu re , to p ra c tis e ir re g u la r fo rm s, to re p e a t
d ifficu lt s o u n d s , etc. S u ch a ctiv ities, h o w ev er, a re a lo n g w a y fro m e n su rin g
th a t th e s tu d e n ts c a n u n d e rs ta n d a n d u se th e la n g u a g e. T h e re is a d a n g e r th a t
to o m u c h fo rm a l a ctiv ity o f th is k in d e n su re s th a t s tu d e n ts c a n g o th ro u g h th e
“tric k s ” w h ic h a re p a r t o f th e ir e x a m in a tio n , b u t w h ic h h a v e little to d o w ith
d e v e lo p in g th e ir a b ility to u s e a fo re ig n la n g u a g e n atura lly .
O n e o f th e p rin c ip a l w ays th e te a c h e r m o v e s in th e d ire c tio n o f m o re
highly m o tiv a tin g la n g u a g e te a ch in g , a n d te a c h in g w h ic h is m o r e likely to
affect th e s tu d e n ts ’ g e n e ra l a b ility to u se th e la n g u a g e, is to d is s e c t less, a n d to
p a y m o re a tte n tio n to se ttin g s tu d e n ts tasks w h ic h d e v e lo p th e skills
n e c e ss a ry to fin d a so lu tio n .
T h e ta s k s m a y b e o f m a n y d iffe re n t k in d s. T h e fo llo w in g a re o n ly a few
e x a m p les:

1. If to u ris ts o r o th e r v isito rs a re to b e fo u n d in y o u r to w n s tu d e n ts c a n p r e ­
p a re a q u e s tio n n a ire th e n g o o u t a n d in te rv ie w p e o p le .

2 . S tu d e n ts c a n p re p a r e a sim p le g u id e to th e ir to w n o r re g io n . W h y sh o u ld
th e y d o th is in E n g lis h ? — id e a lly y o u s h o u ld a g re e to sten cil it th e n , fo r
e x a m p le , d is trib u te it th ro u g h th e in fo rm a tio n c e n tre o r s o m e o f th e la rg e r
h o tels.
 Language and Language Learning

3 . If s tu d e n ts a re stu d y in g a p a rtic u la r a re a in a n o th e r su b je c t, y o u c a n
in te g ra te th e to p ic y o u a re stu d y in g w ith w h a t th e y a re d o in g in, f o r e x a m p le ,
h is to ry o r p h y sics. T h e y c a n u s e E n g lis h la n g u a g e m a te ria l fro m th e lib ra ry
to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n re le v a n t to th e ir o th e r su b je c ts.

4. S m all g ro u p s w ith in th e c la ss c a n b e g iven a p ie c e o f a u th e n tic m a te ria l —

fro m , f o r e x a m p le , a B ritis h T ra v e l A s s o c ia tio n b ro c h u re . S tu d e n ts th e n p r e ­
p a re a list o f q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e tex t. G r o u p s e x c h a n g e te x ts a n d try to p a r e a
list o f q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e tex t. G r o u p s e x c h a n g e te x ts a n d try to a n s w e r th e
q u e s tio n s s e t b y th e o th e r g ro u p . T h e c o m p e titiv e e le m e n t in th is ta s k is itse lf
a m o tiv a tio n .

5 . In d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts c a n b e a s k e d to c o m p le te a sim p le q u e s tio n n a ire , su c h

a s th a t g ive n b e lo w , th e n s tu d e n ts e x c h a n g e q u e s tio n n a ire s a n d r e p o r t th e
re s u lts o f e a c h o th e r ’s to th e w h o le class.

My birthday is o n _____________________
My favourite month of the year i s _____
The nicest time of the year for a holiday
i s _____________________________________
because__________________________________
The three most important dates every year
for me are :____ , _____, and because__

6 . M o s t y o u n g e r s tu d e n ts a re c u rio u s a b o u t th e w o rld a r o u n d th e m . A list

su c h a s th e fo llo w in g w h ic h th e y h a v e sim p ly to m a r k T (tru e ) o r F (false) w ill
in te re s t th e m . A t th e s a m e tim e th is p a rtic u la r list p ro v id e s g o o d p re s e n ta ­
tio n m a te ria l f o r th e p r e s e n t sim p le .

Are these True or False? Mark each one ✓ if you

think it is true or X if you think it is false.

1. Horses and hippopotamuses belong to the same

family.
2. African elephants sleep standing up, so they stand
up for over 50 years.
3. Bats see with their ears, not their eyes.
4. The tallest living animal is the giraffe.
5. When mice have babies, they usually have more
than twelve at a time.
6. Rabbits sometimes have up to a hundred young in
a year.
Language and Language Learning

7. A lm o s t all p ro b le m so lv ing ac tiv ities (th re e e x a m p le s a re giv en b e lo w ) a re

m o re in te re stin g a n d m o tiv a tin g th a n te x t u s e d o n ly f o r la n g u a g e p re s e n ta ­
tio n .

Can you answer these questions. The obvious answer is

always wrong!

a. A clock strikes six in five seconds. How long does it

take to strike twelve? (Not 10 seconds).

b. A fast train leaves London for Brighton at the same

time as a slow train leaves Brighton for London. The
fast train goes at 70mph. The slow train goes at
40mph. It is 50 miles from London to Brighton. Which
train is further from London when they meet?
You can do this in your head — no pen or paper!

c. There are 100 sweets in a small box. The sides of a big

box are twice as long as the sides of a short box. How
many sweets does a big box hold? (not 200).

S o m e o f th e ta s k s m e n tio n e d m a y b e p e rfo rm e d in E n g lish , w h ile o th e rs m a y

b e p e rfo rm e d in a m ix tu re o f E n g lish a n d th e s tu d e n t’s n a tiv e la n g u a g e , o r
e v e n e n tire ly in th e s tu d e n t’s n a tiv e lan g ua ge . It is n o t e ss e n tia l th a t su c h a c ­
tivities a re p e rfo r m e d exclusively in E n g lish — th a t is n o t th e p u rp o s e o f su ch
activity. T h e ta s k s th e m se lv e s a re m o tiv a tin g a n d c a n o n ly b e d o n e if s tu d e n ts
u n d e rs ta n d , and can use, w h a t th e y h a v e re a d o r h e a rd in E n g lish . T h e
p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e ta s k is itse lf a w o rth w h ile a c tiv ity a n d e n s u re s th a t
s tu d e n ts h av e u s e d th e ir E n g lish . If th e y w rite o r r e p o r t in E n g lish th is is a
b o n u s.

1 5 . Y ou le a r n to s p e a k b y liste n in g

T h in k o f y o u r firs t la n g u a g e — y o u le a rn e d it, w ith o u t a n y e ffo rt, w ith

n o b o d y a s k in g y o u to re p e a t o r fo rm a lly c o rre c tin g y o u . In th e m o s t o b v i­
o u s w a y p o s s ib le , y o u m a s te re d a v e ry d iffic u lt sk ill — y o u le a rn e d to
s p e a k y o u r o w n la n g u a g e sim p ly b y lis te n in g to it. S e c o n d la n g u a g e le a r n ­
in g is n o t a s d if fe re n t a s p e o p le s o m e tim e s p re te n d ; a g a in , th e b e s t w a y to
le a rn is th ro u g h g o o d liste n in g .
O f c o u rs e y o u c a n ’t ju s t liste n to a n y th in g — i t ’s n o t lik e h a v in g w a te r
s p ra y e d o v e r y o u w h ic h y o u s im p ly a b so rb . Y o u n e e d to u n d e rs ta n d so m e ,
a n d p re fe ra b ly m o s t o f w h a t y o u h e a r, y o u n e e d to b e in te re s te d , a n d th e r e ­
fo re in v o lv e d . In th e ja r g o n , y o u n e e d to b e e x p o s e d to g o o d ‘in p u t’, b u t
u n le s s y o u a re in v o lv e d , a n d re la x e d th a t in p u t w ill n o t b e c o m e ‘in ta k e ’.
W e h a v e a lr e a d y re m a rk e d in th e p re v io u s c h a p te r th a t y o u c a n b e fu lly
in v o lv e d w ith o u t n e c e s s a rily ta lk in g v e ry m u c h — it is v e ry im p o rta n t to
re a lis e th a t i f y o u r s tu d e n ts a re lis te n in g w e ll, a n d a re in v o lv e d in w h a t th e y
a re lis te n in g to , y o u a re b e n e fitin g th e m n o t o n ly in d e v e lo p in g th e ir lis te n ­
in g sk ills, b u t a ls o th e ir g e n e ra l la n g u a g e le v e l.
 39

C h a p ter 3

C la ssr o o m M a n a g e m e n t
a n d G e n e r a l T ip s

M a r k e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u r e a d th e c h a p te r.
M a r k e a c h s ta te m e n t
i / if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. T h e b e s t p la c e f o r th e te a c h e r is s ta n d in g a t th e fr o n t o f th e c la s sro o m .

2. “I lik e b u s y le s so n s — w ith a s little sile n c e a s p o ss ib le .”

3. P a ir w o rk is o n ly u s e fu l if e v e ry b o d y is u sin g th e ta rg e t la n g u ag e .

4 . “I d o n ’t m in d if th e y s p e a k th e ir o w n la n g u a g e in g ro u p w o rk.”

5. In n e w w o rk alw ay s a s k s tu d e n ts “D o y o u u n d e r s ta n d ? ”

6 . 1 ta lk to o m u c h in m y le sso n s.

7. If I d o n ’t k n o w th e a n sw e r, I tell th e s tu d e n ts I d o n ’t k now .

8. N e v e r g o sy ste m a tic a lly ‘r o u n d th e c la s s’ w ith p ra c tic e s.

9. T h e o v e rh e a d p ro je c to r is p a rtic u la rly u se fu l f o r sh o w in g pictures.

10. T a p e s a n d v id e o s alw ay s m a k e th e le s s o n m o r e in te re stin g .

C la ssr o o m M a n a g e m e n t
a n d G e n e r a l T ip s

1. A rra n g e th e s e a tin g to h e lp

T h e sp o k e n la n g u a g e is a b o u t p e o p le ta lk in g to e a c h o th e r. If stu d e n ts a re sit­
ing in s tra ig h t lin es fac in g th e b a c k o f e a c h o th e r ’s n e c k s th is is n o t e a sy to do!
F o rtu n a te ly it isn ’t a ru le th a t s tu d e n ts h a v e to sit lik e th a t. Y o u s h o u ld b e
p re p a re d to re -a rra n g e th e d e sk s — b o th f o r y o u r la n g u ag e le sso n s a n d
so m e tim e s e v e n fo r a p a rtic u la r a ctivity — so th a t it is b o th e a s ie r a n d m o re
n a tu ra l fo r s tu d e n ts to s e e a n d ta lk to e a c h o th e r.
F o r th e ty p ica l a d u lt c la ss o f p e rh a p s b e tw e e n 5 a n d 15 s tu d e n ts o n e o f
th e fo llo w ing a rra n g e m e n ts w o u ld p ro b a b ly b e b e st.

T s
s
s
s s s ss
F o r a sc h o o l class o f p e rh a p s 3 0 it is p ro b a b ly b e s t to u se th e c o n v e n tio n a l
a rra n g e m e n t fo r ac tiv itie s w h ic h a re c e n te re d u p o n th e te a c h e r, b u t to allow
stu d e n ts to m o v e e ith e r th e ir d e sk s o r a t le a s t th e ir c h a irs fo r p a ir a n d g ro u p
w o rk.
If p a ir a n d g ro u p w o rk is a novelty, s tu d e n ts w ill ta k e a lo n g tim e to m o ve
a n d fin d th e m o v in g itse lf m o re in te re s tin g th a n th e g ro u p w o rk w hich fo l­
low s. If, o n th e o th e r h a n d , p a ir a n d g ro u p w o rk is a n o rm a l p a r t o f y o u r
te a c h in g , s tu d e n ts w ill m o v e n a tu ra lly , q u ic k ly a n d q u ie tly to n e w p o sitio n s
p ro v id in g th e y k n o w w h a t th e y h a v e to d o a n d u n d e rs ta n d th a t this is n o t a n
o p p o rtu n ity to w a ste tim e b u t a u se fu l a n d e n jo y a b le activity.
T h e se a tin g s h o u ld su g g est th a t s tu d e n ts a re e n c o u ra g e d to ta lk to e a c h
o th e r; a t th e sa m e tim e, it s h o u ld allo w fo r th e re m o v a l o f th e te a c h e r fro m r
c e n tra l, d o m in a n t ro le d u rin g c e rta in activities.

2 . S ta n d u p w h e n y o u ’re d ir e c tin g a c tiv ity

In g e n e ra l it is o n ly a g o o d id e a to sit d o w n in a la n g u a g e class o n tw o
o c c a sio n s; firstly if th e s tu d e n ts a re d o in g so m e th in g w hich , f o r th e m o m e n t,
d o e s n o t inv o lve y ou. T h e s e c o n d o c c a s io n is if y o u a r e h av in g a c o n v e rs a tio n
o r d is c u ss io n w ith th e class. If y o u re m a in sta n d in g , it is all to o e a sy fo r y o u to
 Classroom M anagement

d o m in a te a n d in h ib it th e s tu d e n ts . O n s u c h o c c a sio n s, o n c e y o u h a v e in tr o ­
d u c e d a n d s ta rte d th e activity, it is u su a lly b e tte r to sit e ith e r a t, o r o n , y o u r
d e sk .
F o r m o s t a ctiv itie s in th e la n g u a g e c la s s ro o m it is im p o rta n t th a t th e
s tu d e n ts c a n se e y o u a n d , in p a rtic u la r, y o u r m o u th a n d eyes. T h is is m u c h
e a s ie r if y o u a re sta n d in g . S ta n d in g a ls o m e a n s y o u c a n se e all th e s tu d e n ts
c le a rly a n d c a n u s e y o u r e y e s a n d h a n d s effectively.

3 . L o o k a t th e s tu d e n ts

T h e re is n o m o re c e rta in w ay to lo s e th e a tte n tio n o f y o u r s tu d e n ts th a n to

ta k e y o u r ey es o ff th e m f o r lo n g p e rio d s . T h is is n o t b e c a u s e th e y w ill g e t u p
to m is c h ie f if y o u a re n o t lo o k in g , b u t b e c a u s e n o rm a l h u m a n c o n ta c t
fre q u e n tly d e p e n d s o n , a n d is re in fo rc e d by, ey e c o n ta c t.
If y o u a re sta n d in g , a n d y o u r e y e s a re c o n s ta n tly m o v in g o v e r th e c la ss,
e v e ry o n e feels in v o lv e d . Y o u r e y e s h e lp y o u r s tu d e n ts ’ c o n c e n tr a tio n !
Y o u r ey es c a n b e u s e d in s te a d o f y o u r h a n d s to in d ic a te w h o s h o u ld
a n s w e r a q u e s tio n , w h e th e r s o m e th in g is rig h t o r w ro n g , to e n c o u ra g e , e tc . If
y o u c a n u se y o u r ey es effectively, y o u will fin d it e a s ie r to a v o id u sin g u n n e ­
c e s s a ry lan g u ag e.
It is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th a t th e e a sie st w ay to c h e c k
w h e th e r y o u r s tu d e n ts u n d e r s ta n d w h a t y o u h a v e said , o r w h a t th e y h a v e
re a d o r h e a rd , is f o r y o u r ey es to lo o k a t th e irs. A n y in c o m p re h e n s io n o r
c o n fu s io n will sh o w in th e ir e y e s lo n g b e fo re th e y tell y o u th a t th e r e is a
p ro b le m .

4 . U s e y o u r h a n d s to e n c o u r a g e a n d d ir e c t s tu d e n ts

T h e re a re th re e m a in w ays o f sh o w in g s tu d e n ts w h a t y o u w a n t — y o u r v o ice,
y o u r ey es, a n d y o u r h a n d s . T h e r e a re tw o m a in re a s o n s fo r u sin g y o u r h a n d s
— y o u a v o id u n n e c e s s a ry la n g u a g e w h ic h c a n d is tra c t s tu d e n ts a n d , w h ile
re m a in in g c o m p le te ly c le a r, y o u r h a n d s c a n b e u s e d to in c re a s e th e p a c e o f
th e le sso n .
A sim p le g e stu re c a n in d ic a te w h o is g o in g to a n s w e r a q u e s tio n , o r w h ich
p a ir o f s tu d e n ts s h o u ld n o w r e a d a d ia lo g u e . S im p le g e s tu re s c a n a ls o in d ic ­
a te th a t s o m e th in g is w ro n g — f o r e x a m p le , h o ld in g u p o n e h a n d a n d sh a k in g
it fro m sid e to sid e — o r th a t a s tu d e n t s h o u ld r e p e a t s o m e th in g — a c ir c u la r
“ro llin g ” m o tio n w ith o n e h a n d .

W ro n g R epeat
S u c h g e s tu re s, u s e d b u t n o t o v e r-u s e d , p ro v id e a re a s s u rin g s tru c tu r e fo r
s tu d e n ts a n d m e a n th a t y o u c a n in d ic a te w h a t is re q u ire d fro m in d iv id u a l
stu d e n ts , o r e v e n fro m th e w h o le c lass, w ith a m in im u m o f fuss.
Classroom M anagement

In d ire c tin g th e w h o le c la ss th e m o v e m e n t s h o u ld b e b o ld e n o u g h a n d
d ec isiv e e n o u g h f o r all to see; in d ire c tin g a n in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t th e g e stu re s
m u s t b e o n a m u c h sm a lle r s c a le so th a t th e y a p p e a r in v ita tio n s r a th e r th a n
a u th o rita ria n d ire ctiv es.

5 . U s e th e b a c k o f y o u r h a n d to p o in t

If y o u p o in t in th e c o n v e n tio n a l w ay it c a n a p p e a r ag g ressiv e a n d in h ib it
stu d e n ts. U s in g th e b a c k o f y o u r h a n d to g e s tu re is less in tim id a tin g , a n d c o n ­
veys a n in v ita tio n r a th e r th a n a d irec tiv e .

6 . U s e p a u s e s to p u n c tu a te w h a t y o u sa y

T ry to re a d th e follow ing:
L is te n to th is e x a m p le w a s s h e th e re yes sh e w a s liste n a g a in
w as sh e th e r e yes s h e w a s b u t n o w liste n to th is d o e s s h e k n o w
h im yes s h e d o e s n o tic e in th e first w a s sh e yes sh e w a s a n d in
th e s e c o n d e x a m p le d o e s s h e yes s h e d o e s if th e re ’s w a s in th e
q u e s tio n th e r e ’s w as in th e a n sw e r if th e r e ’s d o e s in th e q u e s tio n
th e re ’s d o e s in th e a n s w e r liste n again.

It is v ery d iffic u lt to re a d a n y th in g if it is w ritte n lik e th a t. W ritin g is u su a lly

p u n c tu a te d a n d th e p u n c tu a tio n m a k e s it e a s ie r to re a d . T h e e x a m p le sh o w s
c le a rly th a t th e te a c h e r is u sin g la n g u a g e fo r d iffe re n t p u rp o s e s :

L is te n ag ain. (G ivin g in s tru c tio n s )

D o e s s h e k n o w h im ? (G ivin g e x a m p le )
N o tic e , in th e f i r s t . . . . (C o m m e n tin g )

If th e te a c h e r sp e a k s “w ith o u t p u n c tu a tio n ” in s itu a tio n s lik e th is, s tu d e n ts

w ill b e v ery c o n fu s e d . O n e o f th e m a in w ays to p ro v id e th is “s p o k e n p u n c tu a ­
tio n ” is to m a k e v ery s h o r t p a u se s b e fo re e a c h c h a n g e in th e u s e o f la n g u a g e
fro m , fo r e x a m p le , in s tru c tio n to e x a m p le . T h e s e p a u se s a r e a n im p o rta n t
fe a tu re o f th e w ay th e te a c h e r u se s la n g u a g e in th e c la ss ro o m .

7. V a iy y o u r v o ic e

T h is d o e s n o t m e a n s p e a k in g in a ‘fu n n y v o ic e ’. I t is im p o rta n t to m a r k th e
c h a n g e s in w h y y o u a re sp e a k in g . P a u se s, stre ss a n d c h a n g e s o f p itc h w h e n
y o u c h a n g e fro m , f o r e x a m p le , c o m m e n t to in s tru c tio n , w ill m e a n it is m u c h
 Classroom M anagem ent

e a s ie r to fo llo w w h a t y o u say. E v e n s tu d e n ts w h o s e level o f E n g lis h is n o t

high c a n b e ta u g h t in E n g lis h p ro v id in g th e te a c h e r d o e s n o t u s e u n n e c e s s a ry
la n g u a g e a n d p ro v id in g th e s tre a m o f s p e e c h is b r o k e n u p b y p a u s e s a n d
c h a n g e s o f voice.
T h e e x a m p le g iven a b o v e s h o u ld b e said in s u c h a w ay th a t it s o u n d s m o re
a s th is e x a m p le a p p e a rs w h e n s p a c e d o n th e p a g e lik e this:

L is te n to this e x a m p le :
W a s sh e th e re ?
Y es s h e w as.
L is te n again:
W a s sh e th e re ?
Y es s h e w as.
B u t n o w listen to this:
D o e s sh e k n o w h im ?
Y es s h e d o e s.
N o tic e , in th e first, w a s sh e , Y es s h e w a s
A n d in th e s e c o n d e x a m p le d o e s sh e , yes sh e d o e s
(L o n g e r p a u s e )
If th e r e ’s (p a u s e ) w a s in th e q u e s tio n , th e r e ’s w a s in th e a n sw e r.
If th e r e ’s (p a u s e ) d o e s in th e q u e s tio n , th e r e ’s d o e s in th e a n sw e r.

8 . K e e p y o u r la n g u a g e to a m in im u m w h e n s tu d e n ts a re d o in g
s o m e th in g

If y o u sp e a k , s tu d e n ts w ill u s u a lly listen . If y o u w a n t to e n c o u ra g e y o u r s tu ­

d e n ts to u s e la n g u a g e , it o b v io u s ly m e a n s th a t o n c e y o u h a v e in tro d u c e d a n
a c tiv ity a n d m a d e c le a r w h a t is w a n te d , y o u m u s t b e p re p a r e d to k e e p q u ie t.
T h e r e a r e se v e ra l im p o r ta n t im p lic a tio n s :

D o n o t in te r r u p t s tu d e n ts u n n e c e s s a rily w h ile th e y a re p re p a rin g so m e th in g .

D o n o t d o m in a te d is c u ss io n s y o u rself.
D o n o t tell s tu d e n ts w h a t th e y w a n t to say.
D o n o t u s e m o re la n g u a g e th a n is n e c e s s a ry to d ir e c t a n d c o n tro l c la s s ro o m
activity.

W e h a v e a lr e a d y n o te d th a t y o u c a n re d u c e th e a m o u n t o f u n n e c e s s a ry
c la s s ro o m la n g u a g e b y u s in g y o u r e y e s a n d y o u r h a n d s . S o m e tim e s v e rb a l
c o m m e n t is c a lle d for, b u t e v e n th e n th e r e a re g o o d a n d b a d w ay s o f d o in g it.
O r a l e x e rc ise s a re a p a rtic u la r p ro b le m . C o m p a re th e s e tw o v e rsio n s:

V e rs io n 1
T S o w e d o n ’t ju s t say ‘n o ’, w e say ‘I’m a fra id n o t’. C a n y o u all say th a t
to g e th e r p le a s e . A r e y o u re a d y ? A lto g e th e r p le a s e . E v e ry b o d y , I’m
a fra id n o t.
C I’m a fra id n o t.
T Y es th a t w as v ery g o o d . N o w , c a n y o u say it, p le a s e S 1.
S I I’m a fra id n o t.
T Y es, v ery g o o d . T h a t w as g o o d , yes. N o w y o u p le a s e , c a n y o u say it
p le a s e S 2 ?
Classroom M anagement

V e rsio n 2
T S o n o t, ‘n o ’, b u t ‘I’m a fra id n o t’. L iste n — I’m a fra id n o t. S ay it to g e th e r
p lease.
C I’m a fra id n o t.
T A g ain .
C I’m a fra id n o t.
T (gestures to S I)
5 1 I’m a fra id n o t.
T (nods, gestures to S2)
5 2 I’m a fra id n o t.
T (gestures No, and Again)
5 2 I’m a fra id n o t.
T (smiles, nods, gestures to S3)
5 3 I’m a fra id n o t.
T G o o d , e v e ry b o dy .
C I’m a fra id n o t.

T h e s e c re t is sim p le — th e v e rb a l in s tru c tio n s a re given u sin g th e im p e ra tiv e .

T h is a u to m a tic a lly a v o id s u n n e c e s s a ry lan g ua ge . T h e c o m b in a tio n o f g e stu re
a n d th e im p e ra tiv e e n s u re s b o th c la rity a n d a b risk lively p ac e .

9 . D o n ’t c o m m e n ta te

It is e ss e n tia l to involve s tu d e n ts in th e le a rn in g p ro c e s s a n d d is c u ss io n o f
c la s sro o m ac tiv itie s c a n o fte n b e v alu a b le . M a n y in e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e rs,
ho w ev er, k e e p u p a m o re o r less n o n -s to p c o m m e n ta ry o n th e ir o w n a ctiv i­
ties.

G ood m orning everybody. Please sit down. N ow this m orning we’re

going to look at sentences like.... I ’ll p u t that on the board.... Oh dear,
som ebody hasn’t cleaned the b o a rd .... Can anybody see the duster?....
A h , there it is .... ju st a m om ent now. I ’ll ju st clean the board and then
I ’ll p u t the exam ple on the board fo r you (c le a n s th e b o a rd ).... Now,
where was I? A h , yes, now I ’llju st p u t the exam ple on the board fo r you.

T h e re is a n o th e r sim ila r e x a m p le w h ic h is v ery c o m m o n :

Well, now we’re going to read the text. I ’l l read itfirst and then I want you
to read it after m e and then there are som e questions after the text and
when we’ve read it I ’m going to ask you the questions and you 're going to
answer them.

U n fo rtu n a te ly , s tu d e n ts n e v e r k n o w w h e th e r w h a t y o u a re saying is im p o rt­

a n t o r n o t. A n y c o m m e n ta ry y o u give s h o u ld b e o f h e lp to th e s tu d e n ts , a n d
n o t u s e d e ith e r to re a s s u re y o u rs e lf o r sim p ly to fill u p silen ce.

1 0 . D o n ’t b e afraid o f s ile n c e

T e a c h ers, k e e n to e n c o u ra g e th e ir stu d e n ts to talk , o fte n fo rg e t th a t sile nc e

a ls o h a s a v a lu a b le p a r t to p la y in la ng u a g e lesso n s. Constant la ng u a g e is
 Classroom M anagem ent

tiring ; s tu d e n ts n e e d tim e to th in k , c o lle c t th e ir th o u g h ts, m a k e n o te s , e tc .

S ile n c e is p a rtic u la rly d e sira b le :

a . W h e n s tu d e n ts a re d o in g s o m e th in g in d iv id u a lly — re a d in g a te x t o r
e x p la n a tio n , c o m p le tin g a n e x e rc ise , p re p a rin g a p ie c e o f w o rk . If th e te a c h e r
sp e a k s d u rin g th e s e a c tiv itie s, it b re a k s th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o n c e n tra tio n .

b . A n in d iv id u a l is h e s ita tin g d u rin g a n e x e rc ise , o r lo o k in g f o r a w o rd . H e re ,

th e te a c h e r ju m p in g in to o s o o n m a k e s th e s tu d e n t lazy. T h e sile n t stru g g le to
u n d e rs ta n d o r re c a ll is a n a tu ra l p a r t o f la n g u a g e lea rn in g .

c. In d is c u ssio n s th e s tu d e n t s o m e tim e s n e e d s tim e to fo rm u la te a th o u g h t

a n d , m o s t im p o rta n t o f all, if th e te a c h e r is c o n s ta n tly in je c tin g id e a s , s tu ­
d e n ts w ill s o o n sit b a c k a n d expect the te a c h e r to d o th e w o rk .

d . S o m e tim e s th e r e s h o u ld b e sile n c e f o r th e s a k e o f sile n c e — if so m e th in g

h e c tic h a s b e e n h a p p e n in g ; th e r e is to b e a c h a n g e o f activity, o r s tu d e n ts
n e e d , f o r e x a m p le , to g e t o u t a n e w b o o k . A m o m e n t o r tw o o f sile n c e in th e
m id d le o f a le s s o n m e a n s th a t s tu d e n ts c a n r e tu r n w ith re n e w e d
c o n c e n tra tio n to th e a c tiv ity w h ic h follow s.

B e c a u s e th e ro o m is silen t, it d o e s n o t m e a n n o th in g is h a p p e n in g . T h e s e c re t
is a b a la n c e b e tw e e n a c tiv ity a n d q u ie t m o m e n ts f o r re fle c tio n .

11. D o n ’t b e afraid o f n o is e

M a n y te a c h e rs p a rtic u la rly in s ta te sc h o o ls, m a y fin d c o lle a g u e s a n d

s u p e rio rs w h o b e lie v e th a t th e q u ie t class is th e g o o d c la ss. S u c h a b e lie f
ra ise s o b v io u s d iffic u ltie s if w e a re c o n c e rn e d to te a c h th e s p o k e n lan g u ag e!
If th e s ta n d a rd te a c h in g te c h n iq u e in v o lves th e te a c h e r q u e s tio n in g in d i­
v id u a l s tu d e n ts o n e b y o n e , in e v e ry le s s o n n o in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t w ill a n s w e r
m o re th a n tw o o r th r e e q u e s tio n s , e a c h lastin g a fe w se c o n d s . If th e s tu d e n t
h a s 1 2 0 le sso n s in a s c h o o l y e a r it is s o o n c le a r th a t e a c h in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t
w ill h a v e o n ly a m a tte r o f m in u te s f o r o ra l p ra c tic e in a n y o n e y ear.
T h e c o n c lu s io n is o b v io u s — s o m e h o w o r o th e r, te c h n iq u e s m u s t b e u s e d
to in c re a s e th e a m o u n t o f s tu d e n t ta lk in g tim e. T h is m e a n s th a t a n y o n e w h o
is m a k in g a se rio u s e ffo rt to te a c h o ra l E n g lis h m u stb e re g u la rly u sin g c h o ra l
w o rk , p a ir w o rk a n d g ro u p w o rk . U n fo rtu n a te ly , if 3 0 s tu d e n ts s p e a k a t th e
s a m e tim e th e y m a k e m o re n o is e th a n is e v e r h e a rd in th e tra d itio n a l
q u e s tio n a n d a n sw e r c la s s ro o m . T h e r e a s o n th e y m a k e m o r e n o is e is b e c a u s e
th e r e is m o re c o n s tru c tiv e a c tiv ity g o in g on!
E ffe c tiv e lan g u a g e te a c h in g m e a n s g iv ing th e s tu d e n ts a c h a n c e to sp e a k .
C a re fu lly o rg a n is e d ‘n o is e ’ d o e s n o t m e a n d is o r d e r o r th a t tim e is b e in g
w a sted .

1 2 . U s e p air w o r k to in c r e a s e s tu d e n t ta lk in g tim e — e v e n if it
seem s ch aos

T h e la n g u a g e te a c h e r m u s t d e v e lo p stra te g ie s f o r m a x im isin g th e a m o u n t o f
s tu d e n t ta lk in g tim e. W e ll-o rg a n is e d p a ir w o rk is o n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t
w ays o f a ch ie v in g this.
Classroom M anagement

T o b e “w e ll-o rg a n is e d ” th e te a c h e r m u s t h av e given c le a r a n d exp licit

in s tru c tio n s a n d , w h ile th e p a ir w o rk is ta k in g p la c e , th e te a c h e r s h o u ld b e
m o v in g a ro u n d th e ro o m m o n ito rin g a n d if n e c e ss a ry g u id in g a n d c o rre c tin g
w h a t in d iv id u a l p a irs a re d o in g . It m ay b e n e c e ss a ry to w rite o n th e b la c k ­
b o a rd a n o u tlin e o r m o d e l o f w h a t th e p a irs s h o u ld b e d o in g o r so m e k ey
w o rd s a n d p h ra se s .
A fte r s o m e tim e w ith th e p a irs w o rk in g to g e th e r, o n e o r tw o p a irs sh o u ld
b e in v ite d to ‘d e m o n s tra te ’ a n d , if n e c essa ry , a fte r p a irs h av e d e m o n s tra te d
th e te a c h e r sh o u ld a d d c o m m e n ts (b o th c o rre c tio n s o f m ista k e s a n d
su g g e stio n s fo r a lte rn a tiv e , m o re n a tu ra l, w ays o f saying th in gs), th e n
s tu d e n ts s h o u ld w o rk in p a irs ag ain , p o ssib ly re v e rsin g roles.
T e a c h e rs w o rry th a t s o m e o f th e p a irs m a y n o t b e d o in g th e rig h t thing, o r
w ill b e u sin g th e ir n a tiv e la n g u a g e . B e c a u se te a c h e rs a re n o t sa tisfied th a t ev­
eryone is d o in g th e c o rre c t th in g , th e y a re so m e tim e s te m p te d to d r o p p a ir
w o rk . It is im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th a t if h a lf th e c lass a re not d o in g th e rig h t
thing , th a t still m e a n s h a lf th e class a re ! A s a re su lt, in s te a d o f o n e o r tw o
s tu d e n ts d o in g so m e th in g u se fu l w h ile th e o th e rs sit b a c k , 10 o r 2 0 s tu d e n ts
a re w o rk in g c o nstru ctive ly . T e a c h e rs m u s t n o t d r o p p a ir w o rk ju s t b e c a u s e it
is n o t su c ce ssfu l f o r all s tu d e n ts all th e tim e. A m o m e n t’s re fle c tio n w ill serv e
to re m in d te a c h e rs th a t w h e n tra d itio n a l q u e s tio n a n d a n sw e r le s so n s a re
ta k in g p la c e th e re is n o g u a ra n te e th a t th e s e a re w o rk in g su ccessfu lly fo r
m o s t o f th e s tu d e n ts — th e y m ay b e sittin g th e re quietly, b u t th a t d o e s n ’t
m e a n e v e ry o n e is w orking!

Y o u r p a ir w o rk will b e m o s t effectiv e if you:

— D iv id e th e g ro u p in to p a irs y o u rs e lf a n d m a k e su re th a t all s tu d e n ts k n o w
w h o th e y a re w o rk in g w ith a n d w h ic h ro le th e y a re to ta ke .
— M a k e su re e v e ry o n e is c le a r a b o u t w h a t th e y a re m e a n t to b e d o ing .
— G o ro u n d , listen , a n d c h e ck th a t th e y a re d o in g it.
— S to p th e activ ity w h e n it is c le a r th a t e v e ry o n e is fin ish e d . P a ir w o rk is n o t
a n e x c u se fo r th e te a c h e r to sit back!
— F o llo w u p th e p a ir w o rk w ith a d e m o n s tra tio n o r s u m m a ry fro m o n e o r
m o re p a irs. If it is n o t w ell d o n e , c o rre c t a n d p ro v id e h e lp a n d th e n a sk
s tu d e n ts to d o th e s a m e p ra c tic e again.
— M a k e a h a b it o f it!

1 3 . U s e g ro u p w o rk to in c r e a s e s tu d e n t ta lk in g tim e

M any, if n o t m o st, ac tiv ities in th e la n g u a g e c la s sro o m c a n b e p e rfo rm e d b y

th e s tu d e n ts w o rk in g in g ro u p s . W o rk in g in th is w ay m e a n s m o re s tu d e n ts a re
d ire c tly involved; m o re s tu d e n ts a re talking , w h ile th e te a c h e r talk s .less; s tu ­
d e n ts c a n h e lp e a c h o th e r; a n d n o t lea st, th e a tm o s p h e re is m o re re la x ed a n d
c o n d u c iv e to g o o d la n g u a g e le arn in g .
G r o u p w o rk m u s t b e w ell o rg a n is e d w h ic h m e a n s th e te a c h e r m u s t h av e
m a d e th e ta s k c lea r, a s w ell a s w h o is w o rk in g w ith w h o m a n d fo r h o w long.
O fte n it is a g o o d id e a to a p p o in t o n e s tu d e n t in e a c h g ro u p a s “s e c re ta ry ” —
w riting o u t th e a n sw e rs ,o r ta k in g n o te s to re p o r t b a c k to th e w h o le g ro u p .
G r o u p w o rk m u s t always b e fo llo w e d b y a g e n e ra l c lass ac tiv ity w h e n th e
re su lts o f th e g ro u p w o rk a re r e p o rte d to th e w h o le g ro u p , a n d c o m m e n te d
o n by th e tea c h e r.
 Classroom M anagem ent

G r o u p w o rk c a n b e u s e d a s p r e p a r a tio n f o r a te x t o r to p ic ; g ra m m a r p r a c ­
tic es c a n b e d o n e in g ro u p s r a th e r th a n in th e s ta n d a rd q u e s tio n -a n d -a n s w e r
w ay; d is c u s s io n fo llo w -u p c a n b e b a s e d o n q u e s tio n s first d is c u s s e d in sm all
g ro u p s , a n d la te r b y th e w h o le g ro u p .
A s w ith p a ir w o rk , s o m e u s e o f th e n a tiv e la n g u a g e is u n im p o rta n t. It still
m e a n s th a t th e te a c h e r, a lth o u g h b u s y m o v in g fro m g ro u p to g ro u p , is
rela tiv ely q u ie t, a n d m a n y m o r e students a re u sin g th e ir E n g lish .

1 4 . B e e x p lic it

It is th e te a c h e r’s ta s k to s tru c tu r e c la s s ro o m a ctiv ities. T h is m e a n s p la n n in g

in a d v a n c e w h a t is to b e d o n e a n d h o w it is to b e d o n e . It a ls o m e a n s d o in g
th is in detail. If th e te a c h e r h a s o n ly a w o o lly id e a o f w h a t is re q u ire d , th e p a c e
o f th e le s s o n will d r o p a n d s tu d e n ts b e c o m e e ith e r b o r e d o r c o n fu s e d .
C la s s ro o m in s tru c tio n s a n d e x p la n a tio n s s h o u ld b e sim p le , p re c ise , a n d
ex plicit. A c o m m e n t s u c h as: Verbs like see, hear, sm ell d o n ’t usually occur in
the present continuous, c a n e asily b e c o m p le te ly m e a n in g le s s f o r th e s tu d e n t.
If th e c o m m e n t is a rem inder o f s o m e th in g w h ic h h a s b e e n d is c u s s e d e a rlie r
in th e le s so n o r in th e p re v io u s le s s o n it m a y b e su fficie n t, b u t a s a n “e x p la n a ­
tio n ”, it is n o t su ffic ien tly e x p lic it. If th e e x p la n a tio n is to m e a n a n y th in g , th e
s tu d e n ts n e e d to u n d e r s ta n d in w h a t w ay th e v e rb s a re sim ila r; in so m e w ays
th e y a re c le a rly d is sim ila r — p h o n e tic a lly , f o r e x a m p le . T e a c h e rs so m e tim e s
say th a t it w ill ta k e to o lo n g to give th e full e x p la n a tio n o r th a t it w ill c o n fu s e
stu d e n ts . S u c h a n a rg u m e n t d o e s n o t ju stify giving v a g u e e x p la n a tio n s w h ic h
re q u ire th e s tu d e n ts to d o all th e w o rk o f u n d e rs ta n d in g , w h ile th e te a c h e r
a v o id s e xp la in in g .
M o r e fre q u e n tly th a n w ith e x p la n a tio n te a c h e rs give v a g u e r a th e r th a n
e xp licit, in s tru c tio n s : Can you w ork in pairs now please ? T h e fo llo w in g is n o t
m u c h b e tte r: Work in pairs with the person next to you. U n fo rtu n a te ly m o s t
p e o p le h a v e a t le a s t tw o p e o p le n e x t to th e m — o n e o n e a c h side! A n d w h a t
a b o u t th e o d d s tu d e n t in c la sse s w h ic h h a v e a n o d d n u m b e r?
W ritte n o u t in full th e e x p lic it in s tru c tio n se e m s c o m p lic a te d , b u t in th e
c la s s ro o m it p ro b a b ly ta k e s o n ly h a lf a m in u te e v e n w ith a la rg e c lass, u sin g
y o u r h a n d s to in d ic a te in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts :

N ow you're going to w ork in pairs. Listen please, listen fo r yo u r num ber,

I ’m going to give you a num ber, either 1 or 2. M ake sure you know your
n u m b er. . . 1,2; 1,2; 1,2; (p o in tin g a t in d iv id u a l p u p ils ) . . . Now, num ber
ones, p u t your hand up please (c h e c k ) a n d num ber tw os (c h e c k ag ain).

If th e r e is a n o d d s tu d e n t, a s k th a t s tu d e n t to w o rk w ith y o u th e n c o n tin u e :

N ow a ll the num ber ones I want you t o . . . num ber twos, y o u . . . Right,
altogether now, num ber ones — start!

T ry su c h a n e x p lic it in s tru c tio n w ith o n e o f y o u r la rg e r c la s se s — it ta k e s o n ly

a fe w s e c o n d s w ith a c la ss o f 3 0 a n d is m u c h m o r e e ffic ie n t th a n th e c o n fu ­
s io n w h ic h o fte n follo w s th e a p p a re n tly q u ic k e r W ork in pairs.
S tu d e n ts like to k n o w w h a t is re q u ire d o f th e m . In a sk in g s tu d e n ts to
w o rk q uietly, in d iv id u a lly , o r in p a irs , give th e m a tim e lim it. A s th e lim it
Classroom M anagement

a p p ro a c h e s a sk A re you ready? a n d a n s w e r th e c h o ru s o f N o! b y saying

Right, two m ore m inutes, then.
T h e m o r e e x p lic it y o u r in s tru c tio n s , th e e a s ie r it is fo r th e s tu d e n ts to c o n ­
c e n tra te o n th e c o n te n t, r a th e r th a n th e o rg a n is a tio n o f activities.

1 5 . D o n ’t a s k “D o y o u u n d e rsta n d ?”

T h e g e n e ra l q u e s tio n D o you understand? is u s u a lly e ith e r a sign o f la z in e ss

o n th e p a r t o f th e te a c h e r, o r so m e th in g te a c h e rs say w h ile th in k in g o f w h a t
th e y re a lly w a n t to say. I t m a y fill u p a sp a c e , b u t th a t is all it d o e s .
It is v e ry ra r e in d e e d f o r s tu d e n ts , p a rtic u la rly o ld e r s tu d e n ts , to a d m it
th a t th e y d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d . P a rtly th is is a n a tu r a l d e s ire to a v o id a p p e a rin g
slow, b u t s tu d e n ts a ls o o fte n u n c o n sc io u sly s e e a n o th e r d ifficu lty — if th e y
say th e y d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d th e y m a y b e a s k e d w hat they d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d
— a n d h o w d o y o u e x p la in w h a t y o u d o n ’t u n d e rs ta n d ? P a r t o f b e in g e x p lic it
in v o lves th e teacher c h e c k in g w h e th e r s tu d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d o r n o t.
T h is is d o n e first b y k e e p in g re g u la r e y e c o n ta c t w ith th e s tu d e n ts w h ile
e x p lain ing . O fte n it is p o s s ib le to s e e w h e n s tu d e n ts d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d , a n d
e v e n to se e th e p o in t a t w h ic h th e y b e c o m e lo s t o r c o n fu s e d . It is a ls o p o ss ib le
to tell w h e th e r th e w h o le g ro u p , o r o n ly o n e o r m o r e in d iv id u a ls is c o n fu se d .
If it is n e c e s s a ry to a sk , th is s h o u ld b e d o n e b y a sk in g sp ecific q u e s tio n s
a b o u t th e in fo rm a tio n o r e x p la n a tio n y o u h a v e ju s t given. T h e q u e s tio n s
s h o u ld re q u ire sh o rt, a n d lin g u istically sim p le a n sw e rs. If s tu d e n ts c a n n o t
a n sw e r th e q u e stio n s, th e y d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d .

J a c k ’s g o t a c a r b u t h e u s e d to h a v e a m o to rb ik e .

H as he got a m otorbike ?
H as he ever had a m otorbike ?
W hat about now ?

W h e n giving th e e x p lic it in s tru c tio n fo r p a ir w o rk , w e d id n o t u s e D o you

understand? b u t N um ber ones p u t your hand up please.
If a n y b o d y h a s n o t u n d e rs to o d , it w ill b e im m e d ia te ly a p p a re n t. It is th e n th e
te a c h e r’s jo b to a n tic ip a te d ifficu lties a n d m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s , a n d to m a k e it
as e a sy as p o ss ib le fo r th e s tu d e n ts to sh o w th e ir d iffic ultie s w ith o u t e m b a r­
ra ss m e n t.

1 6 . D o n ’t g o ‘r o u n d th e c la s s ’ i f in d iv id u a ls c a n p rep a re
p a r tic u la r e x a m p le s

U su ally, p a rtic u la rly in la rg e r sc h o o l cla sse s, th e s tu d e n ts a re sittin g in c a re ­

fully a rra n g e d ro w s. W ith c e rta in ty p e s o f p ra c tic e , p a rtic u la rly te x tb o o k
g ra m m a r p ra c tic e s, th is m e a n s th a t if y o u follo w th e se a tin g a rra n g e m e n t,
in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts c a n p re p a re th e ir ‘o w n ’ e x a m p le in a d v a n c e . M o re
im p o rta n tly , it fre q u e n tly m e a n s th a t s tu d e n ts d o n o t liste n to th e o th e r
ex am p les! O b v io u sly , y o u a v o id th is b y c h o o sin g in d iv id u a ls to a n sw e r
ra n d o m ly r a th e r th a n fo llo w in g a se t p a tte rn .
W ith so m e ty p e s o f w o rk , h o w ev er, it is q u ic k e r a n d e a s ie r to d o th e
p ra c tic e s in a sim p le p a tte rn su c h as ro u n d th e c lass, a c ro ss row s o r d o w n
 Classroom M anagement

lin e s o f stu d e n ts . T h is w ill b e tru e , f o r e x a m p le , o f a n in d iv id u a l p ro n u n c ia ­

tio n p ra c tic e o f a w o rd o r p h ra s e , o r o f c e rta in ty p e s o f la n g u a g e g am e. T h e
g u id in g p rin c ip le is sim p le: if th e s tu d e n t is m o re likely to b e a b le to ‘sw itch
o ff’ if y o u fo llo w a p a tte rn , th e n y o u choose in d iv id u a ls to a n sw e r; if th e
e m p h a s is is o n s p e e d a n d s tu d e n ts w ill re m a in in v o lv e d b e c a u s e o f th e p a c e ,
it is o fte n m o re e ffic ie n t to d o th in g s in a n “o b v io u s ” way.

17. A d m it y o u r ig n o r a n c e

N o te a c h e r c a n k n o w e v e ry th in g a n d th e r e is n o h a r m in s tu d e n ts re c o g n is in g
th is. E n g lis h is a h u g e s u b je c t a n d , n o m a tte r h o w m u c h y o u h a v e s tu d ie d it,
n o m a tte r h o w lo n g y o u h a v e b e e n te a c h in g it, y o u w ill still c o m e a c ro ss
p o in ts w h ic h h a v e n e v e r a ris e n b e fo re .
N a tiv e te a c h e rs h a v e o fte n n o t th o u g h t o f s o m e o f th e d ifficu ltie s w h ic h
fo re ig n s tu d e n ts fa c e w h e n se e in g E n g lis h “ fr o m o u t s i d e ”. N o n -n a tiv e
te a c h e rs living in th e ir o w n c o u n trie s o fte n d o n o t h a v e th e o p p o rtu n itie s to
d e v e lo p a s w id e a k n o w le d g e o f E n g lis h a s th e y w o u ld like. It is e x tre m e ly
im p o r ta n t fo r te a c h e rs n o t to feel g u ilty a b o u t th is. S ta te s c h o o lte a c h e rs
s h o u ld th in k o f te a c h e rs o f o th e r su b je c ts su c h a s m a th e m a tic s o r p h y sic s —
it w o u ld b e im p o ss ib le f o r te a c h e rs in th e s e s u b je c ts to k n o w e v e ry th in g
a b o u t th e ir su b je c ts; th e s a m e is tr u e f o r E n g lish .
It is, o n th e o th e r h a n d , im p o r ta n t n o t to u n d e rm in e th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o n fid ­
e n c e in th e te a c h e r. T h e s o lu tio n is s tra ig h tfo rw a rd — a d m it th a t y o u d o n o t
kn o w , c o n s u lt a c o lle a g u e o r lo o k th e a n s w e r u p , a n d m a k e s u re th a t if y o u
say y o u w ill tell th e s tu d e n t in th e n e x t le s so n , y o u d o a c tu a lly say s o m e th in g
a b o u t th e p ro b le m — e v e n if y o u c a n ’t fin d th e a n sw e r!
T h e w o rs t th in g to d o is to give a n ad hoc e x p la n a tio n w h ic h la te r tu r n s o u t
to b e u n tr u e . T h e b e s t th in g to d o , in th is a s in so m a n y o th e r th in g s, is to ta k e
th e s tu d e n ts in to y o u r c o n fid e n c e — d o y o u r b e s t to h e lp th e m , b u t if th e r e
a re o c c a s io n s w h e n y o u c a n n o t, m a k e th a t, a n d th e re a s o n s f o r it, c le a r to
th e m .

1 8 . C o n s u lt c o lle a g u e s

O n e o f th e q u ic k e st a n d e a s ie s t w ays o f fin d in g th e a n s w e r to a q u e s tio n

w h ic h y o u c a n n o t a n s w e r is to a s k s o m e o n e e lse. W h y w a ste a lo n g tim e
w re stlin g w ith a p ro b le m , o r w a d in g th ro u g h a re fe re n c e b o o k if a c o lle a g u e
c a n tell y o u in a fe w m o m e n ts ?
It is p a rtic u la rly th e c a s e th a t n o n -n a tiv e te a c h e rs fr e q u e n tly h a v e a b e tte r
e x p lic it k n o w le d g e o f th e g ra m m a r o f E n g lis h th a n a n in e x p e rie n c e d n a tiv e
te a c h e r h a s . In s u c h c ir c u m s ta n c e s it is c o m m o n s e n s e to p o o l y o u r skills a n d
m a k e life e a s ie r f o r b o th o f y o u .
M a n y n o n -n a tiv e te a c h e rs w o rk in g in s ta te sc h o o ls d o n o t h a v e re g u la r
a c c e ss to a n a tiv e sp e a k e r. T h e y c a n , h o w e v er, re lativ e ly e asily fo r m se lf-h e lp
g ro u p s . T e a c h e rs w ith d if fe re n t b a c k g ro u n d s h a v e d if fe re n t in s ig h ts a n d
skills. A t th e s a m e tim e m o s t te a c h e rs te a c h in g sim ila r c la s se s fa c e sim ila r
p ro b le m s . In th e s e c irc u m s ta n c e s , te a c h e rs s h o u ld g e t to g e th e r, e ith e r
in fo rm a lly o r form a lly , o n a re g u la r b a sis. A t le a s t it h e lp s to s h a re p ro b le m s ,
a n d to re a lise th a t o th e r s to o fin d th e ta p e d iffic u lt to h e a r, th e d is tin c tio n
b e tw e e n th e p re s e n t p e rfe c t a n d p a s t s im p le d iffic u lt to e x p la in etc.
Classroom M anagement

O fte n , h o w e v er, s u c h se lf-h e lp g ro u p s c a n b e sign ifican tly m o r e u se fu l

th a n th a t. B e c a u s e o f th e v a rie d b a c k g ro u n d o f th e ir p a rtic ip a n ts , a c o m b in a ­
tio n o f th e in sig h ts o f se v e ra l g ro u p m e m b e rs c a n o fte n p ro d u c e a so lu tio n
w h ich n o in d iv id u a l m e m b e r w o u ld p ro d u c e a lo n e . O n e o f th e m a in re a s o n s
te a c h e rs re sist th e fo rm a tio n o f s u c h g ro u p s is, u n fo rtu n a te ly , a false s e n s e o f
th e ir o w n im p o rta n c e . T h e y a re a fra id th a t o th e rs w ill b e u n s y m p a th e tic to
th e ir difficu lties, la c k o f k n o w le d g e , o r o th e r p ro b le m s. W h ile s o m e id e a s
w ill w o rk fo r in d iv id u a l te a c h e rs b u t n o t f o r o th e rs , it is a sto n ish in g h o w
m u c h c o lle c tiv e w is d o m is w a ste d b y no t b e in g s h a re d w ith c o lle a g u e s. S u c h
h e lp c a n c o v e r m a n y field s — sim p le m is p rin ts in th e te x tb o o k , c o n v e n ie n t
w ays o f e x p la in in g th in g s w h ic h s tu d e n ts h a v e fo u n d d ifficu lt, u se fu l s u p p le ­
m e n ta ry p ra c tic e s , te s t ite m s, s o u rc e s o f u se fu l a u th e n tic m a te ria l, etc.
T e a c h e rs in m a n y p a rts o f th e w o rld h a v e fo u n d su c h g ro u p s e n o rm o u s ly
h elp fu l. Initially, p e o p le m a y b e sh y a b o u t ra is in g in d iv id u a l d ifficu lties a n d it
is o fte n b e s t to b e g in su c h g ro u p s b y h av in g a ta s k s u c h a s th e p re p a ra tio n o f
a te s t o r s u p p le m e n ta ry m a te ria l f o r a d iffic u lt p o in t, a s th e b a sis fo r a n e a rly
m e e tin g .
T h e r e is a say ing A trouble shared', is a trouble halved; it is a s tr u e fo r th e
la n g u a g e te a c h e r a s fo r a n y b o d y else!

1 9 . C o n s u lt s tu d e n ts

A r e s o m e o f y o u r le ss o n s b e tte r th a n o th e rs ? If y o u h a v e a n s w e re d Yes, tw o
m o re q u e s tio n s arise : Why? H ow do you know ?
E v e ry te a c h e r th in k s s o m e le s so n s a re m o re su c c e ssfu l th a n o th e rs — p e r ­
h a p s y o u p re fe r o n e k in d o f a ctiv ity to a n o th e r, p e rh a p s y o u h a te te a c h in g
o n e p a rtic u la r g ra m m a r p o in t w h ic h y o u k n o w alw ays c a u s e s tro u b le , o r
p e rh a p s y o u fin d a p a rtic u la r g ro u p d ifficu lt o r, a s e v e ry te a c h e r re c o g n ise s, it
m ig h t ju s t b e a F rid a y ! B u t w h a t a b o u t th e s tu d e n ts ? D o th e y e n jo y all o f y o u r
le sso n s e q u a lly ? A r e th e r e s o m e a ctiv ities th e y h a te , a n d o th e r s th e y
p a rtic u la rly e n jo y ? In s ta te sc h o o ls, it m a y b e th a t th e y a re n o t p a rtic u la rly
tire d o n F rid a y s, b u t a re alw ays tire d o n T u e sd a y s, a fte r m a th s , c he m istry ,
a n d d o u b le physics!
A s te a c h e rs w e to o o fte n p re te n d th a t w e know w h a t o u r s tu d e n ts feel,
w h e n it is e x tre m e ly e a sy to fin d o u t b y sim p ly a sk in g th e m .
T e a c h e rs s p e n d a lo t o f tim e ‘ju d g in g ’ s tu d e n ts — e ith e r giving fo rm a l
m a rk s, o r a p p ro v in g o r d is a p p ro v in g o f th e ir p e rfo rm a n c e . In th e s e c irc u m ­
sta n c e s it sh o u ld n o t a p p e a r so v e ry sh o c k in g th a t p e rh a p s o c c a sio n a lly
s tu d e n ts c a n b e in v ite d to ju d g e th e ir te a c h e rs o r teach ing ! W h y n o t, fro m
tim e to tim e , a sk y o u r class:

D id y o u p a rtic u la rly e n jo y to d a y ’s le s so n ? W h y / W h y n o t? W h a t
a c tiv itie s in y o u r E n g lish le ss o n s d o y o u p a rtic u la rly lik e /d is lik e ?
W h a t a ctiv ities d o y o u th in k w e s p e n d to o m u c h /to o little tim e o n in
E n g lish c la s se s?

S o m e ac tiv itie s c a n b e d o n e in d iffe re n t w ays — w hy n o t a s k s tu d e n ts w h ic h

w ays th e y p re fe r, a n d w h ic h w ays th e y d o n ’t like.
R e m e m b e r, to o , to a s k s tu d e n ts a b o u t th e p ra c tic a l d ifficu ltie s — C a n
th e y alw ays h e a r y o u o r th e ta p e re c o rd e r ? C a n th e y se e th e b la c k b o a rd ?
C a n th e y re a d y o u r w ritin g ? I t is e a sy to s e e a n y n e g a tiv e re s p o n s e s a s p e r ­
so n a l c ritic ism a n d to r e a c t negatively. T h a t w o u ld m a k e th e w h o le e x e rc ise
 Classroom M anagem ent

u se le ss. T h e re is a d a n g e r in c o n s u ltin g th e s tu d e n ts to o fre q u e n tly , s o th a t

th e y fee l th e p ro c e s s o f la n g u a g e le a rn in g is m o r e im p o r ta n t th a t le a rn in g
itself. P ro v id in g , h o w e v er, th a t y o u ta k e th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o m m e n ts se riou sly ,
a n d d o n o t d o it to o fre q u e n tly , c o n s u ltin g s tu d e n ts c a n h a v e a v e ry b e n e fic ia l
e ffe ct o n th e g e n e ra l a tm o s p h e re o f y o u r class, a n d so m e tim e s re v e a l c o n ­
c re te w ays in w h ic h y o u r c la sse s c a n b e m a d e m o r e e n jo y a b le o r m o re
e ffectiv e f o r th a t p a rtic u la r g ro u p o f s tu d e n ts .

2 0 . D e m o n s tr a te , r a th e r th a n e x p la in , n e w a c tiv itie s

A lo t o f c la ss tim e is w a ste d if s tu d e n ts d o n o t k n o w e x a c tly w h a t is e x p e c te d

o f th e m . O n th e o th e r h a n d , m a n y a ctiv itie s o c c u r a g a in a n d a g a in , so th a t
tim e s p e n t e sta b lis h in g a p a tte r n f o r a ctiv itie s th e first tim e th e y o c c u r is re ­
p a id later.
T h e re is n o b e tte r, o r m o r e e x p lic it, w ay to in tro d u c e n e w a ctiv itie s th a n
fo r th e te a c h e r to d e m o n s tra te , o r a s k a g ro u p o f s tu d e n ts to d e m o n s tra te .
In c a se s w h e re , f o r e x a m p le , a q u e s tio n a n d a n s w e r p a tte r n is to b e p a s s e d
fro m s tu d e n t to s tu d e n t d o w n th e lin e s o f th e d e sk s in th e c la s s ro o m it is b e s t
f o r th e te a c h e r first to e x p la in , a n d th e n a s k one lin e to d e m o n s tra te . T h is
m e a n s p ro b le m s a n d m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s c a n b e s o r te d o u t b e fo re th e w h o le
c lass g o e s w ro n g a n d th in g s b e c o m e e x tre m e ly c o n fu s e d .
D e m o n s tra tin g re d u c e s th e a m o u n t o f u n n e c e s s a ry te a c h e r la n g u a g e , is
ex p licit, gives a n id e a o f tim in g , a n d is g e n e ra lly m o re e ffec tiv e th a n a n y
e x p la n a tio n .

2 1 . E x p lo it r e a l e v e n ts

In e v ita b ly m u c h o f th e la n g u a g e u s e d in th e c la s s ro o m is u n n a tu r a l — th e
te a c h e r se ts u p situ a tio n s a n d gives s tu d e n ts a n o p p o r tu n ity to p ra c tis e .
U n fo rtu n a te ly , o p p o rtu n itie s f o r natural la n g u a g e u s e a re o fte n ig n o re d .
F irstly, te a c h e rs s h o u ld tr y to u s e n a tu ra l la n g u a g e th e m se lv e s, a n d o c c a ­
sio n a lly d ra w a tte n tio n to su c h u s e s as:

Sorry, I ’m la te . . . I ’m afraid. . .
C ould y o u . . . please?
W ould y o u . . . please?

If y o u s n e e z e , say E xcuse me; if y o u k n o w it is a s tu d e n t’s b irth d a y , say M any

H appy Returns; in th e first le s so n o f th e sp rin g te r m s ta rt b y sa yin g H appy
New Year. It is b e tte r to p re s e n t th e s e e x p re ss io n s in n a tu ra l c o n te x ts r a th e r
th a n coldly, as ite m s to b e le a rn e d .
M o re difficu lt, a n d m o r e u se fu l, is to stim u la te th e s tu d e n ts in to u sin g th e
la n g u a g e n atura lly . M u c h m o d e m m a te ria l is b a s e d o n th e ‘in fo rm a tio n g a p ’
— a s itu a tio n w h e re tw o s tu d e n ts e a c h h a v e d iffe re n t se ts o f in fo rm a tio n .
S u ch s itu a tio n s d o , h o w e v er, a ris e n a tu ra lly in th e c la s s ro o m — p a rtic u la rly ,
p e rh a p s , b e tw e e n th e n a tiv e s p e a k e r a n d n o n -n a tiv e s tu d e n t, b u t a ls o f o r th e
n o n -n a tiv e te a c h e r in s c h o o l c la sse s w h e n , fo r e x a m p le , th e s tu d e n ts k n o w
s o m e th in g a b o u t s c h o o l life w h ic h y o u h a v e n o t y e t h e a rd . S u c h s itu a tio n s
p ro v id e a rea l o p p o rtu n ity f o r s tu d e n ts to u s e th e ir E n g lis h n a tu ra lly a n d
c o m m u n ica tiv e ly . F o r su c h a n a c tiv ity to b e c o n v in c in g it is n o t e s s e n tia l th a t
th e te a c h e r really d o e s n o t k n o w th e in fo rm a tio n ; w h a t is e s s e n tia l is th a t th e
Classroom M anagement

s tu d e n ts b e lie v e th e te a c h e r d o e s not k n o w , a n d g e n u in e ly wants to know .

T o o o fte n te a c h e rs try to give th in g s to s tu d e n ts . S o m e o f th e m o s t lively
a n d n a tu r a l la n g u a g e u se c a n b e stim u la te d b y asking s tu d e n ts a b o u t w h a t
they a lr e a d y k n o w , a n d a re in te re s te d in.

2 2 . D iv id e th e b la c k b o a rd

T h e re a d e r is in v ite d to s ta n d a t th e b a c k o f h is o r h e r n e x t class a fte r th e

s tu d e n ts h a v e left a n d lo o k a t th e b la c k b o a rd w ith o n e q u e s tio n in m in d —
W ould what you can see help anybody?
T h e b la c k b o a rd is a v isu a l aid; a id s a re s u p p o s e d to h e lp . A m u d d le d ,
c lu tte re d , m is h -m a s h w ill h e lp n o b o d y .
L a rg e r b o a r d s s h o u ld b e d iv id e d in to th r e e p a rts — tw o sm a lle r sid e p a n ­
els, a n d a la rg e r c e n tra l a re a . O n e s id e p a n e l is u s e d f o r listin g n e w w o rd s a n d
p h ra s e s , a n d is n o t c le a n e d d u rin g th e le s so n . N o th in g e lse is p u t in th is
se c tio n . If th e s e c tio n is full, th e r e is e n o u g h n e w m a te ria l a n y w ay in th a t
lesson! (T h is s e c tio n is e v e n b e tte r re p la c e d b y a la rg e p a d o f p a p e r b e s id e
th e b la c k b o a rd o n w h ic h a p e rm a n e n t re c o rd m a y b e k e p t.)
T h e s e c o n d sm all se c tio n is u s e d f o r d o o d le s , d ra w in g s, u n e x p e c te d o d d s
a n d e n d s e tc. It m a y b e c le a n e d c o n sta n tly .
A la rg e c e n tra l se c tio n is u s e d to p re s e n t th e m a in m a te ria l o f th e le s s o n —
g ra m m a tic a l e x a m p le s, e x a m p le s f o r e x e rc ise s, e tc. T h is m a y a ls o b e c le a n e d
as re q u ire d .
T ry d iv id in g y o u r b la c k b o a rd — it is a d is c ip lin e w h ic h h e lp s all te a c h e rs.

2 3 . U s e th e o v e r h e a d p r o je c to r to c o n tr o l w h a t s tu d e n ts s e e

O n e p ie c e o f m a c h in e ry is fre q u e n tly a v a ila b le to la n g u a g e te a c h e rs b u t is

u n d e r-u s e d b e c a u s e th e y a re n o t s u re o f its a d v a n ta g e s — th e o v e rh e a d p r o ­
je c to r. Its a d v a n ta g e s in c lu d e:

— it is e a s ie r to w rite o n a tra n s p a re n c y th a n o n th e b la c k b o a rd
— th e tra n s p a re n c ie s c a n b e p re p a re d in a d v a n c e
— im p o rta n t tr a n s p a re n c ie s c a n b e re -u s e d , w ith d iffe re n t c la sse s, o r fro m
d a y -to -d a y w ith th e s a m e class
— th e te a c h e r c a n b u ild u p a file o f tr a n s p a re n c ie s giving fre q u e n tly
n e e d e d e x e rc ise s a n d clear, w e ll-p re p a re d e x a m p le s fo r th e m o s t
c o m m o n g ra m m a r p o in ts .

A n im p o rta n t p o in t will b e n o te d — in th in k in g a b o u t th e slid e p ro je c to r o n e

a u to m a tic a lly th in k s o f p ro je c tin g p ic tu re s ; sim ila r la rg e c o lo u re d p ic tu re s
d o ex ist f o r u s e w ith th e o v e rh e a d p ro je c to r b u t th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e o v e r­
h e a d p ro je c to r a re m o s t o b v io u s w h e n it is u s e d w ith tra n s p a re n c ie s o f w o rd s
— e x a m p le s, e x ercises, a n d e v e n d ia lo g u e s a n d tex ts.
O n e v e ry im p o rta n t w a rn in g is n e c essa ry . A s m o s t te a c h e rs w h o h av e
se e n th e p ro je c to r u s e d in le c tu re s will k n o w , it is e x tre m e ly a n n o y in g to b e
a s k e d to lo o k a t a p ro je c te d tra n s p a re n c y w h e re th e te x t is to o sm a ll fo r y o u
to re a d . If y o u a re g o in g to u s e a tra n s p a re n c y c h e c k w h a t size o f
h a n d -w ritin g y o u n e e d to u s e to m a k e su re it is visible to e v e ry s tu d e n t in th e
ro o m . If y o u a re u sin g a ty p e w rite r it will b e n e c e s s a ry e ith e r to u s e a sp ec ial
 Classroom M anagem ent

la rg e -fa c e d ty p e w rite r, o r to b lo w th e te x t u p o n a n e n la rg in g p h o to c o p ie r.
A id s a re o n ly a id s if th e y help!
T h e m o s t im p o rta n t a d v a n ta g e o f th e p ro je c to r, h o w e v er, is th a t th e tr a n s ­
p a re n c y c a n b e re v e a le d slow ly. M a te ria l w h ic h y o u p r e p a r e a n d w rite o n th e
b la c k b o a rd b e fo re th e le s s o n is e ith e r o p e n fo r a ll to se e, o r p e rh a p s c o v e re d
b y a s c re e n . W h e n y o u re m o v e th e s c re e n , all is v isib le. If y o u w rite o n th e
b la c k b o a rd d u rin g th e le s so n it ta k e s a lo t o f tim e . T h e p ro je c to r a v o id s b o th
o f th e s e d is a d v a n ta g e s . T h e m a te ria l c a n b e p re p a r e d in a d v a n c e , a n d
re v e a le d a t e x a ctly th e s p e e d y o u w ish to g o a t. A p ie c e o f p a p e r p la c e d o v e r
th e p ro je c to r c a n b e e asily m a n ip u la te d w h ile still lo o k in g a t a n d ta lk in g to
th e c lass. T h is e n s u re s th a t e v e ry b o d y is lo o k in g a t th e s a m e p ie c e o f
m a te ria l. T w o p ie c e s o f p a p e r c a n b e v e ry sim p ly u s e d to p ro v id e a m a s k
re v e alin g th e c o m e r s , lines, o r c o lu m n s o f a p re p a re d tra n s p a re n c y .
W ith th e b la c k b o a rd , a n d e v e n w ith a te x tb o o k , th e te a c h e r c a n n e v e r b e
su re w h a t th e s tu d e n ts a re lo o k in g a t. W ith th e p ro je c to r y o u c a n c o n tro l p r e ­
c isely w h a t th e s tu d e n ts c a n see.

2 4 . M a c h in e r y w ill n o t s o lv e a ll y o u r p r o b le m s

S o m e y e a rs ag o v ery la rg e a m o u n ts o f m o n e y w e re in v e s te d in la n g u a g e
la b o ra to rie s . O n ly a fte r s c h o o ls h a d in v e s te d th e ir m o n e y , a n d s tu d e n ts h a d
b e e n s u b je c te d to th e la b o ra to rie s , d id it o c c u r to p e o p le to a s k w h e th e r
th e re w e re e n o u g h g o o d ta p e s a v a ila b le to ju stify th e la b o ra to ry , a n d to th in k
a b o u t th e th e o ry o f h o w a n d w hy th e la b o r a to ry c o u ld b e h e lp fu l. In fa c t, th e
la b o ra to ry u su a lly p lay s a v ery sm a ll p a r t in m o s t m o d e m la n g u a g e c o u rs e s
(a lth o u g h th e c la s s ro o m ta p e is o fte n v e ry im p o rta n t).
T h e m o d e m w e ll-e q u ip p e d la n g u a g e c la s s ro o m o f c o u rs e n e e d s a b la c k ­
b o a rd (d iv id e d in to p arts!), id e a lly a larg e b lo c k o f p a p e r b e s id e th e
b la c k b o a rd o n w h ic h th e te a c h e r c a n w rite m a te ria l w h ic h w ill b e n e e d e d
fro m le s so n to le s so n , a ta p e re c o rd e r, a n d , f o r th e re a s o n s w e h a v e ju s t
d is c u ss e d , a n o v e rh e a d p ro je c to r. E a c h o f th e s e h a s a v a lu a b le ro le to p la y
a n d th e y all h av e s o m e th in g in c o m m o n — th e te a c h e r re m a in s in c o n tro l o f
w h e n a n d h o w th e y a re u se d .
It is fa s h io n a b le to ta lk a b o u t u s in g v id e o a n d c o m p u te rs in la n g u a g e
te a c h in g . G o o d u s e o f th e s e m a c h in e s d e p e n d s n o t o n ly o n th e h a rd w a re , b u t
o n g o o d so ftw a re a n d o n te a c h e rs b e in g a w a re o f th e full p o te n tia l o f th e
m a c h in ery .
If y o u , o r y o u r sc h o o l, a re c o n te m p la tin g b u y in g s u c h m a c h in e s it is
u su a lly w ise r to start b y b u y in g a n u p - to - d a te b o o k d is c u ss in g th e p o te n tia l
o f th e m a c h in e . If th e so ftw a re is a v a ila b le , a n d if y o u c a n in te g ra te th e u s e o f
th e m a c h in e in to y o u r o v e rall te a c h in g p ro g ra m m e , it w ill h e lp . U n le s s , h o w ­
ever, su c h w o rk is a fully in te g ra te d p a r t o f y o u r c o m p le te te a c h in g
p ro g ra m m e th e re is a d a n g e r o f w astin g b o th tim e a n d m o n ey .
M a c h in e ry c a n n o t d o th e w o rk fo r y o u . It is o n ly a first ste p . T h e s e c o n d
ste p is th e so ftw a re u s e d o n th e m a c h in e s a n d th e th ird , a n d p ro b a b ly m o s t
im p o rta n t ste p is y o u , th e te a c h e r. N o m a c h in e c a n sm ile a t th e stu d e n t.
T e a c h in g is a p e rs o n a l ac tiv ity a n d a n y th in g w h ic h o b s c u re s th a t n e e d s to b e
tr e a te d w ith th e g re a te s t c a u tio n .
Classroom Management

2 5 . E x p a n d , d o n ’t c lu tte r

T h e g re a te s t te rro r o f th e n e w , o r le s s e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e r is th a t th e y m ig h t
‘ru n o u t o f m a te r ia l’. H o rro r o f h o rro rs — im a g in e sta n d in g u p in fro n t o f
a g ro u p o f p e o p le w ith n o p la n , n o m a te ria l, a n d n o id e a w h a t to d o n ex t!
S tra n g e ly e n o u g h , if y o u a re a w e ll-b a la n c e d p e rs o n , in te re s te d in o th e r
p e o p le , it w ill n o t tu rn o u t to b e th e p ro b le m y o u e x p e c t — in d e e d it c a n b e
th e m a k in g o f so m e p e o p le a s te a c h e rs .
L e s s e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e rs te n d to ta k e in m a te ria l — p ile s o f it — c a r e ­
fu lly , b u t a ll to o o fte n o v e r-p re p a re d . T h e y a re re a d y to te a c h so m e m a te ­
ria l, w h ic h a ll to o e a s ily b e c o m e s a b a rrie r b e tw e e n th e m a n d th e stu d e n ts .
B a d te a c h e rs a re d is o rg a n is e d — g o o d te a c h e rs a re o rg a n is e d — b u t v e ry
g o o d te a c h e rs a re h a lf o rg a n is e d — a n d h a v e th e te c h n iq u e s a t th e ir d is p o sa l
to d e v e lo p a sm a ll a m o u n t o f m a te ria l in w a y s w h ic h re s p o n d to th e s tu ­
d e n t’s p a rtic u la r n e e d s o r m o o d in th a t p a rtic u la r le s so n . T h is b o o k is
sp e c ific a lly a b o u t te c h n iq u e s — h o w to d o a p ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e o n th e
b a sis o f a n y m ista k e ; h o w to a s k c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s a n d c o n v e rs a ­
tio n q u e s tio n s a b o u t a n y ty p e o f te x t; h o w to d e v e lo p a s im p le c o llo c a tio n
p ra c tic e o r d rill a p a rtic u la r g ra m m a r p o in t. O n c e y o u h a v e m a s te re d th e s e
te c h n iq u e s , y o u n e e d re la tiv e ly little m a te ria l — it c a n n o t b e e m p h a s is e d
to o m u c h th a t y o u n e e d a s m a ll a m o u n t o f m a te ria l w h ic h p ro v id e s th e b a s is
o f th e le s so n , a n d a r a n g e o f t e c h n iq u e s w h ic h a llo w s y o u to d e v e lo p th a t
m a te ria l in in te re s tin g , v a rie d a n d e ffe c tiv e w a y s.
L e s s e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e rs a re a d v is e d a s s tro n g ly a s p o s s ib le to e q u ip
th e m s e lv e s w ith a ra n g e o f te c h n iq u e s — w h ic h c a n b e a p p lie d to d if fe re n t
m a te ria ls o n d if fe re n t d a y s in slig h tly d if fe re n t w a y s, a n d a ra n g e o f a c tiv ­
itie s o r ‘f ille r s ’ w h ic h p ro v id e a n in s u ra n c e p o lic y , a n d th e p o s s ib ility o f
v a rie ty . O n c e y o u h a v e th e s e a t y o u r d is p o s a l, y o u w ill s o o n d e v e lo p th e
c o n fid e n c e to ta k e in o n ly b a sic m a te ria ls w h ic h y o u c a n th e n e x p a n d .
I f y o u e v e r fin d y o u rs e lf s a y in g I think we've ju s t got tim e fo r a gram ­
m ar practice Ipronunciation practice!... before the end o f the lesson y o u
h a v e n o t ta k e n o n b o a rd th e a d v ic e o f th is s e c tio n — re la x , sto p p u sh in g ,
c re a te sp a c e . R e m e m b e r, s tu d e n ts le a rn b e s t w h e n th e y a re re la x e d ; s im i­
la rly te a c h e rs te a c h b e s t w h e n th e y a re p re p a re d a n d a le rt, b u t e q u a lly a re
a ls o re la x e d .
C h a p ter 4

P r e p a r a tio n

M a rk e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u r e a d th e c h a p te r.
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
v / if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. Y o u h a v e to re a d th e w hole c o u rs e b o o k b e fo re y o u te a c h th e firs t le s so n .

2. It is b e s t to fo llo w th e o r d e r a n d p a c e o f th e c o u rs e b o o k .

3. O v e r-p re p a re d le s so n s a re a s b a d a s u n d e r - p r e p a r e d le sso n s.

4 . E v e ry le s so n n e e d s a s h o r t in tro d u c tio n .

5. E v e ry le s so n n e e d s a s h o r t s u m m a ry a t th e e n d .
P r e p a r a tio n

1. P r e p a r e y o u r s e lf

N o th in g is m o r e c e rta in to g u a ra n te e a d is a s tro u s le s so n th a n a n u n p r e p a r e d
te a c h e r. O f c o u rs e , all e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e rs le a rn to p ro v id e fill-in le sso n s
w h e n s o m e o n e is ill ( o r w h e n th e y h a v e fo rg o tte n to p re p a re !) a n d ev ery
te a c h e r h a s g iven th e o c c a sio n a l w o n d e rfu lly su c c e ssfu l s p o n ta n e o u s a n d
u n p r e p a r e d le sso n . In g e n e ra l, h o w e ver, su c c e ss is d ire c tly p r o p o r tio n a l to
th e c a re o f p re p a ra tio n . T h is p r e p a ra tio n s h o u ld b e d e ta ile d :

a . D e c id e w hat y o u a re g o in g to te a c h .
b . M a k e s u re y o u h a v e th e n e c e s s a ry m a te ria ls — b o o k s , ta p e s , p ic tu re s, e tc.
c . C h e c k th e p ra c tic a l d e ta ils — H a v e y o u e n o u g h c o p ie s o f a ste n c il? D o e s
th e ta p e re c o r d e r w o rk ?
d. If y o u a r e g o in g to u s e m a c h in e ry , f o r e x a m p le , th e ta p e re c o rd e r, m a k e
su re th e ta p e is in th e rig h t p o s itio n before th e c la ss a rriv e s (o r, if th is is
im p o ss ib le ) b e fo re y o u s ta rt tea ch in g.
e. O f p a rtic u la r im p o rta n c e is p re p a rin g a n y te x tb o o k m a te ria l y o u in te n d to
u se . It is n o g o o d re a d in g o n ly th e te a c h e rs ’ n o te s — y o u n e e d to h a v e lo o k e d
a t th e m a te ria l in th e s tu d e n ts ’ b o o k in d eta il :
H a v e y o u c h e c k e d th e o r d e r y o u a re g o in g to te a c h th e m a te ria l?
D o a ll o f th e e x a m p le s in th e e x e rc ise fit?
W h ic h w o rd s in th e te x t w ill n e e d e x p la n a tio n ?
W h ic h w o rd s in th e te x t w ill n e e d c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n ?
In p re p a rin g a te x t fo r in te n siv e re a d in g it c a n b e h e lp fu l to u s e c o lo u re d p e n s
— o n e c o lo u r to u n d e rlin e n e w lex ical ite m s, o n e fo r ite m s to b e u s e d fo r
c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n , a n d o n e f o r ite m s to b e u s e d a s e x a m p le s o f th e
im p o rta n t s tru c tu re s p ra c tis e d la te r in th e u n it. T h e te x tb o o k is th e re to h e lp
y o u — b u t it c a n o n ly d o th is if y o u h a v e p re p a r e d th e m a te ria l a d e q u a te ly in
advance.
f. T h e w e ll-p re p a re d te a c h e r alw ays h a s tw o o r th r e e “fiv e -m in u te fille r”
ite m s p r e p a r e d so th a t if th e r e a re a few m in u te s a t th e e n d o f th e c lass th e
te a c h e r h a s so m e th in g useful a n d different to fill th e g ap .

. C o u r s e s a n d le s s o n s n e e d a n o v er a ll s tr u c tu r e

T e a c h e rs fre q u e n tly d o n o t d is tin g u ish b e tw e e n lo n g a n d s h o r t-te rm p r e p a r ­

a tio n . L o n g -te rm p r e p a ra tio n is th in k in g a b o u t g e n e ra l c o u rs e o b jec tiv e s
w h ic h m a y in c lu d e :
W h y a re th e s e s tu d e n ts s tu d y in g E n g lish ?
 Preparation

T o w h a t u se (s) w ill th e y p u t it?

W h a t k in d o f a ttitu d e w ill th e y b rin g to th e s u b je c t?
H o w d o th e E n g lis h le s so n s re la te to th e s tu d e n ts ’ o th e r a c tiv itie s ? (b o th f o r
a d u lts o r th o s e stu d y in g in a s ta te s c h o o l settin g )
A r e s tu d e n ts p re p a rin g f o r a n e x a m ? — if so , w h a t is th e detailed sy lla b u s?

O f c o u rs e all te a c h e rs p a y lip se rv ic e to th e s e g e n e ra l c o u rs e o b je c tiv e s, b u t it

is n e c e s s a ry fro m tim e to tim e to s to p , sit d o w n , a n d th in k a b o u t h o w w h a t
y o u a re d o in g in th e c la s s ro o m re la te s to th e s tu d e n ts ’ w a n ts a n d n e e d s . V ery
few c o u rs e s , f o r e x a m p le , in c lu d e e le m e n ts w h ic h h e lp s tu d e n ts to le a r n h o w
to stu d y la n g u a g e s b e tte r a n d y e t m a n y s tu d e n ts w ill n e e d to c o n tin u e s tu d y ­
ing E n g lis h w ith o u t a c c e s s to a te a c h e r. A lth o u g h n o te -ta k in g a n d
stu d y -sk ills m a y n o t b e re q u ire d b y th e s tu d e n ts f o r a n e x a m f o r w h ic h th e y
a re p re p a rin g , th e y m a y w ell n e e d th e s e skills a fte r th e y h a v e s u c c e e d e d in
th e e x a m . A s w e p o in te d o u t in th e in tro d u c to ry c h a p te r, la n g u a g e le a rn in g is
m o re im p o r ta n t th a n la n g u a g e te a c h in g . T h is m e a n s it is e s s e n tia l fo r
te a c h e rs to th in k a b o u t lo n g -te rm o b je c tiv e s o f a n y c o u rs e . A lm o s t
in v a ria b ly it is h e lp fu l if te a c h e rs w o rk in g in a sim ila r s e ttin g d is c u ss fro m
tim e to tim e h o w th e ir c o u rs e s re la te to th e ir s tu d e n ts ’ n e e d s .
L o n g -te rm p r e p a r a tio n in th e u s e o f a te x tb o o k m e a n s re a d in g a n d
u n d e rs ta n d in g th e te a c h e r s ’ g u id e to it a n d re a d in g all o f th e te x tb o o k before
sta rtin g th e c o u rs e . M o s t m o d e m te x tb o o k s re -c y c le g ra m m a r a n d v o c a b u ­
la ry o r p r e s e n t th e s a m e la n g u a g e ite m fr o m tw o d iffe re n t p o in ts o f view ,
p e rh a p s stru c tu ra lly a n d fu n c tio n a lly , in d iffe re n t u n its . I t is e s s e n tia l th a t
te a c h e rs k n o w w h e n p re s e n tin g a p o in t f o r th e first tim e th a t th e p o in t re c u rs
se v e ra l u n its later. T h e te x tb o o k m a y b e a v o y ag e o f d is c o v e ry f o r th e c la ss,
b u t m o s t c e rta in ly s h o u ld n o t b e s o f o r th e te a c h e r!
M a te ria ls c a n n o t b e u s e d e ffec tiv ely u n le s s th e te a c h e r a n d a u th o r a re
w o rk in g in h a rm o n y . T h e te a c h e r n e e d s to u n d e rs ta n d th e ra tio n a le b e h in d
d iffe re n t a c tiv itie s o f th e b o o k — is th is p a rtic u la r a c tiv ity a im e d a t a c c u ra c y
o r flu e n c y ? O r is a c e rta in la n g u a g e ite m in te n d e d f o r th e s tu d e n ts ’ a c tiv e o r
p a ss iv e k n o w le d g e ? In w h a t w ays d o e s th e a u th o r e x p e c t a te a c h e r to s u p p le ­
m e n t th e b o o k ?
A lm o s t alw ay s it is d e s ira b le f o r th e te a c h e r to a d a p t, s u p p le m e n t, o r o m it
ite m s fro m th e te x tb o o k f o r a p a rtic u la r class. T h is c a n o n ly b e d o n e ,
h o w ev er, a fte r th e te a c h e r u n d e r s ta n d s h o w th e in d iv id u a l e le m e n ts o f th e
c o u rs e b o o k fit in to th e a u th o r ’s o v e ra ll p la n .

3 . D o n ’t le t th e b o o k d ic ta te

It is v e ry ra r e f o r a te a c h e r to b e c o m p le te ly h a p p y w ith a n y te x tb o o k . A p a r ­
tic u la r fe a tu re o f th e b o o k m a y b e in a p p r o p r ia te to th e s itu a tio n in w h ic h y o u
a re u sin g it o r th e r e m a y s im p ly b e a fe a tu re o f th e b o o k y o u d islik e. It m a y
n o t, h o w e v er, b e y o u r d e c is io n w h e th e r th a t p a rtic u la r b o o k is u s e d o r n o t. If
y o u h a v e to u se a b o o k w h ic h h a s fe a tu re s y o u d islik e , it m a y h e lp to m a k e
y o u r d is a g re e m e n t c le a r to th e s tu d e n ts if, f o r e x a m p le , y o u a re g o in g to o m it
p ra c tic e s o f a c e rta in ty p e , b u t c ritic ism o f d e ta il th a t c o u ld a ffe c t s tu d e n ts ’
c o n fid e n c e in th e b o o k s h o u ld alw ay s b e a v o id e d . It is se n s ib le to tell
s tu d e n ts before y o u d o a p a rtic u la r e x e rc is e th a t y o u a r e g o in g to m iss o u t a
p a rtic u la r e x a m p le . H o w e v e r, if it is c le a r to s tu d e n ts th a t y o u a n d th e b o o k
a re g o in g in d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s , th e y w ill b e c o n fu s e d a n d th e ir le a rn in g
im p e d e d .
P r e p a r a tio n

A t th e s a m e tim e th e b o o k sh o u ld n o t d ic ta te . W e h a v e a lre a d y o b s e rv e d in
th e in tro d u c to ry c h a p te r th a t y o u s h o u ld te a c h s tu d e n ts , n o t b o o k s .
D o n o t b e a fra id to c h a n g e th e o r d e r o f th e m a te ria l p re s e n te d in th e
b o o k , o m it p a rtic u la r ite m s, o r s u p p le m e n t th e b o o k b y p ro v id in g a d d itio n a l
p ra c tic e , o r p ra c tic e s o f a d iffe re n t k in d . S u c h c h a n g e s m u s t, h o w ev er, b e
p la n n e d in a d v a n c e . T h e b e s t le sso n s w ill u su a lly b e th o s e in w h ic h th e
te a c h e r u se s th e b o o k a s a s u p p o r t fo r a c o u rs e w h ic h is c e n tre d o n th e
s tu d e n ts ’ n e e d s.

4 . D o n o t p r e p a r e t o o m u c h o r t o o r ig id ly

In e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e rs fre q u e n tly o v e r-p re p a re . T h e y w o rry a b o u t “d ry in g -

u p ” a n d , c o n se q u e n tly , w rite o u t all th e ir c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s in
a d v a n c e , a n d p la n in d e ta il h o w lo n g th e y e x p e c t e a c h a ctiv ity to ta k e . W h ile
su c h p la n n in g c a n b e h e lp fu l b e fo re th e c lass, it is u su a lly d is a s tr o u s if ta k e n
in to th e c la s sro o m .
A le s s o n in w h ic h th e te a c h e r is p re -o c c u p ie d w ith a le s s o n p la n a n d m o re
b u s y lo o k in g a t th e p la n th a n a t th e s tu d e n ts w ill b e u n in v o lv in g a n d d ull. A
p la n h e lp s — b u t it s h o u ld b e a g e n e ra l fra m e w o rk , n o t a stra ig h t-ja c k e t.
T h e re m u s t alw ays b e o p p o rtu n itie s fo r s tu d e n ts to a sk u n e x p e c te d a n d
a w k w a rd q u e s tio n s ; th e te a c h e r s h o u ld c o n sta n tly b e lo o k in g fo r
o p p o rtu n itie s to c a p ita lise o n th e s tu d e n ts ’ in te re s t a n d o n p a rtic u la r diffi­
c u ltie s w h ic h e m e rg e d u rin g th e le sso n . T h e r e is n o m e rit in stic k in g to a p la n
fo r th e s a k e o f a p la n — th e p la n is s u p p o s e d to h e lp th e stu d e n ts ; a s s o o n a s it
sto p s d o in g th a t, it s h o u ld b e ig n o re d .
T e a c h e rs fin d it h e lp fu l a s p a r t o f th e ir le s so n p re p a ra tio n to m a k e w ritte n
le s so n p la n s . In d o in g th is it is im p o rta n t to r e m e m b e r th a t th a t p la n w ill b e
u s e d in th e c la s sro o m . U su a lly y o u w ill b e sta n d in g u p o r e v e n m o v in g
a ro u n d th e ro o m . M o s t o fte n y o u w ill h a v e a te x tb o o k in o n e h a n d a n d m a y
w ell b e u sin g th e o th e r h a n d to e n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts , in v ite c h o ra l
p ro n u n c ia tio n , e tc . A le s s o n p la n w ritte n o u t o n s e v e ra l s h e e ts o f p a p e r w ill
b e im p o ss ib le to u s e a n d w ill o b s tru c t r a th e r th a n h e lp th e le sso n .
T h e r e is n o h a r m in w ritin g a n e x te n siv e le s s o n p la n , providing y o u th e n
re d u c e it t o a sin g le p a g e o f c le a rly w ritte n h e a d in g s , p e rh a p s w ith p a g e o r
ta p e re fe re n c e s, w h ic h y o u w ill a c tu a lly b e a b le to u s e in th e c la s s ro o m in th e
h u rly -b u rly o f a le sso n .
O n c e in th e c la s sro o m , p u t th e n o te s s o m e w h e re y o u c a n se e th e m w ith ­
o u t in c o n v e n ie n c e a n d , if y o u a r e g o in g to lo o k a t th e m , d o n o t a tte m p t to
k e e p th is a se c re t. I t is u su a lly b e s t sim p ly to say Excuse m e a m om ent, I want
to look at m y notes. S tu d e n ts e x p e c t y o u to b e p re p a re d , so th e r e is n o n e e d
to m a k e a s e c re t o f y o u r p re p a ra tio n s . L e s s o n n o te s d o h e lp , p ro v id in g th e y
a re notes.

5 . P r e p a r a tio n m u s t b e c o n c r e t e

T h e re a re m a n y re a s o n s w h y s tu d e n ts m a y b e u n a b le o r u n w illin g to c o n tri­
b u te to a d is c u s s io n o r c o n v e rs a tio n in th e la n g u a g e c la s sro o m . T h e y m a y
k n o w n o th in g a b o u t th e to p ic , o r n o t b e in te re s te d in it; th e y m a y n o t h a v e th e
la n g u a g e to sa y w h a t th e y w ish; th e y m a y c a re d e e p ly a b o u t th e to p ic , a n d
k n o w th e y a re u n a b le to e x p re ss th e ir id e a s w ith suffic ie n t sub tlety , so th e y
p re fe r sile n c e o r a n o n -c o m m ita l I t’s difficult to say.
 Preparation

T h e d iffic u lty m ay, h o w e v e r, b e s im p le r — s tu d e n ts h a v e sim p ly n o t c o lle c te d

th e ir th o u g h ts a n d , w h ile th e te a c h e r h a s th o u g h t a b o u t th e to p ic , a n d is full
o f id e a s , th e s tu d e n ts a re still try in g to a d ju s t to th e fa c t th a t th e c h e m istry
le s so n h a s fin ish e d , a n d th e E n g lis h le s s o n h a s s ta rte d .
C o n c re te p r e p a r a tio n o f th e to p ic h e lp s o v e rc o m e s o m e o f th e d ifficu lties.
U se fu l te c h n iq u e s in v o lv e th e u s e o f p o s itiv e /n e g a tiv e ta b le s , b e s t/w o rs t
q u e stio n s, a n d w o rd -la d d e rs a n d w o rd -ro s e s . T h e s e te c h n iq u e s ta k e o n ly a
fe w m in u te s a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e le s so n , a n d h e lp to fo c u s s tu d e n ts ’
th o u g h ts b o th o n th e id e a s a n d la n g u a g e th a t m a y b e n e e d e d to d is c u ss a
p a rtic u la r to p ic .

P o s it iv e /n e g a t iv e
S tu d e n ts a re a s k e d to w rite d o w n th r e e p o sitiv e id e a s , a n d th r e e n e g a tiv e
id e a s, w h ic h th e y a s s o c ia te w ith a p a rtic u la r q u e s tio n , e.g. liv in g in a to w n , a
h o lid a y in A m e ric a , g o in g to u n iv e rsity , b e in g u n e m p lo y e d .
T h e la s t e x a m p le is im p o r ta n t — m o s t s tu d e n ts w o u ld say th a t b e in g
u n e m p lo y e d is a b a d th in g , a n d w o u ld h a v e little d iffic u lty th in k in g o f n e g a ­
tive id e a s a s s o c ia te d w ith it, b u t s o m e m ig h t say th a t th e r e is a n o th e r s id e to
th a t as to m o s t o th e r q u e s tio n s . B y u sin g th e p o s itiv e /n e g a tiv e te c h n iq u e ,
s tu d e n ts a re e n c o u ra g e d to th in k w id e ly a n d im ag in ativ ely, b u t a t th e s a m e
tim e c o n c re te ly , a b o u t a q u e s tio n .

B e s t /W o r s t
A g a in , th e id e a is to e n c o u ra g e a w id e s p e c tru m o f c o n c re te id e a s. W h a t w as
y o u r b e s t/w o rs t s u b je c t a t s c h o o l? W h a t is th e b e s t/w o r s t film y o u h a v e e v e r
se e n ? W h o is y o u r fa v o u rite /u n fa v o u rite re la tiv e ? W h a t f o o d d o y o u p a r ti­
c u la rly lik e /h a te ?
E n c o u ra g in g s tu d e n ts to th in k in th is w ay c o m b in e s p o sitiv e a n d n e g a tiv e
id e a s a n d m e a n s th e r e is a lm o s t c e rta in to b e a w id th o f o p in io n to a n y id e a
in tro d u c e d in to th e c o n v e rs a tio n .

W o r d la d d e r s a n d w o r d r o s e s
T h e s e a r e m e n tio n e d (p a g e 1 0 8 ) to fo c u s a tte n tio n o n v o c a b u la ry b e fo re
re a d in g a tex t. T h e y a re e q u a lly u s e fu l f o r fo c u s in g s tu d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n o n
v o c a b u la ry b e fo re a d is c u s s io n o r c o n v e rs a tio n .
In g e n e ra l, a fe w m in u te s c o n c re te p r e p a r a tio n a t th e b e g in n in g o f “a c o n ­
v e rs a tio n le s so n ” , w ill b e re w a rd e d b y a liv elier d is c u ss io n , w ith m o r e
p a rtic ip a n ts , a n d a g re a te r ra n g e o f id e a s .

6 . A id s a r e o n ly a id s i f th e y h e lp

F la s h c a rd s , ta p e s , slid e s, p ic tu re s , w a ll-c h a rts , v id e o re c o rd in g s a n d e v e n

te x tb o o k s th e m se lv e s a re th e r e to h e lp th e te a c h e r. T h e y a r e n o t in te n d e d to
re p la c e th e te a c h e r. B u t n e ith e r a r e th e y in te n d e d to b e u s e d f o r th e s a k e o f it.
T h e r e is n o p o in t in d ra w in g a p ic tu re , if th e s tu d e n ts a lre a d y k n o w w h a t
th e w o rd m e a n s . T h e r e is n o p o in t p la y in g a ta p e u n le s s it a d d s s o m e th in g to
th e le s so n .
S o m e te a c h e rs th in k th a t a u d io -v is u a l a id s w ill m a k e th e ir le s s o n m o r e
in te re stin g . T h a t is tr u e p ro v id in g th e a id s a re c le a rly in te g ra te d in to th e
te a c h e r’s o v e ra ll p la n a n d c o n tr ib u te to th a t p la n . A id s u s e d f o r th e sa k e o f it
te n d to c o n fu s e a n d ir rita te s tu d e n ts .
T e a c h e rs fre q u e n tly fo rg e t th a t th e m o s t im p o r ta n t v isu a l a id in m o s t
Preparation

c la s sro o m s is th e b la c k b o a rd . If th is is to b e a n a id it m u s t n o t b e a c o n fu s e d
m u d d le o f c a re le ss w ritin g , w o rd s w ritte n in o d d c o m e r s a n d d o o d le s! Y ou
a re m o s t likely to u s e th e b la c k b o a rd w ell (i.e. so th a t it h e lp s y o u r s tu d e n ts ) if
y o u s tru c tu re it (se e p a g e 5 2 ), b u t, e v e n so , it is n e c e s s a ry to p r e p a r e m o d e l
se n te n c e s a n d sim ila r im p o rta n t b la c k b o a rd m a te ria l before th e class.
If y o u a r e g o in g to u s e a p ie c e o f m e c h a n ic a l a p p a ra tu s it h a s to b e p r e ­
p a re d s o th a t w h e n y o u n e e d it y o u c a n sw itch o n a n d it w o rk s, im m e d ia te ly.
If y o u u s e class tim e to th r e a d a film o r m o re c o m m o n ly try to fin d th e rig h t
p la c e o n a ta p e (p a rtic u la rly o n a c a ss e tte m a c h in e w h ic h d o e s n ’t h a v e a
c o u n te r!) y o u w ill w ish y o u h a d n e v e r ta k e n y o u r ‘ te a c h in g a id ’ in to th e
c la s sro o m . Y ou w ill lo o k in c o m p e te n t a n d fe el silly.
P re p a ra tio n m e a n s p lu g g in g th e m a c h in e in , m a k in g s u re th e ta p e is a t th e
rig h t s p e e d , th e rig h t v o lu m e , is a u d ib le all o v e r th e ro o m , a n d is in th e rig h t
p la c e to sta rt. A id s h e lp if, a n d o n ly if, th e y h a v e b e e n p re p a re d b y th e
te a c h e r.

7. N e v e r ig n o r e t h e p r a c tic a l d iffic u ltie s

A s f a r a s p o ss ib le , th e te a c h e r s h o u ld b e c o n s c io u s o f e a c h a n d e v e ry s tu d e n t
a s a n in d iv id u a l. U n fo rtu n a te ly v e ry la rg e c la sse s in v e ry d iffic u lt c irc u m ­
s ta n c e s o fte n m e a n th a t th is id e a l is a lo n g w ay fro m a tta in a b le . B u t te a c h e rs
c a n , e v e n in th e m o s t d iffic u lt c irc u m sta n c e s, tr y to c h e c k th a t th e practical
d e ta ils d o n o t m a k e it m o r e d iffic u lt f o r a n y s tu d e n t th a n it n e e d s to b e:

C a n all th e s tu d e n ts h e a r y o u ? (If y o u c a n ’t h e a r m e , p u t y o u r h a n d up !)
C a n th e y all h e a r th e ta p e re c o rd e r ?
C a n th e y all s e e th e b la c k b o a rd ?
C a n th e y all s e e y o u , a n d in p a rtic u la r y o u r h a n d s a n d y o u r m o u th ?
H a v e th e y all g o t a c o p y o f th e te x t — o r, if th e y a r e sh a rin g , a re y o u su re
e v e ry o n e c a n se e a c o p y c le a rly e n o u g h to u s e it?
H a s e v e ry o n e g o t p a p e r a n d a p e n o r p e n c il?
D o e s everyone k n o w w h a t h e is e x p e c te d to d o d u rin g th e n e x t a c tiv ity ?

E a c h in d iv id u a l m a tte rs a ll th e tim e — if y o u m o v e to a p o in t in th e c la s sro o m

w h e re o n e s tu d e n t c a n n o t s e e y o u r m o u th d u rin g a p ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e ,
th a t p a rtic u la r s tu d e n t c a n in flu e n c e th e su c c e ss o r fa ilu re o f th a t p a r t o f th e
le s so n m o r e th a n a ll th e s tu d e n ts w h o c a n see. A s fa r a s p o s s ib le th e r e sh o u ld
n e v e r b e a n in d iv id u a l th in k in g , o r m u m b lin g , W hat about m e ?

8 . A g o o d le s s o n h a s a b e g in n in g , a m id d le , a n d a n e n d

T h is d o e s n o t m e a n y o u n e e d a c o m p lic a te d th r e e -p a rt le s so n p la n b u t to o
o fte n te a c h e rs e x p e c t s tu d e n ts to s ta rt ‘c o ld ’ a n d fin ish th e le s so n f o r n o o th e r
re a s o n th a n th a t th e b e ll h a s g o n e .
It is w ise to b e g in m o s t c la sse s w ith a s h o r t in tro d u c tio n , re m in d in g s tu ­
d e n ts o f w h a t h a p p e n e d la s t tim e a n d say ing w h a t y o u a re g o in g to s tu d y th is
tim e. S u c h a n in tro d u c tio n m a y b e o n ly th r e e o r fo u r s e n te n c e s a n d sh o u ld
h a rd ly e v e r b e m o r e th a n tw o o r th re e m in u te s , b u t n e ith e r s h o u ld it b e
o m itte d .
In th e s a m e w ay it is h e lp fu l fo r e v e ry o n e a t th e e n d o f a se ss io n (a le ss o n
o r a d a y ’s w o rk ) if it is ro u n d e d o ff n e a tly b y th e te a c h e r p ro v id in g a b rie f
s u m m a ry a n d p e r h a p s te llin g s tu d e n ts w h a t w ill h a p p e n n e x t tim e . A g a in , th e
su m m a ry s h o u ld n o t b e to o lo n g , b u t n e ith e r s h o u ld it b e o m itte d .
 61

C h a p ter 5

T e c h n iq u e s — L iste n in g

M a rk e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u r e a d th e c h a p te r.
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
✓ if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. L is te n in g is a p a ss iv e skill.

2. L is te n in g is a re c e p tiv e skill.

3. S tu d e n ts s h o u ld n e v e r liste n to a ta p e f o r m o r e th a n tw o m in u te s.

4 . A ta p e o f n a tu r a l E n g lis h c o n fu s e s stu d e n ts .

5. L is te n in g is v ery im p o r ta n t f o r e le m e n ta ry stu d e n ts .
T e c h n iq u e s — L is te n in g

1. L is te n in g c a n b e d iv id ed in to s u b -s k ills

T e a c h e rs re c o g n is e th a t s p e a k in g is a c o m p le x p ro c e s s a n d fre q u e n tly c o r ­
re c t s tu d e n ts ’ m is ta k e s in d iffe re n t a re a s — p ro n u n c ia tio n , s tru c tu re , stre ss,
in to n a tio n . In th e s a m e w ay w h e n s tu d e n ts w rite , a w id e v a rie ty o f m ista k e s
a re n o te d a n d c o rre c te d . W ith th e re c e p tiv e skills — liste n in g a n d rea d in g ,
h o w e ver, th e re is a te n d e n c y to u s e o n ly g e n e ra l, g lo b a l, q u e stio n s . L ik e th e
p ro d u c tiv e skills, liste n in g a n d re a d in g c a n b e s u b -d iv id e d , s o th a t it is n o t
su ffic ie n t to a sk , a fte r s tu d e n ts h a v e liste n e d to so m e th in g , D id you
understand that? n o r e v e n e n o u g h to fo llo w u p w ith a se rie s o f c o n v e n tio n a l
c o m p re h e n s io n q u e stio n s. L is te n in g is m o re c o m p lic a te d th a n th a t.

A m o n g th e sub -skills o f liste n in g are:

— a b ility to fo llo w th e general tre n d o f w h a t is said
— a b ility to u n d e rs ta n d specific d e ta ils
— a b ility to check a sp e c ific p ie c e o f p re -k n o w le d g e a g a in s t w h a t is sa id
— a b ility to u n d e rs ta n d th e s p e a k e r’s intention (w hy d id /( s ) h e say
s o m e th in g ? )
— a b ility to u n d e rs ta n d th e s p e a k e r’s attitude (h o w (s )h e felt)
S tu d e n ts ’ liste n in g skills w ill b e im p ro v e d m o r e efficien tly if te a c h e rs a im to
te a c h su b -sk ills, a s w ell a s g lo b a l liste n in g c o m p re h e n s io n .

2 . D ir e c t s tu d e n ts ’ lis te n in g , p a r tic u la r ly if it is ta p e d

W h e n u s in g la n g u a g e o u ts id e th e c la s sro o m , th e u s e r h a s m a n y c lu e s to h e lp
h im o r h e r to a n tic ip a te w h a t w ill b e sa id — th e c o n te x t, w h a t w a s sa id e a rlie r
in th e c o n v e rs a tio n , k n o w le d g e o f th e o th e r p a rtic ip a n t(s ) in th e c o n v e rs a ­
tio n , e tc. It is artificially d ifficu lt to a s k s tu d e n ts to d o listen in g p ra c tic e s
w ith o u t p ro v id in g th e m w ith p re p a ra tio n w h ic h w ill a llo w th e m to u se
a n tic ip a tio n .
T h e a m o u n t o f p re p a ra tio n w h ic h m a y b e n e c e s s a ry v a rie s a c c o rd in g to
th e c la ss, th e level o f d ifficu lty o f th e m a te ria l a n d th e s tu d e n ts ’ la n g u ag e
level. It o u g h t, h o w ev er, alw ays to in c lu d e tw o e le m e n ts — first, s o m e k in d o f
g e n e ra l, th e m a tic in tro d u c tio n — th e stu d e n ts sh o u ld b e to ld “w h a t it is
a b o u t”; sec o n d ly , th e y s h o u ld b e g iven s o m e k in d o f g u id a n c e o n th e
s tru c tu re o f w h a t th e y a re g o in g to h e a r. T h is is d o n e m o s t e ffectiv ely b y giv­
in g th e m tw o or three q u e stio n s in th e c o rre c t o r d e r before th e y liste n , s o th a t
th e b a sic s e q u e n c e o f id e a s m e n tio n e d in th e p a ss a g e is c le a r to th e m .
It m a y a ls o b e h e lp fu l to d o v o c a b u la ry e x e rcise s, f o r e x a m p le , a sk in g
s tu d e n ts to call to m in d w o rd s w h ic h a re su g g e ste d b y a p a rtic u la r to p ic ; o r
 Techniques — Listening

e v e n to p ro v id e e x a m p le s o f v o c a b u la ry o r rh e to ric a l d e v ic e s w h ic h o c c u r in
th e liste n in g m a te ria l. L is te n in g m a te ria ls s h o u ld n o t b e in te n d e d to tric k s tu ­
d e n ts . T h e ir liste n in g is m o r e lik ely to b e m o r e effectiv e, a n d th e ir liste n in g
skills d e v e lo p e d m o r e e ffic ie n tly if th e ir in te re s t and lin g u istic e x p e c ta tio n s
a re a ro u s e d in a d v a n c e .

3 . L is te n in g t o a ta p e is d iffic u lt

M o s t te a c h e rs w ill re a d ily re c o g n is e th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n sp e a k in g a

fo re ig n la n g u a g e fa c e -to -fa c e w ith a n a tiv e sp e a k e r, a n d sp e a k in g th e s a m e
la n g u a g e o n th e te le p h o n e . M o s t p e o p le w o u ld a g re e th a t th e s e c o n d is c o n ­
sid e ra b ly m o r e difficu lt. T h e r e a re m a n y re a s o n s f o r th is — s o m e to d o w ith
th e te c h n ic a l c h a n g e s in s o u n d m a d e b y th e m a c h in e , s o m e m u c h m o r e
stra ig h tfo rw a rd — y o u c a n n o t s e e th e s p e a k e r’s fa c ia l e x p re s s io n o r w a tc h lip
m o v e m e n ts a n d , m o s t im p o rta n tly o f all, y o u c a n n o t in te r r u p t a n d a s k f o r a
r e p e a t o r c la rific a tio n .
L is te n in g to ta p e - r e c o r d e d m a te ria l, n o m a tte r h o w g o o d th e q u a lity o f
th e ta p in g , s h a re s all o f th e s e d ifficu lties. M a n y s tu d e n ts , in c lu d in g th o s e w h o
c o u ld c o n v e rs e re a s o n a b ly effe ctiv e ly fa c e -to -fa c e , fin d e x te n d e d liste n in g to
ta p e re c o rd in g s e x tre m e ly d e m a n d in g . T h e w a rn in g f o r te a c h e rs is c le a r —
first, th e s tu d e n ts ’ lis te n in g m u s t b e p r e p a re d ; se co n d ly , n o s tu d e n ts s h o u ld
b e a s k e d to liste n f o r m o r e th a n a v e ry s h o r t p e rio d a t o n e tim e . T w o o r th r e e
m in u te s is th e m a x im u m th a t s tu d e n ts c a n liste n to th e ta p e b e fo re c o n c e n ­
tr a tio n w a n d e rs . F o r m a n y s tu d e n ts a t lo w e r levels th e c o n c e n tr a tio n s p a n is
to b e m e a s u re d in te r m s o f 2 0 s e c o n d s a n d s o -c a lle d liste n in g p ra c tic e s
w h ic h g o o n fo r lo n g p e rio d s a r e a w a s te o f e v e ry o n e ’s tim e , a n d c a n b e
c o u n te r-p ro d u c tiv e .

4 . L e t s tu d e n ts h e a r “th e r e a l th in g ” from e a r ly in th e ir c o u r s e

A m o m e n t’s re fle c tio n re v e a ls th a t w h e n le a rn in g y o u r m o th e r-to n g u e y o u

b e g in b y listen ing . F o re ig n la n g u a g e te a c h in g h a s u su a lly b e e n v e ry d iffe re n t.
B e c a u s e it h a s b e e n b a s e d o n c a re fu l s tru c tu ra l p ro g re s s io n , a n d p e o p le
ra re ly s p e a k f o r m o r e th a n a s e n te n c e o r tw o u sin g file s a m e s tru c tu re , liste n ­
ing h a s e ith e r n o t b e e n ta u g h t, o r b e e n in tro d u c e d re lativ e ly la te in th e
c o u rs e .
M o s t c o u rs e s w ill b e n e fit fr o m th e in tro d u c tio n o f a little n a tu r a l liste n in g
m a te ria l a t a n e a rly stag e. S u c h m a te ria l h e lp s, p ro v id in g te a c h e rs b e a r in
m in d , a n d m a k e v e ry c le a r to th e ir s tu d e n ts th a t th e y d o n o t n e e d to
u n d e r s ta n d e v e ry th in g , a n d th a t th e r e w ill b e a lot th a t th e y w ill n o t
u n d e rs ta n d . P ro v id in g te a c h e rs s e t e le m e n ta ry ta s k s b a s e d o n th e m a te ria l
(fo r e x a m p le , giv en a s e t o f in s tru c tio n s f o r h o w to fin d a n u n k n o w n p la c e ,
th e ta s k m a y b e to d e c id e o n ly w h e th e r t h e i r s / s t e p is to tu r n le ft o r rig h t) —
th e fa c t th a t th e s p e a k e r gives a g re a t d e a l m o r e in fo rm a tio n is n o t n e c e s s a r­
ily a b a d thing . O n e o f th e skills o f liste n in g is to e x tra c t fr o m a g re a t d e a l o f
u n w a n te d in fo rm a tio n a sm a ll p ie c e o f in fo rm a tio n w h ic h is o f u s e to th e
listen er.
A s te a c h e rs in c re a s in g ly u n d e r s ta n d th a t liste n in g c a n b e ta u g h t, r a th e r
th a n sim p ly a c q u ire d , a n d th a t it c a n b e d iv id e d in to su b -sk ills, so th e y
s h o u ld b e m o re w illing to in tro d u c e short p ie c e s o f a u th e n tic liste n in g in to
all c o u rs e s a t a n e a rly stage.
Techniques — Listening

5 . M a k e s u r e s tu d e n ts c a n h e a r th e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n sim ila r

so u n d s

S tu d e n ts n e e d to re c o g n is e d iffe re n c e s b e fo re th e y c a n b e e x p e c te d to p r o ­
d u c e th e d iffe re n c e th em se lv e s. T h e s tu d e n ts ’ n a tiv e la n g u a g e m a y p e rh a p s
n o t h a v e o n e o r o th e r (o r p e rh a p s e ith e r) o f th e s o u n d s / k / , /g / .
T o te s t if th e y c a n h e a r th e d is tin c tio n , w rite a m in im a l p a ir c o n ta in in g th e
d iffe re n c e o n th e b la c k b o a rd .

1 2
C ot G ot

a n d th e n give th is in s tru c tio n :

L iste n , c o t, c o t (pointing to the word on the board) c o t, c o t . . .

L iste n , g o t, g o t (pointing to the word on the board), g o t, g o t . . .
L is te n a g a in (pointing to the appropriate word each tim e as you say it) c o t, c o t,
g o t, g o t, c o t, g o t L o o k , (pointing to the board) c o t is n u m b e r o n e , c o t, co t.
G o t is n u m b e r tw o (pointing) g o t, g o t . . . N o w I’ll say o n e o f th e w o rd s. If I say
th is w o rd (pointing) y o u say 1 . . . If I say th is w o rd (pointing) y o u sa y n u m b e r
2 . . . A r e y o u re a d y ? C o t.

A s th e c la ss call o u t (c h o ra lly ) y o u c a n tell h o w m a n y o f th e c la ss c a n hear the

d is tin c tio n .

6 . U s e a v a r ie ty o f liste n a n d r e sp o n d a c tiv itie s

In re a l life w e lis te n fo r o n ly o n e re a s o n — to u n d e rs ta n d a m e s s a g e . In la n ­
g u a g e le a rn in g , w e c a n lis te n fo r th e m e s s a g e , b u t fo r m a n y o th e r th in g s
w h ic h w ill h e lp th e la n g u a g e le a rn in g p ro c e ss . H e re a re s o m e th in g s s tu ­
d e n ts c a n lis te n for:

W o rd s a n d p h ra s e s w h ic h a re u n d e rs to o d b u t n o t fa m ilia r
W o rd s a n d p h ra s e s th a t a re fa m ilia r b u t n o t u n d e rs to o d
A p a rtic u la r g ra m m a tic a l fe a tu re — p e rs o n a l p ro n o u n , p re s e n t c o n tin u ­
o u s , e x p re s s io n s w ith o f etc.
W o rd s c o n n e c te d w ith a p a rtic u la r th e m e

In e a c h c a s e y o u c o u ld in v ite th e stu d e n ts to re s p o n d n o n -v e rb a lly — b y ,

fo r e x a m p le , ra is in g a h a n d — a s th e y n o tic e th e fe a tu re th e y a re lis te n in g
fo r.
In a d d itio n , m o re im a g in a tiv e re s p o n s e s c a n b e c a lle d f o r b y a s k in g s tu ­
d e n ts w h o a re lis te n in g to a d ia lo g u e to , fo r e x a m p le :

Im a g in e w h e re th e s p e a k e rs a re /w h a t th e y lo o k lik e
F o rm a q u e s tio n th e y w o u ld lik e to a sk o n e o f th e sp e a k e rs
N o te w h e re th e y a g re e /d is a g re e w ith o n e o f th e sp e a k e rs
Im a g in e a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e d ia lo g u e

Y o u le a rn to s p e a k b y g o o d liste n in g ; g o o d lis te n in g m e a n s th e lis te n e rs a re

a c tiv e ly in v o lv e d . T h e te a c h e r ’s ta s k is to d e v is e te c h n iq u e s w h ic h h e lp s tu ­
d e n ts to b e in v o lv e d , a n d g iv e y o u th e o p p o rtu n ity to m o n ito r in v o lv e m e n t.
Y o u s h o u ld h a v e little d if fic u lty in a d d in g m a n y a lte rn a tiv e s to th e sh o rt
lis ts o f ‘th in g s to lis te n f o r ’ p re s e n te d h e re .
 65

C h a p ter 6

T e c h n iq u e s — S p e e c h w o r k

M a r k e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u r e a d th e c h a p te r.
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. T e a c h e rs s h o u ld alw ay s s p e a k a t a n a tu r a l sp e e d .

2. C h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n is u s e fu l f o r all classes.

3. S tu d e n ts n e e d to k n o w p h o n e tic s.

4 . “I n e v e r say ‘G o o d ’ a b o u t a s tu d e n t’s p ro n u n c ia tio n u n le s s it w g o o d ”.

5. S tu d e n ts s h o u ld le a r n R P p ro n u n c ia tio n .

6 . C o n s is te n c y is a s im p o rta n t a s a c c u ra c y f o r s tu d e n ts ’ p ro n u n c ia tio n .

7. S tre ss a n d in to n a tio n a re n o t im p o rta n t in b e g in n e rs ’ c o u rse s.

8. S tre ss , p itc h a n d in to n a tio n a re b e s t sh o w n w ith y o u r h a n d s.

9 . S tre ss is so m e tim e s as im p o rta n t as g ra m m a r.

10. B a d in to n a tio n c a n le a d to im p o rta n t m isu n d e rs ta n d in g s.

T e c h n iq u e s — S p e e c h w o r k

1. D o n o t d isto r t w h e n g iv in g a m o d e l

T e a c h e rs fre q u e n tly tr y to o h a rd to h e lp s tu d e n ts w ith p ro n u n c ia tio n — th e y

slo w d o w n to su c h a n e x te n t w h e n giving th e m o d e l f o r th e s tu d e n t to im ita te
th a t it is d is to rte d . W h ile few te a c h e rs w o u ld p r o n o u n c e th e la st p a r t o f com ­
fortable as if it w e re table, it is v e ry c o m m o n in o th e r w o rd s to give th e n e u tr a l
v ow el its full v a lu e in s te a d o f re d u c in g its v alue. It is p e rh a p s p a rtic u la rly
c o m m o n w ith th e a rtic le s w h e n first in tro d u c in g n e w v o c ab u lary . T h e
te a c h e r s h o u ld re m e m b e r to say
a book / a / /b a k /
th e p e n / da / /p e n /
a n d n o t th e stre s s e d e q u iv a le n ts.
In th e stre s s p a tte rn s o f n o rm a l s p e e c h w e ak fo rm s a n d c o n tr a c tio n s
o c c u r fre q u en tly . T h e d a n g e r in slow ing d o w n is th a t w e a k fo rm s will b e
s tre ss e d a n d c o n tra c tio n s le n g th e n e d . If s tu d e n ts h a v e difficulty, f o r e x a m p le ,
w ith a p h ra s e lik e they m ustn’t ’ve it is n o t h e lp fu l to slow th is d o w n to th e
p o in t w h e re it b e c o m e s they m ust n o t have w h ic h is to ta lly u n n a tu ra l.
D is to rtio n u su a lly re su lts fro m s p e a k in g in a slow , e x a g g e ra te d fash io n . It
is b e tte r to give s tu d e n ts a m o d e l a t n a tu ra l sp e e d , u sin g n a tu ra l p ro n u n c ia ­
tio n a n d , if n e c e ssa ry , re p e a t it se v e ra l tim e s, ra th e r th a n slo w d o w n .

2 . T h e m o d e l m u s t r e m a in th e s a m e

It is c h a ra c te ris tic o f n a tu ra l la n g u a g e u se th a t exact re p e titio n (th e sa m e

w o rd s , th e s a m e s tru c tu re , th e s a m e stre s s p a tte rn , a n d th e sa m e
p ro n u n c ia tio n ) is e x tre m e ly ra re . T h e v ery a c t o f re p e a tin g u su a lly m e a n s
th a t a n a lte rn a tiv e stre ss p a tte r n is a p p ro p ria te . W h e n p re s e n tin g a m o d e l fo r
a s tu d e n t tw o o r th r e e tim e s it is im p o rta n t fo r th e te a c h e r to m a in ta in a b s o ­
lu te c o n siste n c y . T h is is p a rtic u la rly d iffic u lt in giving e x a m p le s o f stre ss o r
in to n a tio n . T h e b e s t w ay to a c q u ire th e skill o f b e in g a b le to re p e a t th e sa m e
s e n te n c e is p ra c tic e b u t if y o u fin d it d ifficu lt to r e p e a t th e s a m e s e n te n c e
id e n tic a lly se v e ra l tim e s in q u ic k su c c e ss io n , it is u s e fu l to re m e m b e r th a t if
y o u say s o m e th in g e lse b e tw e e n — a sim p le c o m m e n t w ill d o (I’ll say that
again) — it is e a s ie r to p ro d u c e a n id e n tic a l re p e a t. T h e in te rp o la te d
c o m m e n t s h o u ld b e s h o r t e n o u g h to d is tra c t y o u , b u t n o t lo n g e n o u g h to
d is tra c t th e stu d en ts!
 Techniques — Speechwork

3 . U s e c h o r a l p r o n u n c ia tio n

T h e te c h n iq u e o f c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n , in w h ich all th e s tu d e n ts o f th e c la ss

re p e a t sim u lta n e o u sly , is m u c h u n d e r-u s e d . T e a c h e rs fee l th e y c a n n o t d o
p ro n u n c ia tio n w ith s tu d e n ts w h o a re n o t b e g in n e rs, o r th a t th e y c a n n o t u s e it
w ith p a rtic u la r c la s se s b e c a u s e o f th e ty p e o f s tu d e n t in v o lv ed . T h e te c h n iq u e
is u se fu l w ith all s tu d e n ts , a t all levels, a n d save f o r c la sse s c o n ta in in g o n ly
tw o o r th r e e s tu d e n ts , f o r all c la ss sizes.
It is tr u e th a t it is o f p a rtic u la r u s e w ith la rg e r c la sse s, w ith y o u n g e r s tu ­
d e n ts , a n d w ith s tu d e n ts a t lo w e r levels. T h is d o e s n o t m e a n , h o w ev er, th a t it
s h o u ld n o t b e u s e d w ith o th e r c lasses. It c a n a ls o b e a u se fu l c la s s ro o m
te c h n iq u e e v e n if its m a in o b je c tiv e is n o t alw ay s o n ly im p ro v e d
p ro n u n c ia tio n !
C h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n se rv e s to b rin g th e class to g e th e r a n d to re -fo c u s
s tu d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n o n th e te a c h e r a fte r s o m e ac tiv ity w h e re th e ir a tte n tio n
h a s b e e n e ls e w h e re — p e rh a p s p riv a te stu d y o f a tex t, o r p a ir w o rk . In s te a d o f
c allin g f o r th e s tu d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n it is suffic ie n t f o r th e te a c h e r to say
s o m e th in g lik e L e t’s say som e o f the new words and phrases. T h e m a n n e r in
w h ic h th e c h o ra l p r o n u n c ia tio n is d o n e (s e e b e lo w ) c a n e n s u re th a t th e s tu ­
d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n is fo c u s e d o n th e te a c h e r.
B e c a u s e th e te a c h e r c o n tro ls th e s p e e d o f th e c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n
p ra c tic e s , it is a u se fu l te c h n iq u e fo r th e te a c h e r w h o w ish e s to s p e e d u p a
le s so n a n d re-in v o lv e e v e ry b o d y a fte r a n y activ ity w h ic h h a s “sa g g e d ”.
T h e te c h n iq u e is u se fu l n o t o n ly in b rin g in g a class to g e th e r, b u t in ta k in g
th e p re s s u re o ff in d iv id u a ls. M a n y s tu d e n ts , p a rtic u la rly a t lo w e r lev els, a re
v e ry se lf-c o n sc io u s w h e n a s k e d to p r o n o u n c e n e w la n g u a g e ite m s.
E x p e rie n c e tells th e m th a t th e r e is a re a s o n a b le c h a n c e th a t th e y w ill g et
th e s e w ro n g a n d th a t th e y m a y say s o m e th in g w h ic h so u n d s r a th e r fu n n y . A
s tu d e n t w h o is re la x e d is m o r e lik ely to le a rn w ell th a n o n e w h o is te n s e a n d
se lf-c o n s c io u s . T h e im p lic a tio n is o b v io u s — w h e n n e w la n g u a g e ite m s a re
in tro d u c e d it is u s u a lly a g o o d id e a f o r th e te a c h e r to say th e s e firs t a n d to
in v ite th e c la ss as a w h o le to re p e a t. A fte r th is h a s b e e n d o n e , p e rh a p s sev e ra l
tim e s, th e te a c h e r c a n in v ite in d iv id u a ls to r e p e a t th e s a m e ite m s — th e id e a l
s o lu tio n is c h o ra l a n d in d iv id u a l p ro n u n c ia tio n — C IP w o rk .
A lth o u g h c a lle d c h o ra l “p ro n u n c ia tio n ” , th e te c h n iq u e is e q u a lly su ita b le
f o r p ro v id in g a m o d e l f o r stre ss o r in to n a tio n p ra c tic e s w h ic h th e s tu d e n ts
re p e a t in a sim ila r way. F o r th is re a s o n it is fre q u e n tly u se fu l f o r s tu d e n ts w h o
a re m o r e a d v a n c e d o r o ld e r th a n te a c h e rs w o u ld so m e tim e s c o n s id e r su it­
a b le f o r C IP w o rk.
W ell u s e d , th e te c h n iq u e is fu n , lively, in c re a se s th e p a c e o f th e le s so n ,
h e lp s in d iv id u a ls to re la x , a n d is o n e o f th e p rin c ip a l te c h n iq u e s w h ic h e n a b le
te a c h e rs to c re a te a p le a s a n t, re la x e d y e t d y n a m ic c la s sro o m .

4 . C o n d u c t c h o r a l p r o n u n c ia tio n d e c is iv e ly

U s u a lly th e te a c h e r gives th e m o d e l th e n in v ite s th e class to re p e a t: I ’m afraid

n o t — can you say that together, please.
It is a m is ta k e f o r th e te a c h e r to k e e p o n re p e a tin g th e m o d e l a n d , in p a r ti­
c u la r, th e te a c h e r m u s t n o t r e p e a t th e m o d e l with th e s tu d e n ts . If th e te a c h e r
sp e a k s sim u lta n e o u sly w ith th e s tu d e n ts , th e o n ly v o ic e th a t th e te a c h e r w ill
h e a r w ill b e h is o r h e r ow n!
T o a v o id this it is e a s ie r to in v ite th e s tu d e n ts to sp e a k , a n d “c o n d u c t”
Techniques — Speechwork

th e m u sin g y o u r h a n d s . C h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n is fu n , b u t it is a ls o v e ry effe c­

tive fo r th e te a c h e r, providing th e s tu d e n ts d o sp e a k a p p ro x im a te ly
sim u lta n e o u sly . T h is o f c o u rs e m e a n s th a t a decisive h a n d g e s tu re is
re q u ire d . T e a c h e rs sh o u ld e x p e rim e n t w ith th e ir o w n g e s tu re s u n til th e y fin d
o n e w ith w h ic h th e y feel c o m fo rta b le .
It is fre q u e n tly e a s ie r o n c e a p a tte r n h a s b e e n se t to u s e a sim p le v e rb a l c u e
f o r fu r th e r re p e titio n s:
T I’m a fra id n o t — c a n y o u say th a t to g e th e r, p le a se , (gesture)
C I’m a fra id n o t
T A g a in
C I’m a fra id n o t
T A g a in
C I’m a fra id n o t
B y u sin g a standard v e rb a l c u e — A gain — s tu d e n ts a re n o t c o n fu se d . V e rb a l
c o n d u c tin g is m o re effectiv e th a n g e stu re , p a rtic u la rly if th e te a c h e r is
m o v in g a ro u n d th e ro o m a t th e tim e.

5 . M o v e a r o u n d th e r o o m w h e n d o in g c h o r a l p r o n u n c ia tio n

If th e s tu d e n ts a re s p e a k in g a t th e s a m e tim e b u t th e te a c h e r s ta n d s in o n e
p la c e it is d ifficu lt to h e a r th e ir m ista k e s. If th e te a c h e r m o v e s a ro u n d th e
ro o m w h ile th e c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n is b e in g re p e a te d it is, e v e n in la rg e
c lasses, p o ss ib le to n o te w h ic h in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts a re e ith e r n o t sp e a k in g , o r
n e e d h e lp w ith a p a rtic u la r p ro b le m . P a rtic u la rly w ith sc h o o l c lasses th e
te a c h e r m o v in g b e tw e e n th e d e sk s h e lp s to k e e p th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o n c e n tra tio n
o n th e te a c h e r, k e e p s e v e ry o n e inv o lv ed , a n d e n s u re s th a t th e te a c h e r n o te s
th e in d iv id u a ls w h o n e e d h e lp . I t a ls o h e lp s to e n s u r e th a t th e in d iv id u a ls y o u
a sk a fte r th e c h o ra l re p e titio n c h a n g e fro m o n e p ra c tic e to a n o th e r as y o u
in e v ita b ly te n d to a sk s tu d e n ts n e a r y ou.

6 . K e e p y o u r la n g u a g e to a m in im u m in p r o n u n c ia tio n
p r a c tic e s

W e h a v e re m a rk e d th a t th e te a c h e r sh o u ld n o t s p e a k w ith th e c la ss w h e n
d o in g c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n ; th e re a re , h o w e ver, o th e r te m p ta tio n s . I t is n o t
n e c e ss a ry to c o m m e n t v e rb a lly o n th e s ta n d a rd o f p ro n u n c ia tio n ; a sm ile, o r
slight s h a k e o f th e h e a d is sufficien t. In th e la tte r c a se th e te a c h e r sh o u ld , o f
c o u rs e , p ro v id e a n e w m o d e l. In c o n tin u in g to th e in d iv id u a l sta g e o f p ro n u n ­
c ia tio n it is n o t n e c e s s a ry to in v ite s tu d e n ts b y n a m e to sp e a k ; a g a in a g e stu re
is su ffic ien t a n d , ra th e r th a n saying Good, o r so m e th in g lo n g er, a sm ile a n d a
n o d , o r a slig h t s h a k e o f th e h e a d fo llo w e d b y a n im m e d ia te n e w m o d e l fro m
th e te a c h e r to b e re p e a te d im m e d ia te ly b y th e s tu d e n t w h o m a d e th e
m ista k e , is q u ic k , e ffic ie n t a n d a m u sin g , a n d a v o id s in h ib itin g stu d e n ts .
T h e im p o rta n c e o f c h o ra l p ro n u n c ia tio n a s a te c h n iq u e f o r c h a n g in g th e
te m p o o f th e le s so n h a s a lre a d y b e e n e m p h a s iz e d . It w ill o n ly d o th is if it is
d o n e b risk ly , w ithout th e te a c h e r p ro v id in g a c o m m e n ta ry . T h e b a sic
g u id e lin e is th a t o n c e th e te a c h e r h a s given th e b a sic m o d e l, e v e ry th in g e lse
c o n sists o f th e students sp e a k in g , e ith e r c h o ra lly o r ind ivid u ally , w ith th e
te a c h e r’s c o n trib u tio n re s tric te d to th e u s e o f h a n d s a n d e y e s a n d p e rh a p s
sin g le ‘c o n tr o l’ w o rd s.
 Techniques — Speechwork

7. V ary y o u r c r ite r io n o f “g o o d ” in p r o n u n c ia tio n p r a c tic e

P ro n u n c ia tio n is, in fa c t, a rela tiv e ly sm a ll p a r t o f th e p ro b le m o f le a rn in g a

fo re ig n la ng ag e. W h ile it is tr u e th a t a c o n s is te n t a c c e n t is e a s ie r to liste n to
(a n d p ro b a b ly m o re so c ia lly p re stig io u s ), it is c e rta in ly n e ith e r n e c e s s a ry n o r
d e s ira b le th a t m a n y le a rn e rs s h o u ld a c h ie v e n a tiv e s p e a k e r p ro n u n c ia tio n . It
is a ls o tr u e th a t s o m e s tu d e n ts fin d p ro n u n c ia tio n p a rtic u la rly d iffic u lt —
th e y se e m to fin d it d iffic u lt to h e a r d is tin c tio n s clearly , a n d c o rre s p o n d in g ly
d ifficu lt to m im ic a c c u ra te ly . T h is d o e s n o t n e c e ss a rily m e a n th a t th e y will
n o t b e re a s o n a b ly su c c e ssfu l in o th e r a re a s o f la n g u a g e le a rn in g . It is o b v i­
o u s ly p sy c h o lo g ic ally im p o r ta n t n o t to d is c o u ra g e th o s e w h o fin d
p ro n u n c ia tio n d iffic u lt in th e e a rly stag es o f le a rn in g . T e a c h e rs s h o u ld
b e w a re , th e re fo re , o f s e ttin g a n artificia lly h ig h s ta n d a rd o f c o rre c tn e s s in th e
e a rly sta g es, a n d , a s d iffe re n t s tu d e n ts p ro g re s s a t d iffe re n t ra te s, it is w ise to
a c c e p t d iffe re n t d e g re e s o f v a ria tio n fro m th e ‘id e a l’ ta rg e t. It will h e lp
n o b o d y if p a rtic u la r s tu d e n ts h a v e th e ir c o n fid e n c e u n d e rm in e d a n d a re
c o n s ta n tly b e in g a s k e d to r e p e a t b e c a u s e th e ir p ro n u n c ia tio n is less g o o d
th a n th e re s t o f th e class. A p o s itiv e a tm o s p h e re , a n e n c o u ra g in g te a c h e r, a n d
tim e , w ill p ro b a b ly d o m o r e th a n o v e r-in siste n t te a c h e r c o rre c tio n .
T h e im p lic a tio n is th a t G ood is to b e u s e d d iffe re n tly to d iffe re n t s tu d e n ts ;
a n d d iffe re n tly a t d iffe re n t sta g e s o f e a c h s tu d e n t’s lea rn in g .

8 . A r tic u la tio n is a n im p o r ta n t fir st s te p in p r a c tic e

P re s e n tin g la n g u a g e to th e s tu d e n ts d o e s n o t g u a ra n te e th a t th e y w ill b e a b le
to u s e it a n d , o f c o u rs e , w h a t th e y a re u n a b le to p ro n o u n c e is u se le ss to th e m .
S tu d e n ts will fre q u e n tly n e e d to p ra c tis e th e a rtic u la tio n o f n e w la n g u a g e
b e fo re m o v in g o n to m o r e m e a n in g fu l p ra c tic e s. T o p ra c tis e if I were you
I ’d . . . ., f o r e x a m p le , b e g in w ith c h o ra l a n d in d iv id u a l p ro n u n c ia tio n o f a
n u m b e r o f s e n te n c e s u sin g th e s tru c tu re :
I f I were you I ’d wait / p h o n e her / ask him / do it / try.
T im e s p e n t h e re w ill b e m o r e th a n sa v e d in la te r p ra c tic e s w h ic h w ill n o t
n e e d to b e in te rru p te d so o fte n to c o r r e c t p ro n u n c ia tio n . T h e la n g u a g e
s h o u ld b y th e n b e su ffic ien tly a u to m a tic th a t s tu d e n ts c a n c o n c e n tr a te o n th e
m e a n in g in th e la te r c o m m u n ic a tiv e p ra c tic e s .

9 . I t is h e lp fu l to d o a r tic u la tio n p r a c tic e s m o r e th a n o n c e

M o s t la n g u a g e te a c h in g n o w p la c e s a s tro n g e m p h a s is o n a m e th o d o lo g y
w h ic h is “c o m m u n ic a tiv e ” . T e a c h e rs s o m e tim e th in k th is in v a lid a te s p u re ly
m e c h a n ic a l o r “m e a n in g le s s” p ra c tic e s . F a r fro m it! W e n e e d to re m e m b e r
th a t y o u c a n n o t c o m m u n ic a te a n y th in g a t all u n le ss y o u c a n say th e w o rd s in
a w ay w h ic h th e h e a r e r c a n u n d e rs ta n d . P a r t o f la n g u a g e te a c h in g , o n ly a
sm a ll p a r t p e rh a p s , b u t a p a r t n o n e th e le s s , inv o lves la n g u a g e a s a m o to r
activity. P ro n u n c ia tio n in v o lv e s b o th k n o w le d g e — w h ic h c a n fre q u e n tly b e
lo o k e d u p in a g o o d d ic tio n a ry — and skill — th e p h y sic a l a b ility to a rtic u la te
th e so u n d . A s a n y o n e w h o h a s e v e r p la y e d a s p o r t w ill k n o w , m o v e m e n ts
w h ic h y o u h a v e d o n e o fte n a re u su a lly re lativ ely s im p le to re p e a t, w h ile u sin g
m u sc le s w h ic h y o u h a v e n o t u s e d b e fo re ( o r f o r a lo n g tim e ) c a n b e difficult.
T h e s o u n d s o f o n e la n g u a g e a r e o fte n n o t id e n tic a l w ith th o s e o f a n o th e r;
Techniques — Speechwork

th e com binations o f s o u n d s w h ic h a re p o s s ib le in o n e la n g u a g e a re n o t th e
sa m e as a re p o ss ib le in a n o th e r — in E n g lish , f o r e x a m p le , c o n s o n a n t c lu s ­
te rs (str, spr, bl,) a re fre q u e n t w h ile m a n y o f th e c lu s te rs o f E n g lis h d o n o t
o c c u r a t all in , f o r e x a m p le , Ita lia n .
P ra c tic e s w h ic h a re p a rtic u la rly in te n d e d to p ra c tis e a m o to r skill — h e re ,
th e a b ility to a rtic u la te p a rtic u la r s o u n d s o r g ro u p s o f s o u n d s — w ill
fre q u e n tly b e m o s t e ffectiv e if th e s tu d e n ts d o th e m m o r e th a n o n c e —
p e rh a p s firs t r a th e r haltingly, th e n im m e d ia te ly a fte r, r a th e r m o r e fluently,
th e n p e rh a p s e v e n a th ird tim e still in th e s a m e le s so n . T h is, o f c o u rs e ,
a ss u m e s th a t th e p ra c tic e in q u e s tio n ta k e s o n ly tw o o r th r e e m in u te s so th a t,
e v e n if d o n e th r e e tim e s it is still o n ly a fiv e -m in u te activity. I n th e s e c a se s it
w o u ld p ro b a b ly b e d e s ira b le to fo llo w u p b y re p e a tin g th e p ra c tic e a g a in in a
su b s e q u e n t le sso n .
T h e a b ility to ty p e d o e s n o t c o m e fro m k n o w in g th e k e y s a n d p re ss in g
th e m o n c e ; m a n y h o u rs o f m e c h a n ic a l p ra c tic e a re n e c e ssa ry . S im ilarly, s tu ­
d e n ts n e e d to re p e a t a rtic u la tio n p ra c tic e s se v e ra l tim e s in o r d e r to g a in
c o n tro l o v e r th e ir p ro n u n c ia tio n . I f y o u e x p la in w h y y o u a re d o in g su c h
p ra c tic e s a g a in a n d if th e y a re d o n e b risk ly , n o -o n e w ill m in d . S tu d e n ts n e v e r
re s e n t a n d a re n e v e r b o r e d b y p ra c tic e s w h ic h th e y se e a re h e lp in g th e m .

1 0 . B r in g v a riety to “S a y a fter m e ”

W e h a v e ju s t su g g e ste d th a t a rtic u la tio n p ra c tic e s m a y p e rh a p s b e d o n e

se v e ra l tim e s. S o m e re a d e rs m a y fe el th is is a re c ip e f o r b o r e d o m b u t, fa r
fro m it, if th e m a n n e r in w h ic h th e y a re d o n e is v a rie d th e r e is n o re a s o n w hy
th e y s h o u ld n o t b e a p o sitiv e a n d lively c o n trib u tio n to th e le sso n .
P ro n u n c ia tio n is m u c h m o re th a n “S ay a fte r m e ” . In re a l life w e u s e la n ­
g u a g e in a w id e v a rie ty o f w ays o n d iffe re n t o c c a s io n s — s o m e tim e s w e
sh o u t, so m e tim e s w e w h isp e r. T h is c a n b e in tro d u c e d to th e c la s s ro o m —
e ith e r w ith a sim p le p ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e o r a m o r e c o m p le x a rtic u la tio n
p ra c tic e . If th e s tu d e n ts a re to re p e a t m o r e th a n o n c e , th e y c a n b e
e n c o u ra g e d to s p e a k n o rm a lly th e first tim e , to w h is p e r th e s e c o n d , a n d to
s h o u t th e th ird .
T h is is n o t ju s t a lig h t-h e a rte d te c h n iq u e , th e r e is c le a r e v id e n c e th a t w h e n
s tu d e n ts fo rg e t what th e y a re d o in g , a n d p a rtic u la rly in th e c a se o f y o u n g e r
sc h o o l c la sse s s ta rt to enjoy it, th e y w ill b e c o m e less in h ib ite d a n d w ill fin d
p ro n u n c ia tio n easier.
T h e r e a re m a n y o th e r te c h n iq u e s f o r b rin g in g v a rie ty to th e s im p le “Say
a fte r m e ” te a c h e r-m o d e l fo llo w e d b y C IP. T h e c la ss c a n b e d iv id e d in to
h a lv e s a n d s p e a k a lte rn a te ly ; in to lin e s o r ro w s w h ic h s p e a k co n se cu tive ly .
W ith s o m e m o r e c o m p lic a te d p ro n u n c ia tio n w o rk p a irs c a n a s k a n d re s p o n d
sim u lta n e o u sly , o r co n secu tiv ely.
In tro d u c in g v a ria tio n s in to th e g ro u p s w h o a r e sp e a k in g , a n d h o w th e y
a re sp e a k in g , m e a n s th a t “sim p le ” p ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e c a n b e c o m e a n
e ffec tive c la s s ro o m te c h n iq u e in im p ro v in g b o th th e s tu d e n ts ’ la n g u a g e w o rk
a n d a s a n im p o rta n t e le m e n t in th e c re a tio n o f a n e n jo y a b le a tm o s p h e re .

1 1. S o m e th in g w h ic h is n o t a r e a l w o rd s o m e tim e s h e lp s

B e c a u s e o f th e a u th o rity u su a lly g iven to th e w ritte n , a n d in p a rtic u la r th e

p rin te d , w o rd , it is te m p tin g to th in k th a t w o rd s o n th e p a g e re fle c t a c c u ra te ly
 Techniques — Speechwork

th e w ay w e sp e a k . T h is is n o t th e c a se . T h e “s p a c e s ” w h e n w e s p e a k d o n o t
n e c e ss a rily lie in th e “s p a c e s ” b e tw e e e n w ritte n w o rd s. It is a c h a ra c te ris tic o f
n a tu ra l s p o k e n E n g lis h th a t a c o n s o n a n t a t th e e n d o f o n e w o rd will b e
“lin k e d ” to th e b e g in n in g o f th e n e x t w o rd if th a t b e g in s w ith a vow el so u n d :
N o t news item, b u t new sitem.
T h is is p a rtic u la rly im p o r ta n t w ith u n s tre s s e d p ro n o u n s a n d a u x ilia ry
v erb s.
In n o rm a l e d u c a te d s p e e c h a n in itia l / h / is n o t o m itte d o n s tre s s e d w o rd s
b u t o n u n s tre s s e d w o rd s in itia l / h / is n o t u s u a lly p ro n o u n c e d . T h e re s u lt is
th a t lin k in g is v ery c o m m o n in s itu a tio n s w h e re u n s tre s s e d p r o n o u n s a n d
a u x iliarie s o c c u r. S tu d e n ts w ill fin d it d iffic u lt to say:
H e m ustn’t have done it
u n le s s th e y u n d e r s ta n d th a t o n e ‘b it' is / t a v / . T h e y w ill n e e d to p ra c tis e say ­
ing / t a v / a lth o u g h th is is n o t a ‘w o rd ’ if th e y a re e v e r to say it m u stn ’t have
n atura lly .
If s tu d e n ts re a d th e y w ill in e v ita b ly b r e a k th e flo w o f s o u n d s in th e w ro n g
p la c e s a n d h a v e c o rre s p o n d in g d iffic u lty in p ro d u c in g n a tu ra l stre ss a n d
in to n a tio n . T e a c h e rs c a n h e lp b y d e m o n s tra tin g a p p r o p r ia te “g ro u p s o f
s o u n d s ”, w h ic h m a y n o t n e c e s s a rily c o r r e s p o n d to w ritte n w o rd s . T h is
m e a n s p o in tin g o u t to s tu d e n ts , a n d e n c o u ra g in g th e m to say, f o r e x a m p le ,
napple, a napple. It is p a rtic u la rly im p o r ta n t in H e was there wasn’t he w h e re
if th e s tu d e n ts gives th e v o w el s o u n d o f he fu ll v alue, a n d m a k e s th e b re a k in
th e w ro n g p la c e , th e r e is n o w ay th e y c a n p ro d u c e th e ta g a t all n a tu ra lly .
T h e y w ill n e e d to b e e n c o u ra g e d to say th e te rm in a l s o u n d s o f th a t s e n te n c e
as: wasn ted.
In not yet, th e lin k in g o f th e / t / a n d /) / s o u n d s p ro d u c e s a s o u n d sim ila r to
th a t a t th e b e g in n in g o f children. O b s e rv a tio n sh o w s th a t a lm o s t a ll n a tiv e
sp e a k e rs o f E n g lis h u sin g th e p h r a s e A ll right, p r o n o u n c e it a s if it w e re s p e lt
or right.
If te a c h e rs a re to e n c o u ra g e n a tu r a l p ro d u c tio n fr o m s tu d e n ts , th e y m u s t
n o t a llo w th e printed w o rd to d o m in a te . S ay ing th in g s w h ic h lo o k a n d s o u n d
fu n n y in is o la tio n c a n , if lin k e d to n a tu r a l n a tiv e s p e a k e r e x a m p le s o n ta p e ,
b e b o th a m u s in g a n d h e lp s tu d e n ts to b e b o th b e tte r lis te n e rs a n d m o re
n a tu ra l sp e a k e rs .

1 2 . T h e r e is n o s u c h th in g a s “th e c -h s o u n d ”

E n g lish sp e llin g is fre q u e n tly o n ly lo o s e ly re la te d to th e s o u n d a n d , a c c o r ­

dingly, c a n easily c a u s e c o n fiisio n . A n y se rio u s le a r n e r o f E n g lis h will n e e d
to le a rn a sy ste m o f p h o n e tic tra n s c rip tio n , n o t in o r d e r to tra n s c rib e , b u t in
o r d e r to re a d p ro n u n c ia tio n in a g o o d d ic tio n a ry .
T e a c h e rs fre q u e n tly feel, h o w e v er, th a t p h o n e tic s is a n a d d e d c o n fu s io n ,
e sp e c ia lly w ith y o u n g e r s tu d e n ts , s tu d e n ts a t lo w e r levels, a n d w ith th o s e
w h o fin d la n g u a g e le a rn in g d ifficu lt. W h ile th is m a y b e tru e , it d o e s n o t m e a n
th a t te a c h e rs s h o u ld th e n m a k e m is le a d in g re fe re n c e s. It m a y b e h e lp fu l to b e
to ld th a t th e s o u n d in th e m id d le o f N o t yet is “sim ila r to th e s o u n d a t th e
b e g in n in g o f church". W h a t is n o rh e lp fu l is to call it “a c -h s o u n d ”, o th e rw is e
th e s tu d e n t is v ery re a s o n a b ly g o in g to m a k e m is ta k e s w h ic h h a v e b e e n
e n c o u ra g e d b y th e te a c h e r w h e n m e e tin g w o rd s like m achine a n d chemistry.
T h e r e a re tw o so lu tio n s — to te a c h th e s tu d e n ts th e v ery sm all n u m b e r o f
sy m b o ls w h ic h a re re q u ire d fo r th e s o u n d s w h ich th e y c o n s ta n tly g e t w ro n g .
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Techniques — Speechwork

T h is w o u ld m e a n th e m k n o w in g o n ly th re e o r fo u r p h o n e tic sy m b o ls w h ic h
c o u ld th e n , w h e re n e c essa ry , b e w ritte n o n th e b o a rd to s u p p o r t o ra l c o m ­
m e n ts su c h a s “like th e s o u n d a t th e b e g in n in g o f c h u r c h T h e s e c o n d
so lu tio n is sim p ly to re fe r v erb a lly to a n a p p ro p ria te e x a m p le o f th e so u n d
a n d , o f c o u rs e , to is o la te a n d d e m o n s tra te th e s o u n d itself.

1 3 . T h e m a in c r ite r ia fo r p r o n u n c ia tio n a re c o n s is te n c y a n d
in te llig ib ility

T h e re is so m e th in g slightly a b s u r d a b o u t le a rn e rs s p e n d in g h o u rs p e rfe c tin g

“a s ta n d a rd a c c e n t”. T h is d o e s n o t, h o w ev er, m e a n th a t p ro n u n c ia tio n d o e s
n o t m a tte r. It is e x tre m e ly d iffic u lt to listen to a s p e a k e r w h o se p ro n u n c ia tio n
is in c o n s is te n t, a n d it is tirin g to listen to o n e w h o v a rie s c o n s id e ra b ly fro m
sta n d a rd . B a d p ro n u n c ia tio n c a n b e a s e rio u s b lo c k to c o m m u n ic a tio n . O n
th e o th e r h a n d th e re is n o h a rm in a fo reig n s p e a k e r sounding fo reig n . L is­
te n e rs a r e m o re likely to m a k e a llo w a n c e s fo r th e la n g u ag e a n d b e h a v io u r o f
s o m e o n e th e y re c o g n is e as b e in g a fo reig n er. T ry to p re s e n t a s ta n d a rd m o d e l
fo r p ro n u n c ia tio n a n d m a k e su re th a t s tu d e n ts ’ a p p ro x im a tio n s o f it a re
c o n siste n t a n d in tellig ible, b u t d o n o t e x p e c t th e m to re p ro d u c e it exactly.
It is e a sy fo r a S p a n is h -s p e a k in g te a c h e r te a c h in g S p a n is h -s p e a k in g
stu d e n ts to b e c o m e so u s e d to th e ir w ay o f s p e a k in g th a t th e te a c h e r fo rg e ts
o r d o e s n o t n o tic e th a t s tu d e n ts a re d e v ia tin g s o m u c h fro m s ta n d a rd
p ro n u n c ia tio n th a t th e y will b e d ifficu lt to u n d e rs ta n d fo r p e o p le w h o a re n o t
u s e d to th e ir p a rtic u la r E n g lish . It is n o t e n o u g h fo r y o u , w h o a re u s e d to
y o u r s tu d e n ts , to u n d e rs ta n d th e m — th e y h av e to b e c o m p re h e n s ib le to
s tra n g e rs a s well!
D o n o t se t s u c h a h ig h s ta n d a rd fo r p ro n u n c ia tio n th a t s tu d e n ts c a n n o t
a c h iev e it. It is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t th a t th e y a re consistent; it is less im p o rt­
a n t th a t th e y p ro d u c e in d iv id u a l s o u n d s in a s ta n d a rd (R P ) a c c e n t. T o o m u c h
a tte n tio n s h o u ld n o t b e p a id to th e so u n d s ; o fte n w ro n g stre ss c a n m a k e
s tu d e n ts m o r e d iffic u lt to u n d e rs ta n d , o r m o re tirin g to liste n to , th a n slight
v a ria tio n s in th e w ay th e y p ro d u c e in d iv id u a l so u n d s .

1 4 . T e a c h in to n a tio n by b a c k -c h a in in g

In m o s t E n g lish se n te n c e s th e p itc h m o v e m e n t a t th e end o f th e s e n te n c e is

im p o rta n t fo r m e a n in g . S tu d e n ts fre q u e n tly fin d it d ifficu lt to re p e a t lo n g
se n te n c e s a fte r th e ta p e o r te a c h e r. In th is c a se th e te a c h e r sh o u ld b re a k th e
se n te n c e d o w n in to b its a n d b u ild u p to w a rd s th e c o m p le te se n te n c e .
B e c a u se o f th e im p o rta n c e o f th e in to n a tio n o f th e e n d o f th e s e n te n c e in
E n g lish , it is u su a lly b e tte r to b e g in to b re a k th e s e n te n c e d o w n fro m th e en d
ra th e r th a n th e b e g inn in g.
T h e re a d e r m a y c h e c k this q u ick ly b y c o u n tin g a lo u d fro m 1 to 6. It will b e
n o te d th a t th e v o ic e falls sign ifica ntly o n 6 . If y o u n o w try to re p e a t th e fo l­
low ing s e q u e n c e , not a s in d e p e n d e n t u n its, b u t a s p a r t o f th e full se q u e n c e ;
one, two, three, four, five, six;

O ne, tw o
O ne, tw o , th re e
O ne, tw o , th re e , fo u r
O ne, tw o , th re e , fou r, five
O ne, tw o , th re e , fo u r, five, six.
 Techniques — Speechwork

it will b e n o te d th a t it is e x tre m e ly d ifficu lt. B e g in n in g a t th e e n d , h o w ev er,

b e c a u s e th e e n d re m a in s c o n siste n t, th e in te rm e d ia te stag e s a re relative ly
easy, a n d c o n tr ib u te to w a rd s th e a b ility to p ro d u c e a c o m p le te se q u e n c e .
T h e r e a d e r s h o u ld try th is se q u e n c e :
F iv e, six.
F o u r, five, six.
e tc .

A s a n e x a m p le D o you m ind if I sm oke? c o u ld b e b a c k -c h a in e d a s follow s:

T Sm oke
C Sm oke
T if I sm o k e
C if I sm o k e
T m in d if I s m o k e
C m in d if I s m o k e
T D o y o u m in d if I s m o k e
C D o y o u m in d if I s m o k e

B e g in n in g a t th e b e g in n in g m e a n s th a t th e in te rm e d ia te sta g e s a re n o t c o n tr i­
b u tin g n a tu ra lly to w a rd s th e final v e rsio n ; b a c k -c h a in in g o v e rc o m e s th is
difficulty.

1 5 . D o n ’t e x p la in in to n a tio n , d e m o n s tr a te

L in g u ists h a v e d e v is e d se v e ra l sy ste m s f o r tra n s c rib in g in to n a tio n a n d th e s e

a re u s e d in s o m e te x tb o o k s . M a n y s tu d e n ts , h o w e v er, fin d u n d e rs ta n d in g th e
tra n s c rip tio n s m o r e d iffic u lt th a n th e in to n a tio n i t s e l f !
A lth o u g h s tu d e n ts m a y fin d in to n a tio n difficu lt, th e te a c h in g o f in to n a tio n
is u su a lly m o s t e ffe ctiv e w h e n th e te a c h e r u se s th e s im p le st m e th o d s o f
p re s e n ta tio n . T h e s e in v o lv e g iving a n e x a g g e ra te d m o d e l a n d in d ic a tin g th e
p itc h m o v e m e n ts e ith e r b y m o v e m e n ts o f th e h a n d , o r b y s im p le a rro w d ra w ­
ing s o n th e b la c k b o a rd .
T h e p rin c ip le is c le a r fro m th e tw o d iffe re n t in to n a tio n s o f th e sin g le w o rd
Sorry:

S o n y ! (A p o lo g y ) S o rr y ? (P le a s e re p e a t)
A s im p le g im m ic k to in tro d u c e th e id e a o f th e im p o rta n c e o f in to n a tio n is to
u s e th e sing le w o rd a b o v e , d e m o n s tr a te th e tw o fo rm s a n d th e n u s e a v isu a l
s y m b o l to su g g est e a c h — a h a n d b e h in d th e e a r s h o u ld p r o m p t th e s tu d e n t
to say Sorry ?, w h ile a s h a rp m o v e m e n t o f th e e lb o w s h o u ld p r o m p t th e s tu ­
d e n t to say S o rry !
B u t, w h ile su c h g im m ic k s c a n b e h e lp fu l in te a c h in g in d iv id u a l in to n a tio n
ite m s, th e b a sic m e th o d is a n e x a g g e ra te d p re s e n ta tio n , a c c o m p a n ie d b y
sim p le h a n d m o v e m e n ts o r sim ple a rro w d ra w in g s.
Techniques — Speechwork

M a k e u s e o f w o rd s a n d p h ra s e s w h ic h th e s tu d e n ts c a n a lre a d y p r o n o u n c e to
h e lp w ith th e in to n a tio n o f n e w ite m s r a th e r th a n try in g to e x p la in . If, fo r
e x a m p le , s tu d e n ts h a v e d ifficu lty in say ing tag s lik e isn’t it, doesn’t he w ith fall­
in g in to n a tio n , it w ill h e lp to re p e a t a s e q u e n c e s u c h as
holiday Saturday isn’t it.

1 6 . S h o w s tr e s s , p itc h , a n d in to n a tio n v isu a lly

T h is e x te n d s th e id e a d is c u ss e d a b o v e . S tre ss is sh o w n b y th e te a c h e r m a k in g
a d ec isiv e d o w n w a rd g e s tu re w ith a c lo s e d fist to in d ic a te th e stre ss e d syl­
lab les; p itc h is sh o w n b y a n e x a g g e ra te d positioning o f th e h a n d s ; in to n a tio n
is sh o w n b y u p w a rd o r d o w n w a rd m ovem ents o f th e h a n d s .

S u c h te c h n iq u e s, a lth o u g h sim p le , a re f o r th e m a jo rity o f la n g u a g e le a rn e rs ,

m o re effectiv e (a n d m o re fu n ) th a n c o m p le x sy ste m s o f w ritte n tra n s c rip tio n .

17. R e fe r to s tr e s s a n d in to n a tio n e v e n w h e n n o t s p e c ific a lly

te a c h in g it

W e h a v e a lre a d y s e e n th a t c o m m u n ic a tio n in v o lv es s tru c tu re , stre ss, a n d

p u rp o s e . T e x tb o o k s d o n o t alw ays re fle c t th is. M o s t m o d e m te x tb o o k s d ra w
e x p licit a tte n tio n to th e fa c t th a t th e y te a c h c e rta in s tru c tu re s , a n d c e rta in
fu n c tio n s (p u rp o s e s ). B u t u n le ss th e s tu d e n t h a s a re a s o n a b le c o n tro l n o t
o n ly o f p ro n u n c ia tio n , b u t o f stre s s a n d in to n a tio n , h e w ill b e b o th d ifficu lt to
liste n to , a n d easily m is u n d e rs to o d .
F o r th e s e re a s o n s it is im p o rta n t th a t th e te a c h e r b e a rs in m in d th a t stre ss
a n d in to n a tio n a re im p o rta n t, e v e n if d o in g c o m p re h e n s io n q u e stio n s a fte r a
te x t o r th e e x a m p le s fro m a g ra m m a r p ra c tic e . If s tu d e n ts d e liv e r th e a n sw e rs
to th e q u e s tio n s in a d u ll, m o n o to n o u s o r m e c h a n ic a l w ay, th a t is a s m u c h a
“m ista k e ” as a p ro n u n c ia tio n o r g ra m m a tic a l e r r o r a n d s h o u ld c o m e u n d e r
c o n s id e ra tio n a s o n e o f th e m ista k e s w o rth c o rre c tin g .
L a n g u a g e te a c h in g is still stro n g ly in flu e n c e d b y th e fe elin g th a t th e w rit­
te n w o rd , in w h ic h stre ss a n d in to n a tio n p la y n o p a r t, is th e o b je c tiv e f o r m o s t
stu d e n ts . C u rio u sly , this a ttitu d e re m a in s a s a h id d e n id e a l o f m a n y c o u rs e s
w h ich a re n o w b a s e d o n ta p e d m a te ria l a n d h a v e ex p licitly c o m m u n ic a tiv e
aim s. If s tu d e n ts a re to u s e th e s p o k e n la n g u a g e effectively, stre s s a n d
in to n a tio n n e e d to b e g iven th e ir re a l p la c e in th e te a c h in g a t all tim es.
T h e im p re s s io n p e o p le fo rm o f e a c h o th e r is fre q u e n tly m o r e d e p e n d e n t
o n in to n a tio n th a n g ra m m a r, a n d th is s h o u ld b e a c o n s ta n t r e m in d e r o f th e
im p o rta n t ro le it s h o u ld p la y in te a c h in g .
 75

C h a p ter 7

T e c h n iq u e s — S tr u c tu r e

M a r k e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u r e a d th e c h a p te r.
M a r k e a c h s ta te m e n t
if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. M o s t g ra m m a r ru le s h a v e e x c e p tio n s .

2 . It is b e s t to give a ru le b e fo re y o u d o a p ra c tic e .

3. E x a m p le s a re m o r e im p o r ta n t th a n ‘ru le s ’.

4 . K n o w in g a ru le d o e s n o t m e a n y o u c a n use th e la n g u a g e b e tte r.

5. S tu d e n ts n e e d to k n o w te r m s lik e ‘p r e s e n t p e rfe c t’, ‘im p e ra tiv e .’ etc.

6. T h e th ird p e rs o n -s is n o t re a lly v e ry im p o rta n t!

7. F ill-in e x e rc ises a re b e s t d o n e orally.

8. A ll s tu d e n ts n e e d b o th o ra l a n d w ritte n p ra c tic e s.

9. F re e p ra c tic e s a re b e s t o m itte d u n le s s s tu d e n ts d o th e m well.

10. G ra m m a r w ill alw ay s b e ‘th e b o rin g b it’ o f a la n g u a g e c o u rs e .

T e c h n iq u e s — S tr u c tu r e

1. E n c o u r a g e s tu d e n ts to s e e p a tte r n s

T h e re a re lon g a n d c o m p lic a te d a rg u m e n ts a b o u t w h a t le a rn in g a la ng u a g e
really involves. B u t w e c a n id en tify a t lea st tw o d iffe re n t p a rts to th e le a rn in g
p ro c ess:

a. T h e le a rn in g (m e m o risin g ) o f u n re la te d ite m s — if I k n o w th e E n g lish

w o rd f o r ‘c a t’, it will n o t h e lp m e in a n y w ay to le a rn th e w o rd s for, fo r e x a m ­
ple, d o g a n d h o rs e . U n fo rtu n a te ly , m u c h la n g u a g e le a rn in g is o f th is k in d a n d
o fte n , e v e n if w e w ish o r h o p e fo r a p a tte rn , th e re is n o n e (fo r e x a m p le
weather is u n c o u n ta b le b u t in all weathers is a s ta n d a rd lexical item .)

b. A facility to u se c e rta in p a tte rn s o f th e la n g u a g e w hich a re a c c e p te d as in

so m e se n s e s ta n d a rd (a n d b y im p lic a tio n a n a b ility to a v o id n o n -s ta n d a rd
p a tte rn s ).

W h e n e v e r th e te a c h e r c a n g u id e th e s tu d e n t to th e p e rc e p tio n o f a p a tte rn ,
th e le a rn in g lo a d will b e lighter. O n th e o th e r h a n d , if th e s tu d e n t is ta u g h t
th a t so m e th in g is th e p a tte rn w hich in fa c t is n o t so, h e is likely to b e u n n e c e s ­
sarily c o n fu se d . It is th e jo b o f te x tb o o k w rite rs a n d te a c h e rs to try to d ra w
a tte n tio n to h e lp fu l p a tte rn s a n d , in th e m o d e m c la s s ro o m in w h ic h th e
s tu d e n t is in v o lv e d in h is o w n le a rn in g , to h e lp th e s tu d e n t to d is c o v e r th e
p a tte rn s fo r h im self. H e re a re so m e s im p le e xa m p le s:
If s tu d e n ts a re g o in g to le a rn th e v e rb s w ith irre g u la r fo rm s fro m a ta b le , th a t
ta b le m ay, fo r e x a m p le , b e a rra n g e d a lp h ab e tica lly . S u c h a n a rra n g e m e n t
re ve als n o p a tte rn a t all a n d w e m a y fin d n e x t to e a c h o th e r:

Feel F e lt F e lt
F in d Found Found
F ly F le w F lo w n
Forget Forgot F o r g o tte n

H o w e v er, th e re a re p h o n o lo g ic a l p a tte rn s w h ic h m a k e le a rn in g e a s ie r so it
m u s t b e a b e tte r id e a to u s e a ta b le w h ich g ro u p s th e v e rb s a c c o rd in g to th o s e
p a tte rn s . In su c h a c a se , fo r e x a m p le , th is g ro u p o c c u rs to g e th e r:

F reeze F roze F rozen

Sp eak Spoke Spoken
S tea l S to le S t o le n
W eave W ove W oven
 Techniques — Structure

T h e re s p o n s e s to th e fo llo w in g sh o w a m o r e c o m p lic a te d p a tte rn :

A E x c u s e m e c a n y o u c h a n g e a p o u n d p le a s e ?
B I’m a fra id I c a n ’t.

A E x c u s e m e , d o y o u k n o w w h a t tim e th e b a n k c lo s e s?
B I’m a fra id I d o n ’t.

A Is th e r e a n y th in g I c a n d o a b o u t it?
B I ’m a fra id th e r e is n ’t.

It’s te m p tin g to d ra w a tte n tio n to th e p a tte rn : I ’m afraid...+ n ’t.

B u t th is is a ls o p o ss ib le :

A I s u p p o s e y o u to ld D ic k .
B I’m a fra id I d id .
(It is a ls o p o ss ib le to say, w ith a d iffe re n t m e a n in g I ’m afraid I d id n ’t).

A n e x c e p tio n p e rh a p s ? — b u t w h a t is th e u s e o f a p a tte r n w h ic h is s u p p o s e d
to sim p lify th e m e m o ry lo a d if y o u a ls o h a v e to le a rn all th e e x c e p tio n s! In
fa c t th is is n o t a n e x c e p tio n to th e re a l, u n d e rly in g p a tte rn , o n ly to th e a p p a r ­
e n t p a tte r n b a s e d o n th e firs t fe w e x a m p le s.
(T h e re a l p a tte r n in th is c a se is th a t I ’m afraid is a d d e d to a re s p o n s e
w h ic h th e s p e a k e r th in k s h is h e a r e r (q u e s tio n e r) w ill in te r p r e t a s b e in g
semantically, th o u g h n o t n e c e s sa rily g ra m m a tic a lly , n e g a tiv e — a lth o u g h w e
a re n o t su g g estin g th a t it w o u ld e v e r b e p re s e n te d to a class in th o s e w o rd s)
T h e ab ility to re c o g n ise ite m s w h ic h a re sim ila r in s o m e w ay w ill m a k e it
e a s ie r f o r th e s tu d e n t to le a rn . P a r t o f th e te a c h e r’s jo b is to c o n s tru c t a n d
d ra w a tte n tio n to g ro u p s w h ic h m a k e s u c h sim ila ritie s c le a r to stu d e n ts .

2 . G o o d r u le s c a n h e lp s tu d e n ts

T h e re h a v e b e e n tim e s in la n g u a g e te a c h in g w h e n it w as n o rm a l f o r th e
te a c h e r to give a “ru le ”, tw o o r th r e e e x a m p le s , a n d th e s tu d e n ts w e n t o n to
p ra c tis e . A t o th e r tim e s th e p ro c e s s h a s b e e n q u ite d iffe re n t — te a c h e rs h av e
b e lie v e d th a t sta tin g ru le s c o n fu s e d s tu d e n ts so th a t th e y h a v e sim p ly p re ­
s e n te d a la rg e r g ro u p o f e x a m p le s , a n d th e n s tu d e n ts h a v e d o n e p ra c tic e s.
T h e s e q u e n c e h a s b e e n m u c h d is c u s s e d , as h a v e th e ru le s th e m se lv e s. A n
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e ru le s h e lp s te a c h e rs a n d s tu d e n ts . A
few te a c h e rs still b e lie v e in prescriptive ru le s — ru le s w h ic h tell u s w h a t
“s h o u ld ” a n d “s h o u ld n o t” b e p o ss ib le in th e la n g u a g e. T h is is a m ista k e . A ll
lin g u ists b e lie v e ru le s s h o u ld b e descriptive — th e y s h o u ld say h o w th e
la n g u a g e is used, n o t h o w it should b e u se d .
In a sim ila r w ay all lin g u ists a re a g re e d th a t it is n o t suffic ie n t to d iv id e
la n g u a g e in to “rig h t” a n d “w ro n g ” ; la n g u a g e is m o r e c o m p lic a te d th a n th a t.
F u ll, a c c u ra te d e s c rip tiv e ru le s w ill n e e d to d e s c rib e la n g u a g e a s s t a n d a r d /
n o n -s ta n d a rd , a p p r o p r ia te /in a p p r o p r ia te , s p o k e n /w ritte n , fo rm a l/in fo rm a l,
etc. F o r m a n y s tu d e n ts s o m e o f th e s e d is tin c tio n s a re to o c o m p lic a te d a n d
to o su b d e , b u t fo r la n g u a g e teachers, all a re alw ay s im p o rta n t.
F o r th e d e sc rip tiv e lin g u ist th e im p o r ta n t fe a tu re o f a ru le is th a t it is a n
a c c u ra te d e s c rip tio n ; th e d e s c rip tio n m a y b e lo n g , c o m p lic a te d ,a n d n e e d
te c h n ic a l te rm s . F o r th e la n g u a g e te a c h e r a c o m p ro m is e n e e d s to b e m a d e
b e tw e e n th e accuracy o f th e ru le , a n d its accessibility. In sh o rt, a ru le w h ich is
p e rfe c d y a c c u ra te b u t w h ic h s tu d e n ts c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d is n o h e lp to th em .
E q u a lly im p o rta n t, h o w ev er, is th a t a ru le w h ich is in a c c u ra te , e v e n if th e s tu ­
Techniques — Structure

d e n ts c a n u n d e rs ta n d it, w ill o fte n a t a la te r sta g e in le a rn in g le a d to c o n fu ­

sion.
V e ry o fte n la n g u a g e te a c h e rs a re so a n x io u s th a t th e s tu d e n t will
u n d e rs ta n d th e ‘ru le ’ th a t th e y le a n to w a rd s a cc essib ility a t th e e x p e n s e o f
ac cu ra cy . M a n y te a c h e rs, fo r e x a m p le , te a c h th e ‘ru le ’:

S o m e in p o sitiv es
A n y in n eg ativ es a n d q u e stio n s

S u c h a ru le is n o n s e n s e as th e fo llo w in g e x a m p le s show :

I like som e p o p m u sic .

I d o n ’t like som e p o p m u sic .
I like any pop m u sic.
I d o n ’t like any p o p m u sic .

W h a t ju stific a tio n c a n th e r e b e f o r in tro d u c in g a ‘ru le ’ w h ic h is to ta lly in a c ­

c u ra te ? T h e te a c h e r w h o u se s th a t ru le is fo rc e d to se le c t e x a m p le s w h ic h fit
it a n d ig n o re e x a m p le s w h ic h d o n o t. T h e te a c h e r th e n a ls o h a s to h o p e th a t
n o s tu d e n t in th e class w ill in tro d u c e a n A h , yes, bu t it says h ere... e xa m p le!
W h a t is th e c lu e to th e u s e o f g o o d ru le s? It is first im p o rta n t to
u n d e rs ta n d th a t th e ru le is n o t ju s t a b rie f v e rb a l d e s c rip tio n . T h e ru le is a
com bination o f a w id e ra n g e o f n a tu r a l e x a m p le s, v e rb a l d e s c rip tio n , a n d ,
p e rh a p s m o s t im p o rta n tly o f all, th e relationship b e tw e e n th e v e rb a lisa tio n
a n d th e e x a m p le s. T h is m a y m a k e it s o u n d c o m p lic a te d a n d , in o n e sen se , it
is. W e h a v e a lre a d y o b s e rv e d th a t la n g u a g e is a sy s te m a n d th a t o n e e le m e n t
o f la n g u a g e le a rn in g in v o lves u n d e rs ta n d in g th e syste m ; w e h a v e a ls o n o te d
th a t la n g u a g e le a rn in g is cyclical. T e a c h e rs m u s t re c o g n is e th is, a n d e n c o u ­
ra g e a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f it in th e ir stu d e n ts .
T o o o fte n , c o u rs e b o o k s a n d te a c h e rs a d o p t a c a ta lo g u e a p p ro a c h —
stu d e n ts le a rn “a p a rtic u la r u s e ” of, f o r e x a m p le , th e p re s e n t sim p le , th e n
“a n o th e r u s e ”, a n d , in a sim ila r way, se v e ra l “u se s” o f th e p re s e n t c o n tin u o u s.
A t n o p o in t d o th e y sit d o w n to e x a m in e the fu n d a m e n ta l d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
th e tw o fo rm s . T h a t d iffe re n c e is o n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t c h a ra c te ris tic s o f
E n g lish a s a sy ste m a n d is a d ifficu lt p ro b le m f o r m o s t fo re ig n le a rn e rs o f
E n g lish . It is n o t, h o w ev er, a n im p o ss ib le p ro b le m , a n d , if a p p ro a c h e d
sensibly, n o m o r e d ifficu lt th a n le a rn in g m o r e a n d m o r e a p p a re n tly s e p a ra te
n o n -s y ste m a tic “u s e s” .
N a tu ra l e x a m p le s h e lp s tu d e n ts to se e h o w th e la n g u a g e is u se d ; g o o d v e r­
b a l d e s c rip tio n s h e lp s tu d e n ts to u n d e rs ta n d th e sig n ifica nc e o f p a rtic u la r
p o in ts o f u sa g e . T h e e x a m p le s s u p p o r t th e e x p la n a tio n , th e e x p la n a tio n
s u p p o rts th e e x a m p le s. U n d e rs ta n d in g th e ru le is a process, in w hich
u n d e rs ta n d in g is d e e p e n e d th ro u g h re-cy cling e x a m p le s a n d e x p la n a tio n .
T h e re a re p itfalls w h ic h it is im p o rta n t fo r th e te a c h e r to a v o id — th e
e x a m p le s m u s t n o t b e c h o s e n to fit th e e x p la n a tio n ; th e e x p la n a tio n m u s t n o t
b e “sim p lifie d ” to th e p o in t th a t it is e ith e r m e a n in g le s s, o r h o p e le ss ly
in a c c u ra te . S o m e s tu d e n ts w ill b e n e fit p a rtic u la rly fro m e x a m p le s, o th e rs
w ill fin d d e sc rip tiv e e x p la n a tio n m o r e u sefu l. B oth a re n e e d e d if e v e ry b o d y
is to b e g ive n th e m a x im u m p o s s ib le h e lp .
T e a c h e rs a re s o m e tim e s h e a rd to say I d o n ’t give rules. They ju st confuse
m y students. T h is is c h e a tin g . If th e te a c h e r gives e x a m p le s a n d e x p e c ts th e
s tu d e n ts to in fe r o r d e d u c e th e ru le s th e m se lv e s, th a t m u s t b e m o re d iffic ult
th a n h a v in g a c c e ss to a w e ll-fo rm u la te d v e rb a lisa tio n o f th e e x p la n a tio n . It
 Techniques — Structure

m a y b e tr u e to say th a t giving s tu d e n ts th e ru le h igh lig h ts th e ir m is u n d e r­

sta n d in g , b u t it d o e s n o t c re a te it. T h e p rin c ip le is th a t good ru le s h e lp
stu d e n ts — w h e re ‘g o o d ’ m e a n s a c o m p ro m is e b e tw e e n ' a c c u ra c y a n d
acc essib ility , a n d w h e re ‘ru le ’ is a c o m b in a tio n o f c yc lically p re s e n te d
w e ll-c h o se n e x a m p le s a n d v e rb a l d e s c rip tio n .
(S ev e ra l la n g u a g e p o in ts w h ic h a re o fte n m is -u n d e rs to o d a re d is c u s s e d in
C h a p te r 12).

3 . U n d e r s ta n d in g in v o lv e s e x a m p le , e x p la n a tio n , a n d p r a c tic e

A t d iffe re n t tim e s s tru c tu re h a s b e e n ta u g h t in v e ry d iffe re n t w ays. O n e

s c h o o l o f th o u g h t b e lie v e d th a t if s tu d e n ts w e re g iven a “r u le ” th e y c o u ld th e n
d o e x a m p le s w h ich fo llo w e d th e ru le ; in re a c tio n to th is, a m e th o d e v o lv e d
w h e re b y s tu d e n ts w e re g iv en a g ro u p o f e x a m p le s, w e re e x p e c te d to se e w h a t
th o s e e x a m p le s h a d in c o m m o n th e m se lv e s , a n d w e re th e n re q u ire d to p r o ­
d u c e o th e r sim ila r e x a m p le s. A rg u m e n ts h a v e ra g e d a b o u t w h e th e r to
e x p la in b e fo re , d u rin g , o r a fte r p re s e n tin g e x a m p le s a n d so o n . A ll su c h
a rg u m e n ts a r e u n n e c e ss a ry . A n y so lu tio n w h ic h su g g ests th a t o n e m e th o d is
likely to su c c e e d w h e n a n o th e r fails is a lm o s t c e rta in ly m is le a d in g a n d a n
o v e r-sim p lific a tio n .
S o m e tim e s a p a tte r n q u ic k ly e m e rg e s fro m e x a m p les:
A H ave y o u ... ? A C an y o u ... ?
B N o , I h a v e n ’t. B N o , I c a n ’t
T h e e x a m p le s re v e al th e s tru c tu re o f B ’s re s p o n s e . L ittle e x p la n a tio n is
n e c e ssa ry .
S o m e tim e s, p a rtly b e c a u s e o f th e la n g u a g e itself, a n d p a rtly p e rh a p s
b e c a u s e o f m ista k e n id e a s in tro d u c e d in th e s tu d e n t’s e a rlie r le a rn in g ,
e x p lic it e x p la n a tio n m a y b e m u c h m o r e im p o rta n t. M a n y s tu d e n ts b eliev e,
f o r e x a m p le , th a t th e r e a re tw o q u ite d iffe re n t k in d s o f q u e s tio n in E n g lis h —
q u e s tio n s w ith (d o ) , a n d q u e s tio n s w ith o u t (d o ). I f th e f o r m e r a re ta u g h t first,
th e la tte r a re “e x c e p tio n s” . In fac t, all q u e s tio n s fo llo w th e s a m e p a tte r n a n d
th e e x p lic it s ta te m e n t o f a ru le m a y h e lp s tu d e n ts to s e e this:

T o m a k e a q u e s t io n in v e r t t h e o r d e r o f t h e s u b j e c t a n d fir s t a u x ilia r y ;
i f t h e r e is n o a u x ilia r y in t r o d u c e ( d o ) a s a “ d u m m y ” a u x ilia r y , a n d
f o llo w t h e b a s ic r u le .

T h e e x a m p le illu stra te s th e p ro b le m — th e ru le a lo n e d o e s n o t h e lp th e s tu ­
d e n t, a n d e x a m p le s a lo n e m a k e it d iffic u lt f o r th e s tu d e n t to fin d th e ru le .
U n d e rs ta n d in g is a c y c le w h ic h in v o lv es e a c h o f e x p lic it e x p la n a tio n ,
e x a m p le , a n d p ra c tic e . E a c h p a r t o f th e c y c le c o n trib u te s in its o w n w a y to
u n d e rs ta n d in g . I t is n o t su ffic ie n t f o r s tu d e n ts to u n d e r s ta n d inte lle ctu ally ;
w h a t s tu d e n ts “u n d e r s ta n d ” s h o u ld d ir e c d y in flu e n c e th e ir la n g u a g e
p e rfo rm a n c e . T h is is b e s t a c h ie v e d if te a c h e rs c o n s ta n tly b e a r in m in d th e
im p o rta n t lin k b e tw e e n e x p la n a tio n , e x a m p le , a n d p ra c tic e .

4 . T e r m in o lo g y c a n h e lp o r h in d e r

S tu d e n ts le a rn in g a fo re ig n la n g u a g e w ill n e e d e ith e r a n e x p lic it o r im p lic it

u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e c a te g o rie s a n d p a tte rn s . T e a c h e rs w ill fre q u e n tly w ish
Techniques — Structure

to re fe r to th e s e p a tte rn s a n d w ill n e e d a s h o r th a n d w ay to d o th is — so m e
s o r t o f te rm in o lo g y is in e v ita b le .
F e w te a c h e rs w o u ld d o u b t th a t it is p ra c tic a l f o r te a c h e r a n d s tu d e n t to
u n d e rs ta n d te rm s lik e noun, verb, adverb, auxiliary. V e ry o fte n , h o w e ver,
th e s e te rm s a re u s e d without m a k in g s u re th a t s tu d e n ts d o g e n u in e ly u n d e r ­
s ta n d th e m . W h ile in tro d u c in g th e te rm s e a rly in th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o u rs e ,
te a c h e rs s h o u ld p la n to m a k e th e ir e x p la n a tio n a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g p a r t o f
th e le ss o n , r a th e r th a n a n a sid e fro m th e te a c h in g o f a stru c tu re .
T e rm in o lo g y c a n c o n fu s e a s m u c h as h e lp — p a rtic u la rly if it is n o t
in tro d u c e d a s a d e lib e ra te p a r t o f th e te a c h in g p ro g ra m m e . E n g lish n o u n s
d iv id e in to countable a n d uncountable ; c o u n ta b le n o u n s th e n d iv id e in to
singulars a n d plurals. S in g u la rs re fe r to one thin g ; plurals re fe r to m ore than
one th in g ; b o th sin g u lars a n d p lu ra ls re fe r to th in g s w h ic h a re , in E n g lish ,
conceptualised in units. U n c o u n ta b le n o u n s re fe r to th in g s w h ic h a re not
c o n c e p tu a lis e d in u n its (weather, music) — th e y a re n e ith e r sin g ular, n o r
p lu ra l. U n c o u n ta b le n o u n s , h o w ev er, d o ta k e sin g u la r v e rb s (M u s ic helps m e
to relax ).
I t is n o t a m a tte r th a t c e rta in n o u n s a re c o u n ta b le a n d o th e rs u n c o u n ta b le ;
c e rta in meanings o f a p a rtic u la r w o rd a re c o u n ta b le (A cheese fell o n his
fo o t); w h ile o th e r m e a n in g s o f th e sa m e w o rd a r e u n c o u n ta b le (Cheese is
g o o d f o r y ou).
T h is is a c o m p lic a te d id e a f o r stu d e n ts . A s a lr e a d y d is c u ss e d , u n d e r s ta n d ­
ing in v o lves a s ta te m e n t o f th e ru le , e x a m p le s, a n d p ra c tic e . A n y c le a r
s ta te m e n t o f th e ru le w ill in v o lv e in tro d u c in g th e te rm s countable a n d
uncountable,b u t in tro d u c in g th e te rm s w ill o n ly h e lp if tim e is ta k e n to
e n s u re th a t s tu d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d th e c a te g o rie s to w h ic h th e y re la te . T h e
n a m e s th e m s e lv e s a re so m e w h a t u n s a tis fa c to ry — o n e th in g w h ic h w e c o u n t
in re a l life is m o n e y , b u t th e n o u n m oney is u n c o u n ta b le . I f th e n o rm a l te rm s
a re u s e d , te a c h e rs m u s t b e a w a re o f th e p o te n tia l c o n fu s io n in tro d u c e d b y
th e term in o lo g y . If a lte rn a tiv e te rm s a re c h o s e n (u n it nouns, non-unit
nouns), w h ile th e s e m a y b e m o re a c c u ra te a n d h e lp fu l, s tu d e n ts w ill h a v e to
le a m to re la te th is te rm in o lo g y to th e s ta n d a rd te rm in o lo g y o f te x t a n d re fe r­
en ce b ooks.
T e a c h e rs n e e d to a p p ro a c h th e p ro b le m sta g e b y stag e. F irst, give
e x a m p le s o f a g ra m m a tic a l c a te g o ry , a n d th e n in tro d u c e th e n a m e . C h e c k
th a t s tu d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d th e n a m e b y a sk in g s tu d e n ts to s o r t e x a m p le s in to
th o s e w h ich b e lo n g to th e c a te g o ry a n d th o s e w h ic h d o n o t. If, a s in th e c a se
o f c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n ta b le n o u n s , th e re a re tw o c o n tr a s tin g c a te g o rie s ,
in tro d u c e th e s e c o n d a n d te s t if s tu d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d th a t. T h e n a s k stu d e n ts
to d iv id e w o rd s in to th e tw o c a te g o rie s . A ll o f th is h a s n o th in g to d o w ith
s tu d e n ts p ro d u c in g la n g u a g e, o r d o in g e x ercises. It is o n ly e n s u rin g th a t s tu ­
d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d , a n d c a n u se , th e te rm in o lo g y th e te a c h e r is g o in g to u s e
a n d w h ig h th e s tu d e n ts w ill th e m s e lv e s n e e d .
A f te r th is initia l in tro d u c tio n o f th e te rm s , th e te a c h e r s h o u ld d ra w
a tte n tio n to th e d ifficu lties. In th e c a se ju s t m e n tio n e d th is m e a n s p o in tin g
o u t th a t a n o u n is n o t always c o u n ta b le o r u n c o u n ta b le . T h e s a m e n o u n m ay
h a v e a c o u n ta b le m e a n in g , a n d a n u n c o u n ta b le m e a n in g . U n til s tu d e n ts h av e
g ra s p e d th is, th e y d o n o t h a v e a c le a r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e m e a n in g o f th e
te rm s.
N o te rm in o lo g y s h o u ld b e ta u g h t f o r its o w n sak e . I t s h o u ld p ro v id e
te a c h e rs a n d s tu d e n ts w ith a c o n v e n ie n t sh o rth a n d . I t c a n o n ly d o th a t if th e
te rm in o lo g y is ta u g h t a n d u n d e r s to o d before s tu d e n ts a re e x p e c te d to u s e it.
 Techniques — Structure

T h is p ro b le m is e v e n m o r e c o m p le x in re fe rrin g to v e rb fo rm s — E n g lis h ,
f o r e x a m p le , d o e s n o t p o s s e s s “a fu tu re te n s e ” . S e v e ral v e rb fo rm s c a n b e
u s e d to re fe r to F u tu r e T im e :
I ’m going to see him tomorrow.
I ’m seeing him tomorrow.
I ’ll be seeing him tomorrow.
T h e te r m “th e fu tu re te n s e ”, f a r fro m sim p lify ing , w ill c a u s e c o n fu s io n
b e c a u s e th e te r m d o e s n o t re la te a c c u ra te ly to th e s tru c tu r e o f E n g lish .
T e a c h e rs s h o u ld b e a r tw o ru le s in m in d :
a . If a te r m is in tro d u c e d , tim e n e e d s to b e ta k e n to e n s u r e th a t s tu d e n ts
re a lly u n d e rs ta n d it. T h e te rm in o lo g y n e e d s to b e ta u g h t a s p a r t o f th e le s so n .
b. A te r m s h o u ld o n ly b e in tro d u c e d if it is g o in g to h e lp th e s tu d e n ts . T e rm i­
n o lo g y in tro d u c e d to sh o w o ff th e te a c h e r ’s k n o w le d g e , o r sim p ly b e c a u s e it
s o u n d s im p re ssiv e , is d is h o n e s t a n d c o u n te r-p ro d u c tiv e .

5 . F illin g in a fill-in e x e r c is e is n o t e n o u g h
T h e r e a re a n u m b e r o f o b je c tio n s to fill-in e x e rc ise s, b u t, a s lo n g a s th e y e xist,
it is b e tte r to d o th e m w ell th a n b ad ly. S u c h p ra c tic e s a s s u m e th a t th e
s e n te n c e w h ic h is g iv en c o n ta in s su ffic ie n t c o n te x t to re v e a l th e “c o r r e c t”
c h o ic e to b e filled in. T h is m e a n s th a t e ls e w h e re in th e s e n te n c e th e r e a re
c lu e s to th e c o rre c t a n s w e r — th e p a r t to b e filled in in s o m e w a y c o llo c a te s
w ith o th e r w o rd s in th e s e n te n c e . In s u c h c irc u m s ta n c e s , it m u s t b e n e c e s s a ry
f o r th e s tu d e n t to say th e w h o le s e n te n c e a lo u d , th e re b y in c re a s in g th e
c h a n c e o f th e ite m b e in g m e m o ris e d co rrec tly .
It is in c o rre c t f o r th e te a c h e r to give th e n u m b e r o f th e q u e s tio n , a n d th e
s tu d e n t sim p ly to say th e fill-in p a rt; it is e v e n w o rs e fo r th e te a c h e r to re a d a
s e n te n c e fro m th e b o o k a n d p a u s e a t th e g a p w h ile th e s tu d e n t says o n e o r
tw o w o rd s (th e fill-in ) b e fo re th e te a c h e r fin ish e s th e se n te n c e .
T e a c h e rs m a y c a re to c o n s id e r w h e th e r fill-in p ra c tic e s w ill b e m o r e e ffe c ­
tive if e x p lo ite d th r e e tim e s — o ra lly in c lass, as w ritte n h o m e w o rk , a n d
finally c h e c k e d a g a in o ra lly in class.
T h e s tu d e n ts n e e d th e p ra c tic e ! T h e te a c h e r s h o u ld say th e n u m b e r; th e
s tu d e n ts s h o u ld say th e com plete e x a m p le .

6 . S tu d e n ts n e e d to p r a c tis e fo rm a s w e ll a s u s e

L a n g u a g e te a c h in g h a s o fte n h a d b a n d w a g o n s . A t o n e tim e th e o ra l d rill w as

th o u g h t to b e e x tre m e ly p o w e rfu l — s tu d e n ts b e c a m e m o r e a c c u ra te a n d flu ­
e n t b y re p e a tin g la rg e n u m b e rs o f e x a m p le s w h ic h fo llo w e d id e n tic a l
p a tte rn s . C o n te m p o r a r y m e th o d o lo g y e n c o u ra g e s us to be
“c o m m u n ic a tiv e ”, a n d to e n s u r e th a t all in te rc h a n g e s a r e “m e a n in g fu l” . A s
u su a l, th e id e a l lies s o m e w h e re b e tw e e n s u c h e x tre m e s.
L a n g u a g e te a c h in g b a s e d e n tire ly o n g e ttin g th e fo rm s c o r r e c t b e c o m e s
m e a n in g le s s a n d b o rin g , a n d h a s little to d o w ith th e re a l n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e .
A t th e s a m e tim e it is d iffic u lt to b e c o m m u n ic a tiv e if y o u r h e a r e r c a n n o t
u n d e r s ta n d w h a t y o u say!
T h e te a c h in g s h o u ld m a in ta in a b a la n c e b e tw e e n p ra c tic e s w h ic h c o n ­
c e n tr a te o n fluency, a n d th o s e w h ic h c o n c e n tr a te o n a c c u ra c y . O n th e w h o le ,
flu e n c y p ra c tic e s c o n c e n tr a te o n why a p e rs o n is s p e a k in g (fu n c tio n ) a n d
a c c u ra c y p ra c tic e s o n how th e m e s sa g e is c o n v e y e d (s tru c tu ra l fo rm ). A
g o o d la n g u a g e te a c h in g p ro g r a m m e inv o lves b o th . S tu d e n ts h a v e little
Techniques — Structure

d ifficu lty in u n d e rs ta n d in g th a t s o m e v erb s h a v e irre g u la r p a s t te n s e fo rm s ,

o r h o w c e rta in q u e s tio n fo rm s a r e m a d e in E n g lish . T h e y a ls o h a v e little diffi­
c u lty in u n d e rs ta n d in g th a t th e fu n c tio n Getting inform ation in v o lves a sk in g
q u e stio n s . N e ith e r o f th e s e b its o f in fo rm a tio n , h o w ev er, h e lp s th e m a c tu a lly
to fo rm q u e s tio n s a c c u ra te ly . P ra c tisin g th e fo rm s — so m e tim e s v e ry
u n c o m m u n ic a tiv e ly — is a le g itim a te p a r t o f a w e ll-b a la n c e d te a c h in g
p ro g ra m m e .

7. T h e r e is a p la c e fo r o ra l a n d w r itte n p r a c tic e s

T ra d itio n a l la n g u a g e te a c h in g p la c e s g re a t e m p h a s is o n w ritin g lo n g e x e r­
c ises to e n c o u ra g e fa m ilia ris a tio n w ith p a rtic u la r stru c tu re s . In re a c tio n
a g a in s t th a t, h o w ev er, m u c h c o m m u n ic a tiv e te a c h in g re lie s a lm o s t to o
exclusively o n o ra l p ra c tic e .
O ra l p ra c tic e is n a tu ra l, a n d e n s u re s th a t a w id e ra n g e o f s tru c tu re s
c o -o c c u r, d e v e lo p s th e a b ility to u n d e rs ta n d a n d re s p o n d quickly, a n d th e
a b ility to a rtic u la te — b u t it is n o t th e w h o le o f la n g u a g e te a c h in g . W ritte n
p ra c tic e s, w h e re th e s tu d e n ts h a v e tim e to p a u se , th in k , a n d consciously
c o n s tru c t, a lso h a v e a n im p o rta n t p la c e . A s u su a l in lan g u a g e le a rn in g , a
p o lic y o f d o in g both a c tiv itie s, r a th e r th a n o n e o r th e o th e r, is b e st.
In g e n e ra l, it w o u ld u su a lly b e b e s t fo r s tu d e n ts first to d o o ra l p ra c tic e ,
th e n u s e w ritte n p ra c tic e fo r re in fo rc e m e n t a n d , finally, fu r th e r o ra l fre e
p ra c tic e s .
It is w o rth e m p h a s isin g th a t o ra l a n d w ritte n p ra c tic e s a re b o th u se fu l
e v e n if th e s tu d e n ts ’ m a in o b je c tiv e p la c e s th e e m p h a s is stro n g ly o n o ra l o r
w ritte n E n g lish . C learly, th e s tu d e n t w h o n e e d s a h ig h level in w ritte n skills
re q u ire s m o r e w ritte n p ra c tic e th a n th e g e n e ra l s tu d e n t, b u t in s u c h a c a se
o ra l p ra c tic e p ro v id e s a v a lu a b le a lte rn a tiv e a n d s u p p o rtiv e le a rn in g strategy.
Sim ilarly, fo r a s tu d e n t w h o re q u ire s a h ig h level o f o ra l skills, s o m e w ritte n
p ra c tic e p ro v id e s u se fu l s u p p o r t w h ic h c a n n o t b e g a in e d th ro u g h a p u re ly
o ra l a p p ro a c h .

8 . U s e “g im m ic k s ” to c o m b a t p o p u la r m is ta k e s

S o m e m ista k e s a re alw ays “p o p u la r” — th e th ird p e rs o n -5 , m a k in g q u e stio n s,

a n d , fo r e a c h la n g u a g e g ro u p , c e rta in in te rfe re n c e m ista k e s, as s tu d e n ts c a rry
o v e r to o d ire c tly th e p a tte rn s o r v o c a b u la ry o f th e ir o w n lan g u ag e.
S u c h m ista k e s a r e ra re ly “im p o rta n t” fro m a c o m m u n ic a tiv e p o in t o f view,
b u t m a y m a k e th e s tu d e n ts s o u n d o d d , o r m a y b e m is ta k e s w h ic h a re h eav ily
p e n a lis e d in tests. In th e s e c a ses it is u su a lly b e tte r to c o m b a t th e m is ta k e b y
s o m e k in d o f g im m ick , ra th e r th a n c o n sta n tly e x p la in in g o r ta k in g a s te m
a ttitu d e .
M a n y te a c h e rs fin d it h e lp fu l to p re p a re a la rg e c a rd c o n ta in in g n o th in g
b u t a v e ry la rg e le tte r S . T h is is k e p t fla t o n th e ir d e s k a n d e a c h tim e a s tu d e n t
m a k e s a th ird p e rs o n -5 m ista k e , th e te a c h e r, w ith o u t sp e a k in g , sim p ly ra ise s
th e c a rd ; o th e r te a c h e rs h a v e a la rg e S o n th e w all o f th e ir c la s sro o m a n d sim ­
p ly p o in t to it.
A slightly m o re c o m p lic a te d “th ird p e r s o n - 5” c a rd is illu s tra te d o p p o s ite .
T h is c a rd e m p h a s is e s th a t th e -5 is a s s o c ia te d w ith he, she a n d it
Y
T

5
.

/////,
Techniques — Structure

T h e s e c o n d c a rd illu s tra te d , re m in d in g s tu d e n ts o f irre g u la r fo rm s, is u s e d

w h e n a s tu d e n t p ro d u c e s a s e n te n c e su c h as *He buyed it yesterday. T e a c h e rs
m a y lik e to p re p a r e a sim ila r c a rd re m in d in g s tu d e n ts o f th e im p o rta n c e o f
(do).
If s tu d e n ts fin d w o rd o r d e r in q u e s tio n s d ifficu lt it c a n b e effectiv e to u s e a
d e lib e ra te ly r a th e r fla m b o y a n t g e s tu re — th e te a c h e r h o ld s o u t b o th a rm s
a n d th e n c ro s s e s o n e o v e r th e o th e r.
“ P o p u la r ” m ista k e s c a n d e m o tiv a te s tu d e n ts — th e y “ k n o w ” it is a m is­
ta k e , b u t c o n tin u e to m a k e it. A lig h t-h e a rte d m e th o d o f c o rre c tio n o f su ch
m ista k e s e n su re s th a t th e m ista k e is d ra w n to th e s tu d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n , w ith o u t
d e p re s s in g s tu d e n ts u n n ec e ssarily .

9 . U s e b e e h iv e s w ith la rg e c la s s e s

O n e o f th e m o s t effectiv e te c h n iq u e s fo r la rg e c la sse s is th e b e e h iv e drill.

S u c h p ra c tic e s w o rk b e s t in c lasses w h o a re sittin g in ro w s. A c le a r m o d e l is
p re s e n te d — e ith e r o ra lly o r o n th e b la c k b o a rd :
H o w o ld a r e y o u ?
I ’m . . .
T h e m o d e l c o n sists o f a sim p le tw o -lin e d ia lo g u e . T h e n sim u lta n e o u sly , all
th e p e o p le sittin g in a p a rtic u la r lin e, fo r e x a m p le , n e x t to th e w in d o w s, a sk
th e q u e s tio n to th e ir n e ig h b o u rs ; th e ir n e ig h b o u rs a n s w e r a n d , w ith o u t p a u s ­
ing, tu r n to th e ir n e ig h b o u rs a n d a sk th e q u e stio n ; th e s e s tu d e n ts a n s w e r a n d ,
w ith o u t p a u sin g , p a ss th e q u e s tio n o n .
In th is w ay six o r se v e n p a irs a re in v o lv e d a t a n y o n e tim e a n d th e w h o le
class is in v o lv e d in say ing s o m e th in g (tw o se n te n c e s e a c h ) in a p ra c tic e w h ic h
lasts less th a n h a lf a m in u te .
O n o th e r o c c a sio n s th e p ra c tic e s ta rts fro m th e o p p o s ite s id e o f th e ro o m
o r fro m th e fro n t o r b a c k o f th e c la s s ro o m w ith th e q u e s tio n b e in g p a s s e d o n
to th e s tu d e n t im m e d ia te ly b e h in d o r in fro n t.
S u c h p ra c tic e s a re o n ly effectiv e if th e tw o -lin e d ia lo g u e is sim p le , a n d th e
m o d e l clear. T h e firs t tim e th e y a re d o n e th e y a re o fte n c h a o tic b u t a s s o o n as
th e class h a s th e id e a o f h o w su c h a p ra c tic e w o rk s it is su fficie n t f o r th e
te a c h e r to p re s e n t th e m o d e l a n d th e n say sim ply: Beehive practice starting,
here (p o in tin g ).
T h e n a m e o f su c h p ra c tic e s is, o f c o u rs e , b a s e d o n th e fa c t th a t all th e b e e s
in th e h iv e w o rk a t th e s a m e tim e. It is a m o d e l w h ich is v e ry a p p ro p ria te fo r
th e la n g u a g e cla ssro o m !
 Techniques — Structure

1 0 . M o s t la n g u a g e g a m e s a r e s tr u c tu r e p r a c tic e s

It is c h a ra c te ris tic o f la n g u a g e g a m e s th a t th e s a m e fo r m u la is c o n s ta n tly

re p e a te d . T h a t is p re c ise ly th e s a m e c h a ra c te ris tic th a t is s h o w n b y s tru c tu re
p ra ctic es!
A s im p le g a m e lik e h a n g m a n is e a sily c o n v e rte d in to a u se fu l s tru c tu re
p ra c tic e . — — ——

E a c h d a s h re p re s e n ts a le tte r; a s le tte rs a re g u e s s e d , su c c e ss fu l g u e ss e s a re
filled in , a n d f o r e a c h u n s u c c e s s fu l g u e ss p a r t o f th e h a n g in g s c e n e is d ra w n .
If th e s c e n e is c o m p le te d b e fo re th e w o rd , th e g a m e is lo st. T h e g a m e is o fte n
u s e d to h e lp te a c h th e a lp h a b e t. It c a n , h o w e v er, b e sim p ly a d a p te d to a v ery
u se fu l p ra c tic e o f there. S tu d e n ts u s e th is fo rm u la :

Is there a (p) in it? There’s a (p) here.

N o there isn’t/Yes there is. There are tw o —,here and here.

In s te a d o f ju s t c a llin g o u t le tte rs, th e g a m e h a s th e e x tra ru le th a t s tu d e n ts

m u s t u s e th e Is th ere ... ? fo rm u la in th e ir q u e stio n s .

A g a m e s u c h as W ho am I? (o n e s tu d e n t ‘is’ a fa m o u s , p e rs o n , alive o r d e a d ;
th e o th e rs try to g u e ss w h o b y a sk in g q u e s tio n s w h ic h m a y b e a n s w e re d o n ly
Yes o r No) p ro v id e s p ra c tic e o f b o th q u e s tio n s w ith a n au x iliary, a n d q u e s ­
tio n s w ith (do ): A re you A m erican ? D o you play the guitar?
T e a c h e rs w o rk in g w ith s c h o o l c la s se s o fte n th in k th a t “g a m e s ” c a n o n ly b e
u s e d f o r a few m in u te s a t th e e n d o f a le s so n , o r o c c a sio n a lly o n F rid a y
a fte rn o o n s . A lm o s t all la n g u a g e g a m e s, w ith v ery little p r e p a r a tio n fro m th e
te a c h e r, c a n b e tu r n e d in to lively a n d effectiv e s tru c tu re p ra c tic e s . N e e d le ss
to say, m o s t s tu d e n ts , p a rtic u la rly in sc h o o ls, w o u ld r a th e r p la y a g a m e th a n
d o a g ra m m a r p ra c tic e . T e a c h e rs s h o u ld re m e m b e r th a t if th e s tu d e n ts a re
e n jo y in g w h a t th e y ’re d o in g , a n d it h a s a n u n d e rly in g se rio u s la n g u a g e
te a c h in g p u rp o s e , it is m o r e likely to b e e ffec tiv e th a n a m o r e c o n v e n tio n a l
p ra c tic e .

1 1. F r e e s itu a tio n s a r e im p o r ta n t

M o s t lan g u a g e le s so n s d e v e lo p fro m c o n tro lle d to fre e p ra c tic e . T e a c h e rs

like to b e in c o n tro l o f th e ir le s so n s a n d th e re fo re like c o n tro lle d p ra c tic e .
T h e le s so n m o v e s sm o o th ly , c a n b e tim e d carefu lly , a n d gives a n im p re s s io n
o f efficiency. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e re is a b ig g a p b e tw e e n c o n tr o lle d p ra c tic e
a n d n a tu ra l lan g u a g e u se . N a tu ra l la n g u a g e u s e inv o lves n o t o n ly k n o w le d g e
o f th e la n g u a g e , b u t so c ia l skills, se lf-c o n fid e n c e , th e a b ility to im p ro v is e , e tc .
C o n tro lle d p ra c tic e is n o th in g m o r e th a n a first s te p in th e te a c h in g se q u e n c e .
Techniques — Structure

T h e fre e p ra c tic e p a r t o f th e le s s o n is, b y d e fin itio n , th e p a r t o v e r w h ic h th e

te a c h e r h a s le a s t c o n tro l. T h e s tu d e n ts h a v e m o re c h a n c e to m a k e m ista k e s,
to sh o w th a t th e y h a v e n o t le a rn e d , a n d to sh o w th a t, e v e n if th e y c a n d o c o n ­
tro lle d p ra c tic e , th e y h a v e n o t y e t d e v e lo p e d th e a b ility to u se th e lan gu ag e.
S u c h p ra c tic e s — s itu a tio n s , d ia lo g u e b u ild in g , in fo rm a tio n g a p -b a s e d p a ir
w o rk , d is c u s sio n , o r w ritin g a b o u t th e s tu d e n t’s o w n in te re sts, a re a n
e s se n tia l p a r t o f th e le a rn in g p ro c e s s . S u c h p ra c tic e s d e v e lo p th e w h o le ra n g e
o f skills w h ich a re re q u ire d f o r e ffectiv e n a tu ra l la n g u a g e u se . In d o in g th e m ,
te a c h e rs m u s t e n c o u ra g e su c h skills, a n d n o t c o n c e n tr a te o n ly o n a c c u ra te
s tru c tu ra l k n o w le d g e . A t th e s a m e tim e te a c h e rs s h o u ld re m e m b e r th a t th e s e
a re still c la s s ro o m p ra c tic e s. N e ith e r th e te a c h e r n o r th e s tu d e n t sh o u ld
e x p e c t to o m u c h . T h e y a re a n im p o rta n t s te p in th e c o m p le x p ro c e s s w h ic h
le a d s fro m s tru c tu ra l a c c u ra c y to s p o n ta n e o u s fluency.

1 2 . G ra m m a r c a n b e fu n

S tru c tu re in th e c la s s ro o m in v o lv es fin d in g , u n d e rs ta n d in g , a n d u sin g p a t­

te rn s . T h e re is n o th in g v ery te rrify in g o r in h ib itin g a b o u t th a t b u t, to o o fte n ,
s tu d e n ts th in k o f g ra m m a r a s a n u n p o p u la r a n d d ifficu lt p a r t o f th e ir
la n g u a g e lesso n s. E v e n m o r e w orryingly, th a t a ttitu d e is o n e th e y h av e
u su a lly c a u g h t fro m th e ir te a c h e rs!
T h e la s t few tip s h a v e s tre s s e d th a t g ra m m a r p ra c tic e c a n b e b o th lively
a n d a m u s in g — p ro v id in g th e te a c h e r b rin g s a se n se o f fu n to it a n d d o e s su ch
p ra c tic e fre q u en tly , b risk ly a n d w ith a to u c h o f h u m o u r.
M a n y s tu d e n ts e n jo y p u z z le s — c ro s s w o rd a n d w o rd -s e a rc h p u z z le b o o k s
h a v e a n e n o rm o u s sale. T h e m e s sa g e is c le a r — m a n y s tu d e n ts e n jo y lo o k in g
fo r p a tte rn s , lo o k in g f o r sim ila ritie s, so rtin g , p airin g , a n d o th e r ty p ic a l p u z z le
activities. M o s t p e o p le fe el a s e n s e o f s o m e sa tisfa c tio n a t so lv in g a p u z z le
b u t, a t th e s a m e tim e , th e r e is v e ry little feelin g o f fa ilu re if y o u c a n n o t d o
p u z z le s. U n fo rtu n a te ly , in th e la n g u a g e c la s sro o m th e e x a c t o p p o s ite se e m s
to a p p ly — if y o u c a n n o t d o a g ra m m a r e x e rc ise th e r e is a fee ling o f fa ilure,
b u t little sa tis fa c tio n in d o in g w ell. S o m e h o w o r o th e r, te a c h e rs (o r “th e sys­
te m ”) fail to c a p ita lis e o n th e s tu d e n ts ’ c u rio sity a n d e n th u sia sm . T h e re m a y
b e m a n y re a s o n s f o r th is, b u t tw o s e e m p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t — te a c h e rs a re
to o k e e n to e v a lu a te — to give m a rk s , so s tu d e n ts sim p ly fe a r failu re.
S eco n d ly , to o m a n y g ra m m a r p ra c tic e s a re n o t p u z z le -lik e . T h e y d o n o t
in v o lve p ro b le m -so lv in g , b u t all to o fre q u e n tly a re n o th in g m o re th a n sim p le
te s ts o f p re -le a m e d k n o w led g e .
P u z z le s a n d p ro b le m s inv o lve no t k n o w in g th e a nsw e r, e x p lo rin g , g o in g
u p b lin d alleys, re -tra c in g y o u r s te p s, o fte n w o rk in g w ith o th e r p e o p le , a n d ,
ev en tu ally , fin d in g a s o lu tio n — p e rh a p s the so lu tio n , o r p e rh a p s o n e o f a set
o f a lte rn a tiv e so lu tio n s . P ro b le m -s o lv in g is c h a llen g ing , a m u sin g , fru stra tin g ,
a n d fre q u e n tly b e s t d o n e as a so c ia l activity. T h o s e s a m e w o rd s c o u ld v ery
e asily b e a p p lie d to la n g u a g e le a rn in g . T h e te a c h in g o f s tru c tu re c a n b e m a d e
fu n if, in s te a d o f th e te a c h e r telling s tu d e n ts little b its o f p re -d ig e s te d “k n o w l­
e d g e ” , s tu d e n ts c a n b e e n c o u ra g e d to e x p lo re a n d d is c o v e r fo r th em se lv e s.
P ra c tic e s w h ic h e n c o u ra g e th e s tu d e n t to d is c o v e r n e e d n o t b e o rig in a l o r
im ag inativ e. T h e e m p h a s is is u p o n th e te a c h e r’s a ttitu d e . A t th e low est level,
fo r e x a m p le , s tu d e n ts c a n b e a s k e d to g o th ro u g h th e te x t a n d u n d e rlin e all
e x a m p le s o f is a n d are w h ic h o c c u r. C a n s tu d e n ts g u e ss o r w o rk o u t th e
d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e m ?
 Techniques — Structure

A t a slightly h ig h e r level, th e s tu d e n ts c a n b e a s k e d to d iv id e th e s e e x a m p le s
in to tw o g ro u p s :
T h o s e w ith ( g o ) u s e d a s a full v erb.
T h o s e w ith ( b e ) g o in g t o u s e d as a n auxiliary.

1. H e ’s g o in g to th e th e a tre .
2. W h e re a re y o u g o in g ?
3. A r e y o u rea lly g o in g to g o ?
4. W h a t o n e a r th a re w e g o in g to d o a b o u t it?
5. I th in k it’s g o in g to rain .
6. W e h o p e w e ’ll b e g o in g to Ita ly n e x t su m m e r.
7. A r e y o u g o in g to a s k h e r?
8. A r e y o u g o in g o n S a tu rd a y ?

In s te a d o f explaining to s tu d e n ts th a t stre ss h a s a n im p o rta n t p a r t to p la y in

c o n v e y in g m e a n in g , s tu d e n ts c a n b e a s k e d to p a ir th e re m a rk s a n d re s p o n s e s
in a p ra c tic e su c h as th e follo w in g . A ll th e y n e e d to b e to ld in a d v a n c e is th a t
th e re is a s o lu tio n , a n d th a t th e r e is o n ly one so lu tio n — if th e y h a v e d o n e
m o s t o f th e e x a m p le s a n d h a v e a s e n te n c e left o v e r w h ic h “w ill n o t fit” , th e y
m u s t g o b a c k a n d d o th e w h o le p ra c tic e a gain .
1. D o e s h e k n o w ? a . I ’ve to ld h im tw ice.
2 . W h y a re y o u a n n o y e d ? b . I h a v e to ld h im tw ice.
3 . S h all w e g o ? c . T h a t’s D a v id B o w ie.
4 . W h y a re n ’t y o u re a d y y e t? d . T h a t is D a v id B o w ie.
5 . W h o ’s th a t? e . I a m ready.
6 . Is D a v id B ow ie h e re ? f. Y es, I’m re ad y .

T h e s e e x a m p le s illu s tra te th e p rin c ip le : th e e m p h a s is h a s m o v e d fro m th e

te a c h e r e x p la in in g to th e s tu d e n t e x p lo rin g . T h e la tte r is b o th m o re u seful,
a n d m o r e fu n . T h e m o re th e te a c h e r c a n c h a n g e th e e m p h a s is o f “g ra m m a r
p ra c tic e s ” in this way, th e m o re s tu d e n ts w ill e n jo y a n d b e n e fit fro m a p a r t o f
th e la n g u a g e le sso n w h ich all to o o fte n is u n p o p u la r.

13. G r a m m a r is a r e c e p tiv e s k ill to o

U s u a lly w h e n la n g u a g e te a c h e rs th in k o f ‘g ra m m a r’, th e y th in k o f d o in g
a c tiv itie s w h ic h re q u ire s tu d e n ts to p ro d u c e c o rre c t se n te n c e s . O f c o u rs e
th is is im p o rta n t, b u t it is n o t th e w h o le sto ry a n d , v e ry im p o rta n tly , i t ’s n o t
th e b e g in n in g o f th e sto ry . V e ry fe w la n g u a g e te a c h e rs n o w a d a y s th in k th a t
y o u le a rn a g ra m m a r ru le a n d a re th e n a b le to a p p ly it; th e le a rn in g p ro c e s s
is m o re c o m p lic a te d th a n th a t. T h e k e y w o rd is ‘p r o c e s s ’— y o u h e a r so m e
e x a m p le s a n d p a rtly u n d e rs ta n d , y o u h e a r a n e x p la n a tio n w h ic h m a k e s
th in g s a b it c le a re r, y o u fo rg e t a b it, p a rtly u n d e rs ta n d so m e n e w e x a m p le s
a n d so o n . M o s t g ra m m a r is n o t fo rm a lly le a rn e d , b u t u n d e rs ta n d in g b u ild s
u p o v e r a p e rio d . T h e s tu d e n t b e g in s to se e s im ila ritie s a n d d iffe re n c e s ,
w h e re in itia lly th e re w a s o n ly c o n fu s io n . T h is p ro c e s s o f u n d e rs ta n d in g is
re c e p tiv e n o t p ro d u c tiv e . W ith th is in m in d , a n d p a rtic u la rly w ith lo w e r
le v e l c la s s e s , it is im p o rta n t to g iv e s tu d e n ts a c h a n c e to d o so m e k in d o f
re c e p tiv e g ra m m a r w o rk , h e lp in g th e m to liste n o r re a d m o re c a re fu lly b u t
w ith o u t th e p re s s u re o f h a v in g to p ro d u c e c o rre c t s e n te n c e s im m e d ia te ly
a fte rw a rd s . I f y o u d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n I live in
B righton a n d I am living in B righton, it is c le a r y o u w ill n o t b e a b le to p r o ­
d u c e th a t d iffe re n c e y o u rs e lf. S o m e tim e s , th e re fo re , s tu d e n ts s h o u ld b e
Techniques — Structure

e x p o s e d to s o m e la n g u a g e — o n ta p e o r in w ritte n te x t — a n d th e n a s k e d
c a re fu l q u e s tio n s a b o u t w h a t it m e a n s . T h e p u rp o s e is to fo c u s th e ir a tte n ­
tio n o n th e fa c t th a t g ra m m a r c o n v e y s m e a n in g a n d , a s w e ll a s u n d e rs ta n d ­
in g th e w o rd s th e y a ls o n e e d to u n d e rs ta n d th e g ra m m a r.
M o s t n a tiv e s p e a k e rs w ill ‘f e e l” a n im m e d ia te d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n W hat
tim e w ill we arrive? a n d W hat tim e shall we arrive? T h e firs t s u g g e s ts th e
ra ilw a y b o o k in g o ffic e , w h ile th e s e c o n d su g g e s ts a p a rty o r o th e r so c ia l
a rra n g e m e n t. W e h o p e th is sim p le e x a m p le w ill sh o w th a t s tu d e n ts n e e d to
b e h e lp e d to d e v e lo p th is ‘f e e l’ o r in tu itio n . G ra m m a r c o n v e y s m e a n in g , b u t
to o o fte n th e te a c h e r d ir e c ts th e s tu d e n ts o n ly to th e m e a n in g o f w o rd s . H e lp
y o u r stu d e n ts to se e-th e m e a n in g o f g ra m m a r a s w e ll.

1 4. T ea ch w o r d g r a m m a r a s w e ll a s s e n te n c e g r a m m a r
T e a c h e rs a n d s tu d e n ts te n d to d iv id e la n g u a g e in to g ra m m a r a n d v o c a b u ­
la ry , b u t in s o m e w a y s th is is a n a rtific ia l d is tin c tio n . It is to o e a s y to th in k
th a t la n g u a g e c o n s is ts o f g ra m m a tic a l stru c tu re s w ith slo ts in th e m w h e re ,
o n c e y o u h a v e m a s te re d th e stru c tu re s y o u c a n slo t in th e r e le v a n t w o rd s to
sa y w h a t y o u m e a n . N o th in g c o u ld b e fu rth e r fro m th e tru th . In fa c t, th o u g h t
is p re d o m in a n tly le x ic a l, a n d w h e n w e s p e a k w e g ra m m a tic a lis e th e w o rd s .
I f w e m a k e th e a rtific ia l g ra m m a r/v o c a b u la ry d is tin c tio n , a n d th e n th in k
a b o u t m e a n in g , it is e a s y to s e e th a t w e m u s t g iv e p rim a c y to th e w o rd s .
T h is su g g e s ts a u s e fu l te a c h in g te c h n iq u e — th in k o f th e w o rd bus. W h a t
o th e r w o rd s d o y o u a s s o c ia te w ith it? B e fo re re a d in g o n , m a k e a sh o rt list
o f p e rh a p s th e firs t fiv e w o rd s th a t c o m e in to y o u r m in d .
A lm o s t c e rta in ly , y o u w ill d is c o v e r y o u h a v e liste d o th e r n o u n s —
driver, bus stop, ticket — b u t if y o u w a n t to u s e th e w o rd bus in a s e n te n c e
— in o th e r w o rd s if y o u w a n t to t a lk a b o u t a b u s — th e s e a re n o t th e w o rd s
y o u w ill n e e d . T h e w o rd s y o u w ill n e e d th e n a re th e w o rd s w h ic h fre q u e n tly
c o -o c c u r w ith b u s in th e s a m e s e n te n c e — th e ir te c h n ic a l n a m e is c o llo c a ­
tio n s. T y p ic a lly , th e y w ill b e a d je c tiv e s a n d , m o s t im p o rta n t o f a ll, v e rb s.
T h is m e a n s th a t w h e n y o u le a rn th e w o rd bus, it w o u ld b e u s e fu l to le a rn
th e v e rb s a n d a d je c tiv e s w ith w h ic h it fre q u e n tly c o llo c a te s . It w o u ld b e p a r ­
tic u la rly u se fu l if, in s te a d o f m a k in g a sim p le list o f w o rd s in a v o c a b u la ry
b o o k , y o u re c o rd e d th e w o rd s to g e th e r w h ic h fre q u e n tly o c c u r to g e th e r.
T h is is b e s t d o n e in a sim p le sh a p e lik e th e o n e g iv e n b e lo w . N o tic e y o u
c a n ’t c o m b in e a n y a d je c tiv e w ith a n y v e rb w ith th e n o u n b u t, b y te a c h in g
th e g ra m m a r o f th e w o rd a t th e s a m e tim e a s th e w o rd y o u w ill m a k e it m u c h
e a s ie r fo r th e stu d e n t to u s e th e w o rd in re a l n a tu ra l se n te n c e s. U s e a b la n k
o f th e sh a p e b e lo w to m a k e y o u r s tu d e n ts v o c a b u la ry le a rn in g m o re c lo s e ly
re la te d to th e g ra m m a r th e y n e e d , a n d c o n s e q u e n tly m u c h m o re e ffic ie n t.

cd tch c o ily [

f u r

rvuM

( * * tr

tZrfte, n w vjt& t ( 3 / 2 $ / etc

C h a p ter 8

T e c h n iq u e s — C o r r e c tio n

M a rk e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u re a d th e c h a p te r.
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a r e undecided.

1. It is b e s t to w o rk s o s tu d e n ts m a k e a s fe w m is ta k e s a s p o ss ib le .

2. It is b e s t to c o rre c t all th e m is ta k e s s tu d e n ts m a k e .

3. It is u se fu l to e n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts to c o r r e c t e a c h o th e r.

4 . M is ta k e s a re b e s t c o rre c te d a s s o o n a s th e s tu d e n t m a k e s th e m .

5. T o o m u c h c o rre c tio n is a s b a d a s to o little.

T e c h n iq u e s — C o r r e c tio n

1. M is ta k e s a r e a n a tu ra l p a rt o f th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s

O n e o f th e m a jo r th e m e s o f th is b o o k is th a t la n g u a g e is a c o m p le x p h e n o ­
m e n o n , a n d la n g u a g e le a rn in g a c o rre s p o n d in g ly c o m p le x activity. M a n y
fa c to rs c o n tr ib u te to w a rd s th e su c c e s s o r fa ilu re o f th e in d iv id u a l la n g u a g e
le a rn e r. O n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t, h o w e v er, is p ro b a b ly th e c o n fid e n c e th e
le a r n e r h a s in h is a b ility to s u c c e e d in th e ta sk . W e h a v e a lre a d y p o in te d o u t
in th e in tro d u c to ry c h a p te r th a t te a c h e rs fre q u e n tly u n d e rm in e this
c o n fid e n c e b y e m p h a s is in g th e d iffic u ltie s th e s tu d e n t fa ce s. P ro b a b ly e v e n
m o re im p o rta n t, h o w ev er, in u n d e rm in in g th e le a r n e rs ’ c o n fid e n c e , is th e
te a c h e r’s o v e r-z e a lo u s c o rre c tio n o f m ista k e s. A t th e sim p le st level
p ro n o u n c in g a w o rd in a to ta lly n e w fo re ig n la n g u a g e m a y in v o lv e p u ttin g
y o u r m o u th in to a p o s itio n it h a s n e v e r b e e n in b e fo re . In e v ita b ly it w ill
a p p e a r u n n a tu r a l a n d few s tu d e n ts w ill su c c e e d . M o s t s tu d e n ts le a rn in g a
fo re ig n la n g u a g e , e x c e p t th e v e ry y o u n g , b rin g w ith th e m th e id e a th a t th e
n e w la n g u a g e w ill b e h a v e lik e th e ir o w n m o th e r to n g u e . If th e ir o w n la n g u a g e
fo rm s q u e s tio n s b y in v e rsio n , it is e a s y to a s s u m e th a t th is w ill b e tr u e in th e
la n g u a g e th e y a re le a rn in g . ‘In te rfe re n c e ’ o f th is k in d w ill m e a n th a t s tru c tu ­
ra l m is ta k e s a re in e v ita b le .
A t le a s t w ith in E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e s, th e r e a r e b e tw e e n a n y tw o la n g u a g e s
a lm o st in e v ita b ly false frie n d s — w o rd s w h ic h lo o k o r s o u n d sim ila r in th e
tw o lan g u a g e s, b u t h a v e v e ry d if fe re n t m e a n in g s. A g a in , c o n fu s io n is
in e v itab le .
T h e fa c t th a t c o n fu s io n s w ill a ris e d o e s n o t m e a n th e y s h o u ld re m a in
u n c o rre c te d , b u t it is im p o r ta n t fo r th e te a c h e r to u n d e rs ta n d , a n d to feel
d ee p ly , th a t m is ta k e s a re in e v ita b le a n d a natural p a r t o f th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss .
It is im p o rta n t fo r th e te a c h e r to tra n s m it th is a ttitu d e to stu d e n ts . T h e
s tu d e n t w h o is a fra id o f m is ta k e s a n d re m a in s sile n t w ill le a rn c o m p a ra tiv e ly
little. T h e s tu d e n t w h o u n d e rs ta n d s th a t le a rn in g in v o lv es m a k in g m ista k e s,
is m o re likely to m a k e p ro g re ss .
T e a c h e rs c a n h e lp s tu d e n ts to u n d e r s ta n d th is b y d ra w in g p a ra lle ls —
p e rh a p s w ith c h ild re n le a rn in g th e s tu d e n ts ’ n a tiv e la n g u a g e , o r w ith a q u ite
d iffe re n t a re a o f le a rn in g su c h a s th e m e c h a n ic a l skill o f se rv in g a t ten n is. N o -
o n e le a rn in g to p la y te n n is e x p e c ts all h is first se rv e s to g o in, b u t th e fa c t th a t
h e o c c a sio n a lly o v e rh its th e b a ll d o e s n o t m e a n th a t h e gives u p th e g a m e
a n d , in d e e d , e v e n th e W im b le d o n c h a m p io n o v e rh its th e b a ll o cc asio n ally.
S o m e o f th e skills o f la n g u a g e le a rn in g a r e p h y sic a l (m o to r) skills a n d re q u ire
a sim ila r s o r t o f p ra c tic e .
 Techniques — Correction

It is e s s e n tia l th a t te a c h e rs tr a n s m it to s tu d e n ts th e id e a th a t m ista k e s a re a n
e ss e n tia l p a r t o f th e le a rn in g p ro c e s s , a n d d e fin ite ly n o t s o m e th in g to b e
fe a re d .
T h e im p lic a tio n s o f th e a b o v e re m a rk s a re p a rtic u la rly im p o r ta n t fo r
te a c h e rs w o rk in g w ith in a s ta te s c h o o l sy s te m w h ic h m a y re q u ire th e m to
‘give m a r k s ’ to th e ir s tu d e n ts . T e a c h e rs n e e d to b e v e ry c o n s c io u s o f th e fa c t
th a t giving p o o r m a rk s m a y itse lf c o n tr ib u te to th e s tu d e n ts ’ p o o r p e rfo r m ­
a n c e if th e p o o r m a r k lo w e rs th e ir c o n fid e n c e in u s in g th e la n g u a g e . A s fa r as
p o ss ib le , th e re fo re , te a c h e rs w h o a re re q u ire d to g iv e m a r k s in th is w ay
s h o u ld a c c o m p a n y th e ir s im p le ‘m a r k ’ b y c o m m e n ts w h ic h e n c o u ra g e th e
s tu d e n t a n d a v o id th e d e -m o tiv a tin g e ffe c t o f th e m a rk s.

2 . G iv e s tu d e n ts th e c h a n c e t o c o r r e c t th e m s e lv e s

M ista k e s a re o f d iffe re n t k in d s — s o m e a re o n ly slip s o f th e to n g u e ,

s o m e th in g w h ic h th e s tu d e n t k n o w s a n d w ill u su a lly g e t rig h t; s o m e a r e th e
re s u lt o f u n d e r-le a rn in g , o th e r s th e re s u lt o f o v e r-le a rn in g ; s o m e a re th e
re s u lt o f s tu d e n ts c o m p le te ly m is -u n d e rs ta n d in g e ith e r s o m e a s p e c t o f th e
la n g u a g e , o r th e in s tru c tio n s as to w h a t is re q u ire d o f th e m f o r a p a rtic u la r
p ra c tic e . In e v e ry c a s e if th e te a c h e r ju m p s in im m e d ia te ly w ith a c o rre c tio n ,
a n o p p o r tu n ity fo r re a l u n d e rs ta n d in g is lo st.
It is u su a lly suffic ie n t if th e s tu d e n t m a k e s a m is ta k e a n d th e te a c h e r
d e c id e s it is w o rth c o rre c tin g im m e d ia te ly to s to p th e s tu d e n t e ith e r b y a
fac ial e x p re s s io n o r a h a n d g e s tu re s u c h a s sh a k in g a finger. B e fo re d o in g
a n y th in g e ls e th e te a c h e r s h o u ld p a u s e a n d w ait. I f th e s tu d e n t c a n c o rre c t
h im - o r h e rs e lf n o th in g m o r e n e e d s to b e sa id . T h e m a in p rin c ip le o f c o rre c ­
tio n is th a t se lf-c o rre c tio n is b e st.

3 . In v o lv e th e c la s s

If th e s tu d e n t is n o t a b le to p ro v id e se lf-c o rre c tio n th e te a c h e r s h o u ld in v ite

o th e r s tu d e n ts in th e c la ss to c o m m e n t b e fo re p ro v id in g th e c o rre c t
la n g u a g e . T h e r e a re a n u m b e r o f im p o r ta n t re a s o n s f o r th is — it h e lp s to k e e p
all th e class in v o lv ed w h ile a n in d iv id u a l is a n sw e rin g a q u e s tio n ; b y in vo lv ing
s tu d e n ts in c o rre c tin g e a c h o th e r it m a k e s c le a r th a t la n g u a g e le a rn in g fo r
th e m is a c o r p o r a te a c tiv ity a n d , h o w e v e r c o m p e titiv e th e ir e x a m in a tio n s
m a y b e , th e ir a c tu a l la n g u a g e le s so n s d o n o t n e e d to b e c o m p e titiv e in th a t
way. F in ally , a n d significantly, it re d u c e s th e e le m e n t o f te a c h e r d o m in a tio n
w h ic h is in e v ita b le w ith o v e r-z e a lo u s te a c h e r c o rre c tio n .

4 . I s o la te th e p r o b le m

If it b e c o m e s n e c e s s a ry f o r th e te a c h e r to p ro v id e a c o rre c tio n it is e ss e n tia l

to d o so in th e m o s t h e lp fu l m a n n e r p o ss ib le . If a s tu d e n t h a s m a d e a sm a ll
m is ta k e in a w h o le s e n te n c e — th is m e a n s m ost o f w h a t th e s tu d e n t s a id w as
c o rre c t. Is o la tin g th e m is ta k e b o th h e lp s to c o rre c t, a n d a v o id s th e d e -m o ti­
v a tin g e ffe c t o f su g g estin g th a t all o f w h a t th e s tu d e n t sa id w a s u n sa tisfa c to ry .
E v e n a fte r th e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t a n d class h a v e fa ile d to p ro v id e
se lf-c o rre c tio n , it is still n o t n e c e s s a ry f o r th e te a c h e r to give th e c o rre c tio n .
T h e te a c h e r c a n r e p e a t th e in c o r re c t u tte r a n c e a n d , b y p a u sin g im m e d ia te ly
b e fo re o r a fte r th e m ista k e , h ig h lig h t it in th e h o p e th a t th is w ill b e suffic ie n t
Techniques — Correction

h e lp to e n c o u ra g e a s tu d e n t to p ro d u c e th e c o rre c t a nsw er. M o r e explicitly,

th e te a c h e r m a y n a m e th e m is ta k e p rec ise ly : P e te r a n d J ill is in th e g a rd e n —
N o t ‘is ’. . . O n ly a s a la st re s o r t d o e s th e te a c h e r give th e c o rre c t a nsw e r.
In th e c a se o f p ro n u n c ia tio n m ista k e s it m u s t b e e m p h a s is e d th a t iso la tin g
th e m is ta k e in v o lv es n o t o n ly iso la tin g th e p a rtic u la r w o rd w h ic h w a s sa id
w rongly, b u t th e p a rtic u la r s o u n d . W h ile e v e ry a tte m p t sh o u ld b e m a d e to
e n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts to c o rre c t th e m se lv e s, th e p ro c e s s is n e v e r o n e o f try in g
to tric k stu d e n ts . T h e te a c h e r’s c o n s ta n t stra te g y s h o u ld b e to d ire c t th e
stu d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n to w a rd s th e m is ta k e w hile, a t th e sa m e tim e , n o t sim p ly
ju m p in g in w ith a c o rre c tio n .

5 . T h e s tu d e n t m u s t u s e th e c o r r e c t la n g u a g e

If th e s tu d e n t c o rre c ts h im se lf h e in e v ita b ly d o e s re p e a t th e c o rre c t fo rm . If

so m e o th e r m e m b e r o f th e c la ss p ro v id e s th e c o rre c t a n sw e r, th e te a c h e r
m u s t in v ite th e s tu d e n t w h o m a d e th e m is ta k e to say th e c o m p le te c o rre c t
fo rm — c o m p le te to h e lp fix c o llo c a tio n a l fe a tu re s in th e s tu d e n t’s m e m o ry ,
a n d th e c o r r e c t re p e titio n to e n s u re th a t th e la s t th in g th e s tu d e n t h a s sa id is
th e c o rre c t v e rs io n a n d it is th is w h ic h is likely to sta y in th e s tu d e n t’s
m e m o ry .
If th e te a c h e r c o rre c ts , it is e s se n tia l th a t th e s tu d e n t re p e a ts th e full c o r ­
re c t fo rm . S o m e tim e s o n e h e a rs th e follow ing:

S I b u y e d it in L o n d o n .
T N o , n o t b u y e d , b o u g h t.
S Yes.
T . . . c a n y o u d o th e n e x t q u e s tio n p le a s e ?

S u c h a c o rre c tio n is u se le ss. T h e o n ly p e r s o n w h o h a s s a id th e c o rre c t fo rm is

th e te a c h e r. T h e r e is n o e v id e n c e th a t th e s tu d e n t e v e n u n d e rs ta n d s th e
c o rre c tio n — m o s t s tu d e n ts re a lise th a t say in g Ifesis m o r e likely to p le a s e th e
te a c h e r th a n say ing N o !
T h e tr a n s c rip tio n o f a full c o rre c tio n o f e v e n a sim p le m ista k e c a n a p p e a r
la b o rio u s b u t n o te th a t it in v o lves e v e ry o n e , a n d , d o n e fa irly quickly, is m o re
in te re stin g a n d e ffectiv e th a n a n y lo n g e x p la n a tio n fro m th e te a c h e r.

T W h e re d id h e b u y it?
S H e b u y e d it fro m L o n d o n .
T (in d ic a te s m is ta k e b y f a c ia l e x p re s sio n o r gestu re).
S H e b u y e d it fro m L o n d o n .
T C a n a n y b o d y h e lp ?
S2 In L o n d o n .
T T h a t’s rig h t — a n y th in g e lse ?
C S ilen ce.
T N o t b u y ed — an ybody?
S2 B o u g h te d .
T (sm iles) N o — n e a r l y . . . a n y b o d y ?
S3 B o u g h t.
T T h a t’s righ t. E v e r b o d y . . .b o u g h t.
C B o u g h t.
T A g a in .
C B ought
 Techniques — Correction

T S o w h e re d id h e b u y it?
SI H e b o u g h t it fro m L o n d o n .
T (sm ile s a n d s h a k e s h e a d ) N o — n o t fr o m , S 2 ?
S2 In.
T (n o d s, a n d lo o k s a t S I).
SI H e b o u g h t it in L o n d o n .
T G o o d , ev ery b o d y .
C H e b o u g h t it in L o n d o n .
T (lo o k s a t S I a g ain )
SI H e b o u g h t it in L o n d o n .
T h is p ro c e s s m a y ta k e tim e , b u t it m u s t b e e m p h a s is e d th a t th e o b je c t o f
c la s s ro o m a ctiv ity is la n g u a g e learn in g, n o t la n g u a g e te a c h in g . It is th e s tu ­
d e n ts w h o s e p e rfo rm a n c e is to b e im p ro v e d a n d th e p ro c e s s d e s c rib e d a b o v e
in v o lves th e s tu d e n ts , h e lp s th e m to in c re a s e th e ir c o n fid e n c e , a n d
e n c o u ra g e s th e m to u s e th e c o rre c t fo rm . T h e te a c h e r w h o ju m p s in a n d gives
a c o r r e c t a n s w e r ‘to k e e p th e le s so n m o v in g ’ h a s lo s t sig h t o f th e b a sic
o b je c tiv e o f w h a t te a c h e rs a re d o in g , (s e e a ls o R e -fo rm u la tio n , p a g e 9 5 )

6 . T h e r e a re m a n y k in d s o f m is ta k e s

T e a c h e rs o fte n w o rry a b o u t w h e n to c o rre c t b u t a n equally, if n o t m o re ,

im p o rta n t q u e s tio n is w h a t to c o rre c t. T ra d itio n a lly , la n g u a g e te a c h e rs h a v e
c o n c e n tr a te d o n c e rta in ty p e s o f m is ta k e — p o o r p ro n u n c ia tio n , w ro n g
c h o ic e o f v o c ab u la ry , a n d , m o s t im p o rta n tly o f all, s tru c tu ra l e rro rs . W h ile
th e s e a re im p o rta n t, th e r e a re o th e r k in d s o f m is ta k e w h ic h m ay, o n o c c a sio n ,
b e m o r e im p o rta n t.
T h e k in d s o f m is ta k e liste d a b o v e a re u s u a lly ‘o b v io u s ’, a n d , a s su c h , ra re ly
d e s tro y c o m m u n ic a tio n . W ith th e in c re a sin g e m p h a s is o n c o m m u n ic a tiv e
la n g u a g e te a c h in g , h o w ev er, c e rta in o th e r m is ta k e s w h ic h a re o fte n v e ry
im p o r ta n t to th e c o m m u n ic a tio n , n e e d to b e c o n s id e re d . H e re a re s o m e o f
th e m o s t im p o rta n t:

S tr e s s
It is fre q u e n tly m o re d iffic u lt to liste n to a n d u n d e r s ta n d s o m e o n e w h o se
stre ss p a tte rn s a re n o n -s ta n d a rd th a n s o m e b o d y w h o p ro d u c e s in d iv id u a l
s o u n d s in a n o n -s ta n d a rd way.

I n t o n a t io n
In to n a tio n is im p o rta n t in E n g lish , p a rtic u la rly to e x p re ss e m o tio n a n d a tti­
tu d e , b o th o f w h ic h a re fre q u e n tly v e ry im p o rta n t in o ra l c o m m u n ic a tio n .
T h e s tu d e n t w h o is m o r e a d v a n c e d — h a s g o o d v o c a b u la ry , s tru c tu re , a n d
p ro n u n c ia tio n — b u t w h o u se s flat, u n in te re s tin g in to n a tio n will fre q u e n tly
b e m is u n d e rs to o d — n o t in te r m s o f th e fa c tu a l c o n te n t o f th e m e ssa g e , b u t,
m o r e im p o rta n tly , in te r m s o f a ttitu d e .

R e g is t e r a n d a p p r o p r ia c y
C e rta in la n g u a g e is a p p r o p r ia te o n ly to c e rta in situ a tio n s, o r f o r u s e w ith
c e rta in p e o p le . O n c e a g a in , m o re a d v a n c e d s tu d e n ts c a n give th e w ro n g
im p re s s io n o f th e ir a ttitu d e to o th e r p e o p le o r to a to p ic b y th e c h o ic e o f
g ra m m a tic a lly c o rre c t b u t in a p p r o p r ia te la n g u a g e . S u c h s tu d e n ts w ill n e e d to
b e ‘c o rre c te d ’ in th e s e n s e th a t th e y will n e e d to b e g iven a lte r n a tiv e m o re
a p p r o p r ia te w ays o f e x p re ss in g th e m se lv e s.
94
Techniques — Correction

O m is s io n s
W ith fre e c o m m u n ic a tiv e p ra c tic e , p a ir w o rk , o r s itu a tio n s , fre q u e n tly th e
m o s t im p o rta n t ‘m ista k e s’ a r e th in g s w h ic h s tu d e n ts d o n o t say. T h e s tu d e n t
w h o se E n g lis h is o th e rw is e g o o d w h o u s e s I w a n t o n e o f th o s e to a sk fo r
s o m e th in g in a s h o p p in g s itu a tio n w ill give a n u n fo r tu n a te im p re s s io n . T h e
s tu d e n t n e e d s to b e c o rre c te d b y b e in g a s k e d to say so m e th in g d iffe re n t, a n d
a b o v e all b y b e in g re m in d e d th a t th e o m is sio n o f p le a s e is im p o rta n t.
T h e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n flu e n c y a n d a c c u ra c y n e e d s c o n sta n tly to b e
b o r n e in m in d . B u t p a rtic u la rly f o r s tu d e n ts w h o a re g o o d in te rm e d ia te o r
a d v a n c e d , th e te a c h e r n e e d s to h a v e a m u c h w id e r c o n c e p t o f m ista k e s th a n
sim p ly c o rre c tin g p ro n u n c ia tio n , v o c a b u la ry o r s tru c tu ra l e rro r.

7. C o rr e c tin g r e g is te r a n d a p p ro p ria cy n e e d s ta c t

F e w s tu d e n ts w ill b e u p s e t if th e te a c h e r c o rre c ts th e ir u s e o f v o c a b u la ry o r
s tru c tu re . T h e s a m e is n o t alw ays tr u e w h e n th e te a c h e r c o rre c ts re g iste r o r
a p p ro p ria c y . A sm ile a n d p le a s a n t m a n n e r h e lp , b u t e v e n so , s o m e s tu d e n ts
re a c t stro n g ly if th e te a c h e r says N o , y o u c a n ’t s a y th at. Y ou c o u ld s a y th a t to
s o m e b o d y y o u k n e w v e ry w e ll b u t to s o m e b o d y y o u d o n ’t k n o w v e ry w e ll it
s o u n d s r a th e r aggressive. I t s e e m s a b it ru de.
A s a d u lts few o f u s a r e u s e d to h a v in g o u r b e h a v io u r c ritic ise d . W e a re n o t
u s e d to b e in g to ld w e a re ‘r u d e ’. T h e te a c h e r a b o v e d id n o ; say th e s tu d e n t
w as ru d e , b u t th a t if th e s tu d e n t u s e d a p a rtic u la r la n g u a g e ite m in c e rta in c ir­
c u m s ta n c e s it m ig h t s e e m ru d e . A lth o u g h s tu d e n ts m a y u n d e rs ta n d th is
in tellectually , it c a n still u p s e t th e m . T h e te m p ta tio n is th e n fo r th e te a c h e r to
s to p m a k in g c o rre c tio n s o f th is k in d . I f a te a c h e r d o e s n o t c o rre c t m is ta k e s o f
th is k in d in th e c la s sro o m , s tu d e n ts w ill c o n tin u e to m a k e th e m o u ts id e th e
c la s sro o m , so m e tim e s in s itu a tio n s w h e re p e o p le w ill n o t a llo w f o r th e fa c t
th a t th e s p e a k e r is n o t a n a tiv e sp e a k e r.
It h e lp s if a te a c h e r e x p la in s to s tu d e n ts th a t su c h c o rre c tio n s a re la n g u a g e
m ista k e s a n d th e te a c h e r is n o t m a k in g a n y s o r t o f p e rs o n a l c riticism .

8 . C o r r e c t p ro m p tly fo r a c c u r a c y , a fterw a rd s fo r flu e n c y

In th e in tro d u c to ry c h a p te r w e e m p h a s is e d th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n a c c u ra c y
a n d flu e n c y p ra c tic e s. T h e f o r m e r e m p h a s is e la n g u a g e le a rn in g — th e c o n ­
sc io u s s tu d y a n d p ro d u c tio n o f ‘c o rre c t’ fo rm s; th e la tte r e m p h a s is e a m o r e
u n c o n s c io u s s p o n ta n e o u s la n g u a g e u se . T h e s e d e s c rip tio n s — c o n sc io u s
v e rsu s u n c o n s c io u s — a u to m a tic a lly su g g est th a t it w ill b e a p p r o p r ia te to
c o rre c t im m e d ia te ly d u rin g a c c u ra c y p ra c tic e s, b u t to a v o id d is tu rb in g th e
s p o n ta n e ity o f flu e n c y p ra c tic e s .
In p ra c tic e s w h ic h c o n c e n tr a te o n a c c u ra c y it is u su a lly b e s t f o r th e
te a c h e r to in d ic a te a m ista k e im m e d ia te ly — u s u a lly b y fac ial e x p re s s io n o r
g e stu re .
M o s t te a c h e rs fe el c o n fid e n t a b o u t p ic k in g u p s tru c tu ra l o r p ro n u n c ia tio n
e rro rs a n d a re fre q u e n tly to o k e e n to c o rre c t th e se . In th e c a s e o f flu e n c y
p ra c tic e s — o fte n c a lle d s itu a tio n s , c o m m u n ic a tiv e p ra c tic e s, fr e e p ra c tic e s,
e tc — te a c h e rs s h o u ld k e e p a sm a ll p a d o f p a p e r b e s id e th e m a n d m a k e a
n o te o f o n e o r tw o im p o r ta n t m ista k e s. T h e y m a y b e ‘im p o rta n t’ f o r d iffe re n t
re a s o n s :
a . T h e y a re c o m m o n to se v e ra l m e m b e rs o f th e class.
 Techniques — Correction

b. T h e y a re likely to c re a te g e n u in e m is u n d e rs ta n d in g if n o t c o rre c te d .
c . T h e y sh o w a g a p in th e s tu d e n ts ’ k n o w le d g e — i.e. th e y a re n o t p o sitiv e
m ista k e s w h ich th e s tu d e n ts m a k e , b u t th in g s w h ich it is c le a r th e y c a n n o t say
b e c a u s e th e y d o n o t h av e th e a p p r o p r ia te w o rd o r p h ra s e a n d th e lac k o f this
item se rio u s ly im p e d e s th e c o m m u n ic a tiv e e ffec tiv e n e ss o f w h a t th e y a re try ­
ing to say.
In su ch p ra c tic e s it is u su a lly w ise to p ick o n o n e o r tw o ‘im p o rta n t’
m ista k e s o f th e s e k in d s a n d to d is c u ss th e m afterthe p ra c tic e . In so m e c a se s it
m ay b e a p p ro p ria te to a s k th e s tu d e n ts to re p e a t th e p ra c tic e (in th e c a se o f
c o m m u n ic a tiv e p a ir w o rk , o r o th e r fo rm s o f s itu a tio n a l p ra c tic e ).
If te a c h e rs k e e p in m in d th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n a c tiv itie s w h ich a re
a im e d a t a c c u ra c y a n d th o s e w h ich a re a im e d a t flu e n c y a n d b o o s tin g
s tu d e n ts ' c o n fid e n c e , th e ‘p ro b le m ’ o f w h e n a n d w h a t to c o rre c t b e c o m e s
c o m m o n sen se.

9 . D o n ’t o v e r -c o r r e c t

In th e first tip o f this se c tio n it w as e m p h a s is e d th a t m ista k e s a re a n a tu ra l

p a r t o f th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss . O v e r-e m p h a s is o n c o rre c tio n b y th e te a c h e r c a n
h av e a d e -m o tiv a tin g effect. T h e im p lic a tio n is c le a r — it is th e te a c h e r’s jo b
to se le c t th o s e m ista k e s w h ich a re w o rth c o rre c tin g w ith in th e c o n te x t in
w h ich th e y a re p ro d u c e d .
O n th e w ho le, if a n a c c u ra c y p ra c tic e is a t th e rig h t level fo r th e s tu d e n ts it
will b e p o ss ib le to c o rre c t m o st, if n o t all, o f th e m ista k e s. If th e y a re m a k in g
to o m a n y m ista k e s it su g g ests th a t th e m a te ria l h a s n o t b e e n a d e q u a te ly p re ­
p a re d a n d p re s e n te d b y th e te a c h e r, a n d r a th e r th a n c o n tin u in g w ith th e
p ra c tic e , it m ay b e w ise r to b re a k o ff a n d re -p re s e n t th e m ate ria l.
In th e c a se o f flu e n c y p ra c tic e s te a c h e rs m u s t e x p e c t th a t s tu d e n ts will
m a k e a larg e n u m b e r o f e rro r s o f all ty p e s. It w o u ld b e d is a s tr o u s to m a k e a
list o f all o f th e s e a n d th e n g o th ro u g h th e m sy ste m a tic a lly a fte r th e p ra c tic e .
In th e p re v io u s se c tio n w e d is c u s s e d s o m e c rite ria fo r ‘im p o rta n t’ m ista k e s.
U sin g th o s e — a n d p e rh a p s o th e r c rite ria w h ich a re im p o rta n t in y o u r
p a rtic u la r situ a tio n — tw o o r th re e m is ta k e s s h o u ld b e s e le c te d a n d th e
s tu d e n t’s a tte n tio n c o n c e n tr a te d u p o n th o s e . In th is w ay s tu d e n ts re a lise th a t
th e y a re m o n ito re d b y th e te a c h e r d u rin g fre e p ra c tic e ; th e y se e th a t fre e
p ra c tic e in w h ich th e y m a k e m is ta k e s d o e s h e lp th e te a c h e r to h e lp th e m ; b u t
a d e p re s s in g b a rra g e o f sm all c o rre c tio n s is a v o id e d .

1 0 . R e -fo r m u la tio n is o fte n b e tte r th a n c o r r e c tio n

In th is te c h n iq u e , th e te a c h e r re s p o n d s n a tu ra lly to w h a t is s a id , a n d in p a s s ­
in g p ro v id e s th e c o rre c t la n g u a g e b u t, in d ire c t c o n tra s t to th e e a rlie r s u g ­
g e s tio n (5 a b o v e ), d e lib e ra te ly a v o id s g e ttin g th e s tu d e n t to re p e a t in a n
a rtific ia l, la n g u a g e -le a rn in g w a y .
H e re is a n e x a m p le :

S M y m u m m y b u y e d it f o r m e.
T O h , th a t ’s n ic e , y o u r M u m m y b o u g h t it f o r y o u , d id she.
S Y es.
T W h e re d id sh e b u y it?
S She buyed it in to w n .
T O h sh e b o u g h t it in to w n f o r y o u . W e ll i t ’s v e ry n ice .
Techniques — Correction

R e a d e rs m a y b e c o n fu s e d in th a t th e re -fo rm u la tio n te c h n iq u e s e e m s a lm o st
to b e th e o p p o s ite o f th a t d is c u s s e d e a rlie r, a n d th is is in d e e d th e c a se . A s
tim e g o e s b y , m o re a n d m o re p e o p le b e lie v e th a t y o u a re a c q u ir e g ra m m a r
— b u ild u p a n u n c o n s c io u s a n d d e v e lo p in g u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h o w to u se it
— la rg e ly o n th e b a s is o f y o u r la n g u a g e in p u t — w h a t y o u h e a r a n d re a d .
Y o u ta k e in m o re o f th e in p u t i f y o u a re re la x e d . I f y o u b e lie v e th is (a s w e
d o ) y o u w ill a lm o s t a lw a y s p re fe r re -fo rm u la tio n to fo rm a l c o rre c tio n .
In e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e rs n e e d to p ra c tis e re -fo rm u la tio n . T h e c lo s e r y o u r
re s p o n s e is to a n a tu ra l h u m a n re s p o n s e , w h ile still b e in g a t th e s tu d e n t’s
lin g u is tic le v e l, th e m o re e ffe c tiv e it is lik e ly to b e.

11. U s e a c o d e to c o r r e c t w r itte n w o r k

C o rre c tio n is m o re lik e ly to b e e ffe c tiv e , a n d le ss in tim id a tin g i f y o u d e v is e

a s im p le c o d e w h ic h y o u c a n w rite in th e m a rg in f o r d ra w in g th e s tu d e n t’s
a tte n tio n to su rfa c e e rro rs — s p fo r a sp e llin g m is ta k e ; g r f o r a g ra m m a r
m is ta k e e tc . O b v io u s ly , y o u w ill o fte n n o t w a n t to m a rk e v e ry m is ta k e , b u t
to sim p ly u se y o u r c o d e to h ig h lig h t im p o rta n t m is ta k e s . W h e n s tu d e n ts g e t
th e ir w o rk b a c k th e y s h o u ld th e n b e a s k e d to se e if th e y c a n id e n tify th e m is ­
ta k e s th e m s e lv e s , w ith th e h e lp o f y o u r c o d e .
O n e o f th e w a y s th a t y o u c a n h e lp s tu d e n ts im p ro v e th e ir w ritte n w o rk
m o s t e ffe c tiv e ly , is to ta k e a sh o rt p a rt o f w h a t th e y h a v e w ritte n , a n d re ­
w rite it y o u rs e lf, a s y o u w o u ld h a v e w r it t e n i t , w ith o u t re g a rd to w h a t th e y
h a v e a c tu a lly w ritte n lin g u is tic a lly , ta k in g o n ly th e c o n te n t o f w h a t th e y
sa y . J u s t g o in g b a c k o v e r th e ir m is ta k e s is lik e ly to b e le s s e ffe c tiv e th a n
lo o k in g a t a s im p le sh o rt p ie c e o f la n g u a g e w e ll c o n s tru c te d w h ic h th e y c a n
c o m p a re w ith th e ir o w n .

1 2 . U s e c la s s d is c u s sio n a s a m e th o d o f c o r r e c tin g w r itte n w o r k

A s a n a lte rn a tiv e to m a rk in g m is ta k e s in e x e rc is e s o r e s s a y s , te a c h e rs m a y
p re fe r th is te c h n iq u e . T h e te a c h e r ty p e s o u t sa y a d o z e n se n te n c e s, six o f
w h ic h a re c o rre c t a n d c o n ta in la n g u a g e w h ic h is ta k e n fro m th e e x e rc is e o r
e s s a y s , a n d six o f w h ic h c o n ta in ‘ty p ic a l’ m ista k e s, m a d e b y a n u m b e r o f
s tu d e n ts in th e ir w o rk . T h e c o rre c t a n d in c o rre c t s e n te n c e s s h o u ld b e m ix e d
to g e th e r. T h e s h e e ts a re c o p ie d , a n d th e n g iv e n to sm a ll g ro u p s o f stu d e n ts
— p a irs o r g ro u p s o f 3 /4 stu d e n ts . T h e s tu d e n ts ’ ta s k is to id e n tify th e c o r ­
re c t s e n te n c e s , a n d to c o rre c t th e m is ta k e s in o n e s w h ic h c o n ta in m is ta k e s.
It w ill b e q u ic k ly a p p re c ia te d th a t th is a c tiv ity is m o re in v o lv in g , a n d
m o re d e m a n d in g , th a n sim p ly lo o k in g th ro u g h y o u r o w n w o rk c o v e re d in
re d in k .
A s w ith so m a n y o f th e te c h n iq u e s in th is c h a p te r, th e p u rp o s e is to c o n ­
trib u te to th e s tu d e n ts ’ lo n g -te rm la n g u a g e le a rn in g , ra th e r th a n to c o n c e n ­
tra te o n ‘q u ic k f i x ’ c o rre c tin g . L a n g u a g e le a rn in g is m o re im p o rta n t th a n
la n g u a g e te a c h in g — m o re im p o rta n t th a n e ith e r is th e la n g u a g e le a rn e r —
a ll te c h n iq u e s o f c o rre c tio n s h o u ld b e u s e d w ith th a t th o u g h t c o n s ta n tly in
m in d .
C h a p ter 9

T e c h n iq u e s — V o ca b u la ry

M a r k e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u re a d th e c h a p te r.
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
♦ / i f y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. S tu d e n ts n e e d to k n o w th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n a c tiv e a n d p a ssiv e v oc ab u la ry .

2. W o rd s a re b e s t ta u g h t in g ro u p s o f sim ila r m e a n in g .

3. T h e b e s t w ay to e x p la in is to tra n s la te .

4 . E n g lis h -E n g lis h e x p la n a tio n s a re b e st.

5. A n E n g lis h -E n g lis h d ic tio n a ry is a n im p o rta n t a id f o r stu d e n ts .

98

T e c h n iq u e s — “V o ca b u la ry ”

1. A “v o c a b u la r y ” ite m c a n b e m o r e th a n o n e w ord

M o s t te a c h e rs a re fa m ilia r w ith th e fa c t th a t th e ir s tu d e n ts b e lie v e , o r a t le a s t

se e m to b elie v e , th a t d ire c t w o rd -fo r-w o rd tra n s la tio n s a re p o s sib le . T h e r e is
a te m p ta tio n to th in k th a t a fo re ig n la n g u a g e is n o th in g m o r e th a n u sin g n e w
w o rd s f o r o ld th in g s. In fac t, o f c o u rs e , it is m u c h m o r e c o m p lic a te d th a n th a t.
In re lativ ely fo rm a l c irc u m sta n c e s tw o s p e a k e rs o f (B ritish ) E n g lish m e e t­
ing f o r th e first tim e w ill b o th say H ow do you do. H ow do you do is a
c o m p le te p h ra s e w ith a sing le m e a n in g — lin g u ists w o u ld c all it a lex ical ite m
(i.e. a p h ra s e th e m e a n in g o f w h ic h m a y b e lo o k e d u p in th e le xic on ). T h e
m e a n in g o f th is g ro u p o f w o rd s c a n n o t b e d e d u c e d fro m th e m e a n in g o f th e
in d iv id u a l w o rd s u s e d in th e p h r a s e — how, f o r e x a m p le , a t firs t su g g e sts th a t
th e p h ra s e w ill b e a q u e s tio n (th e p h ra s e is s o m e tim e s p rin te d in te x tb o o k s
w ith a q u e s tio n m a rk a t th e e n d o f it!) b u t s in c e b o th s p e a k e rs u s e th e sam e
p h ra s e , it is q u ite c le a r th a t n e ith e r is a q u e s tio n , e a c h is a g re etin g . S u c h
g ro u p s o f w o rd s a re c o m m o n a n d , r a th e r th a n k e e p in g a list o f “w o rd s ” in a
“v o c a b u la ry b o o k ”, s tu d e n ts n e e d to b e e n c o u ra g e d to k e e p lists o f w o rd s
a n d phrases (i.e. lex ical ite m s ) w ith, in s o m e c a se s, d ire c t e q u iv a le n ts in th e ir
o w n la n g u a g e b u t in o th e r c a se s sim p ly a d e s c rip tio n o f h o w th e p h ra s e is
u s e d — in th e c a se a b o v e a d e fin itio n s u c h a s “a g re e tin g u s e d b y b o th s p e a k ­
e rs w h e n m e e tin g f o r th e firs t tim e in fairly fo rm a l c irc u m sta n c e s” .
S u c h p h ra s e s a re o f g re a t im p o rta n c e in b o th th e w ritte n a n d s p o k e n
la n g u a g e a n d s tu d e n ts s h o u ld b e e n c o u ra g e d to se e th e m a s w h o le ite m s.
F u r th e r e x a m p le s a re p h ra s e s s u c h as:

I’m a fra id n o t C h e e r up!

I’d r a th e r y o u d id n ’t, if y o u d o n ’t m in d p u t u p w ith
If y o u like lo o k o u t f o r (s o m e o n e )

S o m e p h ra s e s lie o n th e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n p h ra s e s w h ic h m a y b e s e e n as
p a r t o f th e s tru c tu re o f th e la n g u a g e , a n d p h ra s e s w h ic h c a n b e le a rn e d as
sin g le u n its. A n e x a m p le o f s u c h a p h ra s e w o u ld b e : as soon as possible.
In m a n y c a se s s tu d e n ts c a n b e h e lp e d to a c h ie v e g re a te r flu e n c y b y le a rn ­
in g c e rta in p h ra s e s a s c o m p le te ite m s a t a re la tiv ely e a rly sta g e in th e ir
le a rn in g p ro g ra m m e , w h ile p e rh a p s o n ly se e in g o r u n d e rs ta n d in g th e ir
s tru c tu re a t a la te r stage.
T h e im p o rta n t th in g is to d e v e lo p in th e s tu d e n ts a n u n d e rs ta n d in g th a t
la n g u a g e s d o n o t c o n s is t o f “w o rd s ” w ith e q u iv a le n ts fro m o n e la n g u a g e to
th e o th e r.
 Techniques — Vocabulary

2 . D o n o t d is c u s s t h e s tr u c tu r e o f le x ic a l ite m s

S o m e y e a rs a g o te a c h in g w as a lm o s t e n tire ly b a s e d o n s tru c tu ra l p ro g re s ­
sio n . S tu d e n ts le a rn e d D o y o u m i n t ... ? re lativ e ly e a rly in th e ir c o u rs e ,
b e c a u s e it w a s a n e x a m p le o f a q u e s tio n m a d e in th e p r e s e n t sim p le , w h ich
c o m e s e a rly in m o s t s tru c tu ra l c o u rs e s . It w as o n ly rela tiv e ly la te in th e ir
c o u rs e th a t th e y le a rn e d W o u ld y o u l i k e ... ? b e c a u s e th is w a s “a c o n d itio n a l”
w h ich , in tu r n , c a m e re la tiv e ly la te in s tru c tu ra lly o rie n ta te d c o u rs e s .
O n e o f th e p o s itiv e re s u lts o f th e n o tio n a l/fu n c tio n a l a p p ro a c h to
la n g u a g e te a c h in g h a s b e e n to p o in t o u t th a t s tu d e n ts fre q u e n tly n e e d c e rta in
la n g u a g e ite m s f o r p ra c tic a l c o m m u n ic a tio n re lativ ely e a rly in th e ir c o u rs e
e v e n if th e s e ite m s m a y s e e m s tru c tu ra lly q u ite c o m p le x . It is n o w q u ite
c o m m o n f o r p h ra s e s s u c h a s w o u ld y o u lik e to a p p e a r in B o o k 1 u n d e r a
fu n c tio n a l h e a d in g . T h e r e is n o d iffic u lty a b o u t th is p ro v id in g te a c h e rs
e x p la in th e p h r a s e b y e x p la in in g it s fu n c tio n — “W e u s e th is w h e n w e w a n t to
o ffe r s o m e b o d y s o m e th in g — w o u ld y o u lik e a c u p o f tea? o r w h e n w e w a n t
to in v ite th e m to d o s o m e th in g — w o u ld y o u lik e to g o to th e c in e m a th is
e v e n in g ?” S u c h a n e x p la n a tio n is su ffic ie n t, a n d te a c h e rs m u s t re sist th e
te m p ta tio n to d ra w a tte n tio n to th e stru c tu r a l fe a tu re s o f th e p h ra s e w h ic h is
b e in g ta u g h t a s a le x ic a l ite m a t th a t sta g e o f th e c o u rs e .
In th e c a s e o f H o w d o y o u d o it c a n o n ly c o n fu s e s tu d e n ts to p o in t o u t th a t
it a p p e a r s to h a v e th e s tru c tu r e o f a q u e s tio n — a ll th e s tu d e n t n e e d s to k n o w
is th e m e a n in g (i.e. th e u s e ) o f th e lex ical ite m . In a sim ila r w ay it is n o t n e c e s ­
sa ry w h e n in tro d u c in g W o u ld y o u lik e in B o o k 1, to m a k e a r e m a r k s u c h a s
Y o u ’l l lea rn a b o u t th e stru c tu re o f th is later. A s f a r a s th e s tu d e n ts a re
c o n c e rn e d , th e y k n o w w h a t th e y n e e d to k n o w if th e y k n o w h o w to u s e th e
p a rtic u la r p h ra s e . T e a c h e rs w h o th e m se lv e s le a rn e d fo re ig n la n g u a g e s in a
v e ry stro n g ly s tru c tu ra lis t tr a d itio n m u s t a v o id c o n fu s in g th e ir s tu d e n ts b y
u sin g s tru c tu ra lis t e x p la n a tio n s f o r fu n c tio n a l m a te ria ls .

3 . T h e r e is a d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n a c tiv e a n d p a s s iv e v o c a b u la r y

W e ll-e d u c a te d n a tiv e s p e a k e rs “k n o w ” m a n y th o u s a n d s o f w o rd s in th e se n se
th a t w h e n th e y h e a r o r re a d th e m th e y c a u s e n o d ifficu lty in u n d e rs ta n d in g .
A t th e s a m e tim e th e s a m e p e o p le p ro b a b ly u s e o n ly a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 w o rd s in
n o rm a l d a ily c o n v e rs a tio n . S o m e w h a t su rp risin g ly , n a tiv e s p e a k e r c o m m a n d
o f a s sm a ll a v o c a b u la ry a s 2 ,0 0 0 w o rd s m e a n s th a t y o u c a n fu n c tio n q u ite
h a p p ily w ith in a n E n g lis h sp e a k in g c o m m u n ity — p ro v id in g th e c o m m a n d is
c o m p re h e n s iv e , a n d th e 2 ,0 0 0 ite m s a re th e rig h t 2 ,0 0 0 !
“L e a rn in g ” m o re a n d m o r e v o c a b u la ry ite m s d o e s n o t n e c e ss a rily
in c re a s e a p e rs o n ’s fluency. B y d e fin itio n , th e e x tra ite m s a re le ss a n d less
u se fu l. D e s p ite th is o b v io u s fac t, te a c h e rs , a n d e v e n m o r e so s tu d e n ts , feel
th a t in c re a s in g th e ir v o c a b u la ry w ill in c re a s e th e ir flu e n c y — e ith e r in s p e e c h
o r in w ritin g . T h is is v e ry f a r fro m th e tr u th .
“K n o w in g ” a v o c a b u la ry ite m is n o t a s im p le p ro c e s s — it m e a n s m u c h
m o r e th a n sim p ly m e m o ris in g th e w o rd . F ro m a re c e p tiv e (p a ssiv e ) p o in t o f
view , it m e a n s re c o g n is in g its m e a n in g w h e n it o c c u rs in c o n te x t — a re la ­
tively s im p le p ro c e s s . F o r s tu d e n ts to a d d th e w o rd to th e ir a c tiv e
v o c a b u la rie s th e y n e e d to k n o w th e c o n te x ts in w h ic h it c a n o c c u r, th e
p o ss ib le a n d im p o s s ib le c o llo c a tio n s o f th e w o rd (w o rd s it c a n , o r c a n n o t,
c o -o c c u r w ith ) a s w ell a s m o r e d e ta ils o f th e c o n n o ta tio n a l m e a n in g o f th e
w o rd .
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Techniques — Vocabulary

In a v ery sim p le se n s e little a n d s m a ll“m e a n th e s a m e th in g ” — m o s t s tu d e n ts

o f E n g lish h av e n o difficu lty u n d e rs ta n d in g th e s e n te n c e W h ich w o u ld y o u
lik e — th e b ig o n e o r th e sm a ll/little o n e ? E v e n su c h “sim p le ” w o rd s, h o w ev er,
p re s e n t d ifficu lties fo r ac tiv e u se — it is p o ss ib le to say W h a t a p r e tty little
d ress , b u t n o t * W h a t a p r e tty s m a ll dress.
In th e sp o k e n la n g u a g e th e r e is a s p e c tru m fro m “s ta n d a rd ” E n g lish ,
th ro u g h c o llo q u ia l a n d id io m a tic u se d o w n to slang. S tu d e n ts w h o a re g o in g
to u se th e ir la n g u a g e w ith n a tiv e sp e a k e rs m a y w ell n e e d to u n d e r s ta n d c e r ­
ta in id io m a tic a n d c o llo q u ia l lan g u ag e, p o s sib ly e v e n a c e rta in a m o u n t o f
slang, b u t a s a g e n e ra l ru le th e y will s o u n d e x tre m e ly o d d if th e y in c o rp o ra te
sla n g in to th e ir o w n a c tiv e v o c a b u la rie s.
T h e m e ssa g e fo r th e te a c h e r is th a t in d e a lin g w ith “n e w w o rd s ”, it is
h e lp fu l to g u id e s tu d e n ts to w a rd s th o s e w o rd s w h ic h it w ill h e lp th e m to a d d
to th e ir ac tiv e v o c a b u la rie s , a n d to d is tin g u ish th o s e fo r s tu d e n ts fro m th e
m u c h la rg e r n u m b e r o f p a ssiv e item s. A t th e b e g in n in g o f m o s t c o n v e n tio n a l
la n g u a g e c o u rs e s, a ll th e w o rd s w h ic h a re ta u g h t a re in te n d e d to b e a c q u ire d
fo r a ctiv e u se; later, a t in te rm e d ia te a n d a d v a n c e d levels, m o s t o f th e w o rd s
s tu d e n ts m e e t will o n ly b e n e e d e d fo r p a ssiv e u se . T h is c h a n g e in th e n a tu re
o f th e v o c a b u la ry th e y a re le a rn in g is ra re ly m a d e c le a r to s tu d e n ts .
In m o re m o d e m c o u rs e s , p a rtic u la rly th o s e w h ic h e m p h a s is e listen in g
skills b a s e d o n a u th e n tic m a te ria l e v e n e a rly in c o u rs e s , a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n
a c tiv e a n d p a ssiv e la n g u a g e m u s t b e m a d e a t a m u c h e a rlie r stage. It is a n
im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e liste n in g p ro c e s s th a t s tu d e n ts le a rn to u n d e rs ta n d
ite m s w h ic h th e y d o n o t n e e d to a d d to th e ir ac tiv e v o c a b u la rie s.

4 . E x p la in d iffe r e n c e o f m e a n in g , n o t m e a n in g

U n d e rs ta n d in g o r e x p la in in g “w h a t s o m e th in g m e a n s ” is m o re c o m p lic a te d
th a n te a c h e rs o r s tu d e n ts so m e tim e s rec o g n ise . T h e r e is a te m p ta tio n , fo r
e x a m p le , fo r te a c h e rs to “e x p la in ” a w o rd b y a d ire c t tra n s la tio n . It is e x c e p ­
tio n a lly ra re fo r a w o rd in o n e lan g u a g e to h av e a d ir e c t e q u iv a le n t in a n o th e r.
M u c h tra n s la tio n -b a s e d te a c h in g ig n o re s th is, a n d e n c o u ra g e s th e id e a o f
sim p le e q u iva len ts.
L a n g u a g e is a sy ste m a n d e a c h w o rd h a s its m e a n in g d e fin e d in re la tio n to
o th e r w o rd s. T h is in sig h t le a d s to a n e a sie r, m o re e ffectiv e a n d th e o re tic a lly
s o u n d e r w ay o f e x p lain ing . It is alw ays m o re h e lp fu l to e x p la in d ifferen ce o f
m e a n in g ra th e r th a n m e a n in g itself. If th e re a d e r is in a n y d o u b t th e n try to
e x p la in th e m e a n in g o f b u sh . It is e a sy if d o n e v isually a n d c o n tr a s tiv e ly :

T h is is o f p ra c tic a l im p o rta n c e n o t o n ly in d e a lin g w ith v o c ab u lary , b u t a lso

in d is c u ssin g th e m a jo r s tru c tu ra l fe a tu re s o f th e lan g u ag e. T h e te x tb o o k m ay
 Techniques — Vocabulary

p r e s e n t th e p re s e n t s im p le in u n it 6 a n d th e p re s e n t c o n tin u o u s in u n it 7, b u t
th e s tu d e n t h a s in n o s e n s e m a s te re d e ith e r u n til h e a ls o u n d e r s ta n d s th e d if­
fe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e m .
T h e p rin c ip le is th a t c o n tra s tiv e e x p la n a tio n is e a sie r, m o r e e fficien t, a n d
m o s t im p o rta n tly o f all, re fle c ts th e re a l n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e .

5 . W o rd s a re o fte n b e s t ta u g h t in g r o u p s

A n in d iv id u a l w o rd in a la n g u a g e fre q u e n tly a c q u ire s a m e a n in g b e c a u s e o f

th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n it a n d o th e r w o rd s . A w a re n e s s o f c e rta in k in d s o f
re la tio n s h ip m a k e s e x p la in in g v o c a b u la ry e a s ie r f o r th e te a c h e r, a n d le a rn in g
it s im p le r f o r th e s tu d e n t. H e r e a re s o m e im p o rta n t re la tio n sh ip s:

a . S y n o n y m s . T h e s e a re b y n o m e a n s as fre q u e n t a s p e o p le th in k . T h o u g h
w o rd s m a y h a v e sim ila r d e n o ta tiv e m e a n in g (th e y r e p re s e n t th e s a m e c o n ­
c e p t) th e ir c o n n o ta tio n a l m e a n in g s o fte n differ. S o m e tim e s , h o w e v er, it is
p o s s ib le f o r th e te a c h e r sim p ly to say ‘E n o r m o u s ’ m e a n s th e s a m e a s ‘v e ry
la r g e ’.

b . A n t o n y m s . T h e s e a re o fte n th o u g h t o f a s “o p p o s ite s ” s u c h a s h o t/c o ld . I t is

im p o r ta n t f o r te a c h e rs to re m e m b e r th a t n o t h o t, d o e s n o t alw ay s m e a n c o ld ;
so m e tim e s it is a q u e s tio n o f d e g re e . In th e s e c a se s s tu d e n ts u su a lly s ta r t b y
le a rn in g th e e x tre m e s a n d la te r le a rn in te rm e d ia te w o rd s:
h o t — w a r m — c o o l — c o ld .

c . C o m p le m e n t s . H e r e tw o w o rd s e x ist a n d o n e a u to m a tic a lly e x c lu d e s th e

o th e r — sin g le/m a rried . In th is c a s e it is p o s s ib le to e x p la in b y say in g ‘S in g le ’
m e a n s ‘n o t m a r r ie d ’.
T h is id e a m a y b e e x te n d e d to g ro u p s o f in c o m p a tib le w o rd s — e a c h is
d e fin e d b y b e in g “n o t th e o th e r s ” : m o r n in g — a fte rn o o n — e v e n in g — nigh t.
O b v io u s ly it is b e s t to te a c h su c h w o rd s in g ro u p s , a s th e m e a n in g o f o n e
d e p e n d s d ire c tly o n th e m e a n in g o f th e o th e rs .

d . C o n v e r s e s . E a c h o f a p a ir o f w o rd s im p lie s th e o th e r: p a re n t/c h ild ,

e m p lo y e r /e m p lo y e e . A g a in , su c h w o rd s a re b e s t e x p la in e d to g e th e r.

e . H y p o n y m s . C ar, van , b u s, lo r ry a re h y p o n y m s o f veh icle. O fte n , su c h

w o rd s a re d iffic u lt to h a n d le w ith o u t tra n s la tin g . It is n o t m u c h h e lp to b e to ld
a c a r n a tio n is a k in d o f flo w e r. If y o u w a n t to k n o w th e m e a n in g o f th e w o rd
y o u w a n t to k n o w w h a t k in d o f flow er. In s u c h c a se s tr a n s la tio n is o fte n
n e c e ssa ry .

T h e s e th e o re tic a l id e a s m a y o fte n b e u se fu lly e x te n d e d b y th e id e a o f a n A r e a

o f V ocabu lary. If, f o r e x a m p le , s tu d e n ts a re to d o s o m e w o rk o n tra ffic it
m a k e s se n s e to p re -te a c h th e v o c a b u la ry a n d lexis a s s o c ia te d w ith th e to p ic .
B e c a u s e m a n y w o rd s a re d e fin e d b y th e ir re la tio n s h ip to o th e r w o rd s, it is
e a s ie r to te a c h v o c a b u la ry in ‘a re a s ’ th a n th ro u g h lists o f is o la te d item s.

6 . V ary th e w a y y o u e x p la in

It is p ro b a b ly tr u e th a t th e m o s t d iffic u lt a n d m o s t in e ffe c tiv e m e a n s o f

e x p la in in g v o c a b u la ry a re th e m o s t w id e ly u s e d — th e s e a re tr a n s la tio n , g iv­
in g a sy n o n y m , a n d p ro v id in g a v e rb a l e x p la n a tio n . T h e r e a re o c c a s io n s
Techniques — Vocabulary

w h e n e a c h is a p p ro p ria te , b u t m o re o c c a s io n s w h e n th e r e a re m o re
in te re s tin g , m o re effectiv e, a n d m o r e m e m o ra b le w ays o f e x p la in in g n e w
v o c a b u la ry , a n d h e lp in g to fix it in s tu d e n ts ’ m in d s.

a . D e m o n s tr a te
T h e r e is so m e th in g rid ic u lo u s a b o u t p ro v id in g a tra n s la tio n o r e x p la n a tio n
o f w o rd s s u c h a s stagger, c h u ck le. I f th e te a c h e r d o e s give a v e rb a l e x p la n a ­
tio n , it s h o u ld a t le a s t b e a c c o m p a n ie d b y a p h y sic a l d e m o n s tra tio n . T h e
d e m o n s tra tio n b o th h e lp s to m a k e th e m e a n in g c le a re r, a n d h e lp s to fix th e
w o rd in th e s tu d e n ts ’ m in d s.
I t is n o t u n u s u a l f o r s tu d e n ts to b e a b le to tell y o u w h e re th e y le a rn e d a
n e w w o rd , w h a t th e w e a th e r w a s lik e o n th e day, e tc. T h e m o r e th e s tu d e n t
c a n b e in v o lv e d as a p e r s o n in w h a t is g o in g o n in th e la n g u a g e c la s sro o m , th e
m o r e likely th e n e w la n g u a g e is to b e re ta in e d e ffectiv ely in th e m e m o ry . If
e v e ry w o rd is “e x p la in e d ” in th e s a m e w ay — e ith e r b y tra n s la tio n o r v e rb a l
e x p la n a tio n — th e y m e rg e in to a se a o f la n g u a g e in w h ic h it is d ifficu lt to
d is tin g u ish in d iv id u a l ite m s. D e m o n s tra tio n h igh lig h ts a p a rtic u la r w o rd a n d
h e lp s a s s o c ia te it in th e s tu d e n ts ’ m in d s w ith b o th v isu al a n d a u ra l m e m o rie s.

b . U s e t h e r e a l th in g
T e a c h e rs b e c o m e so p re -o c c u p ie d w ith te a c h in g th a t so m e tim e s th e y
e x p la in , o r e v e n d ra w o n th e b la c k b o a rd th in g s w h ic h a re im m e d ia te ly av a il­
a b le in th e ro o m . S o m e tim e s th e e x p la n a tio n is n o m o r e c o m p lic a te d th a n
p o in tin g !

c . D ra w o r s k e tc h
T e a c h e rs d o n o t n e e d to b e a rtis ts to m a k e sim p le sk e tc h e s w h ic h illu s tra te
m e a n in g — p a rtic u la rly if th e y b e a r in m in d th e a d v ic e g iven a b o v e a b o u t
te a c h in g c o n tr a s t r a th e r th a n m e a n in g itself. T h e m e a n in g o f b u sh w as
e x p la in e d b y tw o v e ry sim p le sk e tc h e s.

d . U s e t h e b la c k b o a r d t o s h o w s c a l e s o r g r a d e s
W o rd s lik e c o o l, o ra n g e (c o lo u r), o r p r o b a b ly m a y b e e x p la in e d b y p re s e n t­
in g th e m w ith g ro u p s o f re la te d w o rd s:

hot red c e rta in ly / d e fin ite ly

w a rm o ra n g e p r o b a b ly / p o s s ib ly
cool y e llo w
c o ld

e . A n to n y m s
T e a c h e rs, p a rtic u la rly n a tiv e te a c h e rs , tr a in e d w ith in th e B ritis h “O -le v e l
E n g lish ” tra d itio n in stin ctiv ely lo o k f o r a sy n o n y m w h e n try in g to e x p la in a
w o rd . T h e r e a re tw o p ro b le m s — firstly th e r e a re v e ry fe w e x a c t sy n o n y m s
w ith in th e la n g u a g e a n d , a s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , it is e a sy to give th e w ro n g
im p re s s io n by, f o r e x a m p le , e q u a tin g little a n d s m a l l S e c o n d ly , in m o s t c ase s
it is e x tre m e ly d ifficu lt to fin d a sy n o n y m w h ic h is sim p le e n o u g h to h e lp th e
s tu d e n t — th e re is little p o in t in sim p ly p ro v id in g a n o th e r n e w w o rd to
e x p la in th e o n e th e s tu d e n t d o e s n o t u n d e rs ta n d !
I t is u su a lly m u c h e a s ie r to o ffe r e x p la n a tio n s o f th e k in d R u d e m e a n s n o t
p o lite .
 Techniques — Vocabulary

It is w o rth m e n tio n in g th a t th e e x p la n a tio n s g iv en h e r e a r e n o t e x a c t d e fin i­

tio n s o f th e w o rd — th e le ve l o f th e e x p la n a tio n m u s t b e su ita b le to th e
s tu d e n ts ’ level o f E n g lis h a t th e tim e s o th a t d ic tio n a ry -lik e a c c u ra c y c a n
o fte n b e c o u n te r-p ro d u c tiv e .

f. S y n o n y m s
S o m e tim e s it is h e lp fu l p a rtic u la rly w ith a rela tiv e ly u n im p o r ta n t w o rd o f
p a ss iv e v o c a b u la ry to p ro v id e a q u ic k s y n o n y m e x p la n a tio n . It is still h e lp fu l
if te a c h e rs re m e m b e r to say I t is sim ilar in m eaning to . . . , r a t h e r th a n It
m eans the sam e a s . . . , T h e f o r m e r p h r a s e h e lp s to b u ild u p in th e s tu d e n t’s
m in d th e id e a th a t la n g u a g e c o n sists o f c h o ic e , th a t w o rd s d o n o t m e a n th e
s a m e a s e a c h o th e r; th e s e c o n d u n d e rm in e s th is im p o r ta n t a ttitu d e .

g . T h e d ic t io n a r y
T o o o fte n te a c h e rs fo rg e t th a t it is th e s tu d e n ts w h o a r e le a rn in g a n d , in
g e n e ra l, th e m o r e th e s tu d e n ts a re in v o lv e d in th e p ro c e s s th e m o r e su c c e s s ­
fu l th a t is lik ely to b e . T e x ts s h o u ld n o t c o n ta in v e ry la rg e n u m b e r s o f n e w
w o rd s (s e e p a g e 1 0 6 ) s o th e r e s h o u ld n o t b e a g re a t n u m b e r o f n e w w o rd s a t
a n y o n e tim e . O n e te c h n iq u e f o r e x p la in in g th e s e w h ic h te a c h e rs to o
fre q u e n tly o v e rlo o k is a s k in g th e c la ss w h e th e r a n y b o d y k n o w s th e w o rd —
in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts d o le a rn th in g s o u ts id e th e c la s s ro o m — a n d , if n o t,
a sk in g o n e o r m o r e s tu d e n ts to lo o k th e w o rd u p in a d ic tio n a ry (a t lo w e r
levels a b i-lin g u a l d ic tio n a ry ; a t h ig h e r lev els a m o n o -lin g u a l d ic tio n a ry ). In
th is w a y th e p ro c e s s o f “le a rn in g a n e w w o rd ” a ls o p ro v id e s p ra c tic e in
im p o r ta n t le a rn in g skills — d ic tio n a ry u sin g — a n d , f o r th o s e u sin g a g o o d
m o n o -lin g u a l d ic tio n a ry — e n s u re s th a t th e y d o h a v e o th e r e x a m p le s f o r
w o rd s u s e d in c o n te x t, a n o te o n its stre ss , etc.

h . V e r b a l e x p la n a t io n s
S o m e la n g u a g e ite m s a re b e s t e x p la in e d b y b e in g u s e d in a variety o f c o n ­
te x ts, w ith th e te a c h e r c o m m e n tin g o n th e u se . I t is im p o r ta n t w ith s u c h
e x p la n a tio n s to u s e m o r e th a n o n e c o n te x t to a v o id a n y in c id e n ta l fe a tu re s o f
th a t p a rtic u la r c o n te x t.
T h is k in d o f e x p la n a tio n is p a rtic u la rly u s e fu l in d e a lin g w ith th e lex ical
ite m s c o m m o n w ith in fu n c tio n a l te a c h in g . M o s t “fu n c tio n a l p h r a s e s ” a re
b e s t e x p la in e d b y tw o o r th r e e e x a m p le s a n d a d e s c rip tio n o f th e fu n c tio n
p e rfo rm e d . I t is n o t u su a lly n e c e s s a ry to a d d f u r th e r e x p la n a tio n .

i. T r a n s la t io n
A lth o u g h s o m e te a c h e rs o v e r-u s e th is te c h n iq u e , it is e q u a lly tr u e th a t o th e r s
u n d e r-u s e it. T o s o m e it is s e e n a s b o rin g a n d tra d itio n a l. F o r s o m e w o rd s,
h o w e v e r, th e o n ly se n s ib le w ay to e x p la in is b y tra n s la tio n — th is is o fte n th e
c a s e w ith c e rta in ty p e s o f te c h n ic a l w o rd s — m easles — a n d f o r w o rd s w h ic h
a re “a k in d o f . . . ” e.g. oak.

T h e r e is a ric h v a rie ty o f w ay s o f “e x p la in in g n e w w o rd s ” . A n u m b e r o f
fa c to rs n e e d to b e b o r n e in m in d :

a . Is th e w o rd f o r a c tiv e o r p a ss iv e u s e b y th e s tu d e n ts ?

b . Is y o u r in te n tio n to e x p la in a n u n e x p e c te d d iffic u lty w ith o u t d is tu rb in g

th e m a in flo w o f th e le s so n , o r is th e v o c a b u la ry s tu d ie d th e m a in p o in t o f th e
1 04
Techniques — Vocabulary

p a rtic u la r c la s s ro o m a c tiv ity ?

T e a c h e rs n e e d to b e a w a re o f a v a rie ty o f w a y s o f e x p la in in g , a n d c o n s ta n tly
to a sk th e m s e lv e s w h y a p a rtic u la r w o rd is b e in g e x p la in e d a t all.

7 . W o r d s c a n lin k g r a m m a tic a lly a s w e ll a s th e m a tic a lly

W e h a v e a lre a d y d is c u s s e d te a c h in g w o rd s in g ro u p s , b u t to m o s t te a c h e rs
a n d s tu d e n ts th is w ill m e a n th e m a tic lin k in g — a ll th e w o rd s y o u a s s o c ia te
w ith fo o tb a ll, a ll th e th in g s y o u c a n fin d in th e k itc h e n , th e p a rts o f a c a r a n d
so o n . O f c o u rs e th is is b e tte r th a n ju s t ra n d o m v o c a b u la ry , b u t a s w e
p o in te d o u t e a rlie r (p a g e 8 8 ) it is p a rtic u la rly h e lp fu l to te a c h w o rd s w h ic h
c o -o c c u r a t th e sa m e tim e . It is w o rth re -e m p h a s is in g th e fa c t th a t w o rd s c a n
lin k g ra m m a tic a lly — w rite d o w n fiv e a d je c tiv e s w h ic h y o u th in k f r e ­
q u e n tly c o -o c c u r w ith b o o k . W rite fiv e v e rb s to o . W h a t p re p o s itio n s re g u ­
la rly fo llo w th e w o rd b o o k ?
I f y o u a re a b o o k p u b lis h e r y o u w ill th in k o f te c h n ic a l, jo b - re la te d v e rb s
su c h a s la u n ch , e d it, r e p r in t, b u t a ll o f u s w o u ld re c o g n is e th e u s e fu ln e s s o f
a se n te n c e s u c h a s I ’v e j u s t f in is h e d a n a b s o lu te ly f a s c in a ti n g b o o k a b o u t
th e A z te c s . B u t it w ill b e a sto n is h in g ly d iffic u lt to p ro d u c e s u c h a s e n te n c e
if y o u r la n g u a g e le a rn in g h a s ta u g h t y o u so m e v o c a b u la ry — in th is c a se
th e w o rd b o o k — a n d so m e g r a m m a r — in th is c a s e th e p re s e n t p e rfe c t. T h e
a b ility to u s e th e la n g u a g e d e p e n d s o n th e a b ility to b r in g g r a m m a r a n d
v o c a b u la r y t o g e t h e r . S o it m u s t m a k e se n s e s o m e tim e s to te a c h w o rd s
w h ic h a re g r a m m a t ic a lly lin k e d ra th e r th a n c o n c e n tra tin g o n th e m a tic
lin k in g . A s w e saw e a rlie r, th is in v o lv e d sh o rt lists — p e rh a p s fiv e ite m s —
g iv in g a d je c tiv e s a n d v e rb s w h ic h re g u la rly c o -o c c u r w ith a n o u n .
S o m e tim e s to o o th e r w o rd s n a tu ra lly su g g e s t th e m s e lv e s — in th is c a se a
b o o k a b o u t ... b y ... .
T o o o fte n , v o c a b u la ry le a rn in g s e e m s to th e s tu d e n ts to b e a n u n -e n d in g ,
to ta lly d is o rg a n is e d p ro c e s s o f le a rn in g th o u s a n d s o f d if fe re n t ite m s. B y
th in k in g o f g ra m m a tic a l lin k s, v o c a b u la ry c a n , a t le a s t to a lim ite d e x te n t,
b e s y s te m a tis e d .

8 . R e c o r d w o r d s to g e th e r w h ic h o c c u r to g e th e r

T h is is a d ir e c t e x te n s io n o f th e a b o v e p o in t, a n d a r e m in d e r o f th e b o x o n
p a g e 8 8 . H e re is a n o th e r e x a m p le :

(M , o rv

l ot t o*/

l ook
l <yU+y
 105

C h a p ter 1 0

T e c h n iq u e s — T e x ts

M a rk e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a f te r y o u r e a d th e c h a p te r.
M a r k e a c h s ta te m e n t
v / if y o u agree.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a r e undecided.

1. T e x ts a re f o r p re s e n tin g n e w la n g u a g e to s tu d e n ts .

2 . It is b e tte r f o r a te x t to b e to o e a sy th a n to o difficu lt.

3. It is u se fu l to a s k s o m e q u e s tio n s a b o u t a te x t before re a d in g it.

4 . U n s e e n re a d in g a lo u d h e lp s s tu d e n ts ’ p ro n u n c ia tio n .

5. “I se e n o u s e f o r SiVe/tf re a d in g in class.”

6 . P ro n u n c ia tio n p ra c tic e before c o m p r e h e n s io n q u e stio n s!

7. C o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s s h o u ld u s e th e la n g u a g e o f th e tex t.

8 . G o o d c o m p r e h e n s io n q u e s tio n s o fte n e x p e c t th e a n s w e r ‘M>’

9. M ix c o m p r e h e n s io n a n d c o n v e rs a tio n q u e s tio n s a b o u t s tu d e n ts th em se lv es!

10. T e x tb o o k te x ts d o n ’t u su a lly h e lp s tu d e n ts to read b e tte r.

106

T e c h n iq u e s — T e x ts

1. D iffe r e n t te x ts h a v e d iffe r e n t u s e s

D iffe re n t te x ts a re su ita b le fo r d iffe re n t activities. F o r m a n y te a c h e rs “th e

te x t” is th e p re s e n ta tio n p a r t o f th e lesson . It in tro d u c e s n e w la n g u a g e , a n d
p ro v id e s th e b a sis fo r la te r la n g u a g e w o rk a n d d isc u ss io n . T e a c h e rs u s e d to
th is id e a o f a te x t u su a lly e x p e c t th e te x t to b e sp ec ially w ritte n , th e lan g ua g e
to b e c are fu lly g ra d e d , a n d c e rta in n e w la n g u a g e fe a tu re s to b e h eav ily re ­
c y cled . S u c h a n a p p ro a c h to te x t is, h o w e ver, very n a rro w . T ex ts a re o f m a n y
d iffe re n t k in d s — m e n u s , in s tru c tio n s , signs, in fo rm a tio n , storie s,
a d v e rtis e m e n ts , h a n d -w ritte n n o te s , le tte rs, telex es, re p o rts . T h e list is a lm o st
e n d le s s. E a c h o f th e s e ty p e s o f te x t is d iffe re n t fro m th e o th e rs in p u rp o s e ,
a n d a ls o d iffe re n t in s tru c tu re a n d lan g u ag e. If s tu d e n ts a re re ally g o in g to u se
th e ir E n g lis h o u ts id e th e c la s s ro o m th e y w ill n e e d to b e a b le to h a n d le th e s e
d iffe re n t ty p e s o f te x ts, n o t o n ly th o s e sp ec ially p re p a re d fo r la n g u a g e
te a c h in g te x tb o o k s .
In a sim ila r w ay th e skills th a t a re re q u ire d to h a n d le d iffe re n t ty p e s o f
te x ts a re th e m se lv e s v e ry v a rie d . T ra d itio n a l la n g u a g e te a c h in g h a s se e n
in te n siv e stu d y o f spe cific ally p re p a r e d texts. M o d e m th e o rie s su g g e st a
w id e ra n g e o f a ctiv ities w h ich a r e a p p r o p r ia te to d iffe re n t k in d s o f text.
S o m e tim e s, fo r e x a m p le , w e lo o k a t te x ts o n ly to c h e c k p a rtic u la r ite m s o f
in fo rm a tio n (W h a t tim e d o e s th e th e a tre s ta rt? H o w lo n g d o I n e e d to c o o k
th e m ix tu re fo r? )
S o m e tim e s w e s ta rt b u t d o n o t fin ish te x ts — o fte n in n e w s p a p e rs w e fin d
w e sk im q u ic k ly th ro u g h p ic k in g o u t in d iv id u a l w o rd s, a n d d e c id e th a t th e
to p ic is n o t o f in te re s t to u s.
S o m e tim e s, w e a re n o t in te re s te d in th e d e ta il o f a n a rtic le b u t o n ly in its
c o n c lu s io n , a n d it is su ffic ien t to re a d th e la st p a ra g ra p h w h e re th e c o n c lu ­
sio n s a re su m m a ris e d .
T h e te a c h e r w h o u se s te x ts in c la ss o n ly to p re s e n t th e lan g u a g e fo r
in te n siv e stu d y is n o t te a c h in g s tu d e n ts to u se th e la n g u a g e . E ffec tiv e
la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e a n s u sin g d iffe re n t te c h n iq u e s to p ra c tis e d iffe re n t
skills f o r d iffe re n t ty p e s o f tex t. T e a c h e rs w h o a re in te re s te d in d e v e lo p in g
th e ir s tu d e n ts ’ re a d in g skills s h o u ld re fe r to a m o re e x te n siv e d is c u ss io n o f
th is su c h a s Teaching Reading Skills, ChristineNutta.il, H einemann.

2 . T o o m a n y n e w w o rd s m a k e a te x t im p o s s ib le

M o s t la n g u a g e te a c h e rs h a v e , a s s tu d e n ts , h a d th e e x p e rie n c e o f u sin g a d ic ­
tio n a ry w ith a te x t c o n ta in in g a h igh d e n s ity o f n e w ite m s a n d , a fte r c h e c k in g
 Techniques — Texts

all th e n e w w o rd s, still h a v in g little o r n o id e a o f th e m e a n in g o f th e te x t as a

w h o le! A lth o u g h it m a y b e a g o o d id e a to le av e s tu d e n ts to g u e ss th e m e a n in g
o f a few w o rd s fro m c o n te x t, in o r d e r to d o th is th e y h a v e first to b e a b le to
u n d e r s ta n d th e m ajority o i th e text.
If th e r e a re m o re th a n a b o u t 6 n e w w o rd s p e r 100 “ru n n in g w o rd s ” (i.e. all
th e w o rd s o f th e te x t) it is to o d ifficu lt. D ifficu lty d o e s n o t in c re a s e w ith th e
n u m b e r o f n e w w o rd s a s in fig u re 1, b u t m u c h m o r e ra p id ly , a s in fig u re 2.

N o m a tte r h o w m u c h p r e p a r a tio n is d o n e o n a p a ss a g e c o n ta in in g to o m a n y
n e w ite m s, it will n o t h e lp significantly. T o o m u c h n e w m a te ria l sim p ly
c a n n o t b e m a s te re d a t o n e tim e.

3 . N o th in g is in t e r e s t in g ’ if y o u c a n ’t d o it

T e a c h e rs a re o fte n k e e n , p a rtic u la rly w h e n lo o k in g f o r te x ts f o r th e ir s tu ­

d e n ts , to fin d s o m e th in g ‘in te re stin g ’. A lth o u g h th e a im is a g o o d o n e , th e r e is
a s e rio u s d iffic u lty a tta c h e d to it. T h e te a c h e r w h o fin d s a n a rtic le in a
n e w s p a p e r o r m a g a z in e is fre q u e n tly te m p te d to u s e it w ith a c lass. It is
im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r b e fo re y o u d o th is th a t y o u r v o c a b u la ry is p ro b a b ly
a t le a st tw ic e th a t o f e v e n th e b e s t fo re ig n le a rn e rs b e lo w u n iv e rsity level.
T h e c rite rio n fo r c h o o s in g a te x t m u s t b e ‘w ill these students fin d th is
in te re s tin g ? ’ T h e a n s w e r to th a t q u e s tio n c a n n o t p o ss ib ly b e 'Yes’ u n le ss
th o s e s tu d e n ts c a n u n d e r s ta n d it w ith o u t g re a t difficulty.
E v e ry te a c h e r h a s o n s o m e o c c a s io n ta k e n in a p ie c e o f s u p p le m e n ta ry
m a te ria l w h ic h h e th o u g h t w o u ld su it th e c la ss o n ly to fin d th a t it is, in fa c t, fa r
to o d iffic u lt f o r th e m . In th o s e c irc u m s ta n c e s th e r e is o n ly o n e th in g to d o —
a b a n d o n th a t p ie c e o f m a te ria l w ith th a t c lass, fo rg e t y o u r le s so n p la n , a n d d o
s o m e th in g e lse.
N o th in g is m o re d e p re s s in g th a n stru g g lin g w o rd -b y -w o rd a t sn a il’s p a c e
th ro u g h a p ie c e o f m a te ria l so th a t y o u c a n d o s o m e th in g w ith it o r ta lk a b o u t
it o n ly to fin d th a t u n d e rs ta n d in g th e m a te ria l h a s ta k e n s o lo n g th a t th e in te r­
e stin g fo llo w -u p a ctiv ity la sts o n ly a m o m e n t o r tw o o r d is a p p e a rs a lto g e th e r.

4 . U s e p r e -a c tiv itie s t o fo c u s s tu d e n ts ’ a tte n tio n

A ll la n g u a g e u s e in re a l life o c c u rs in situ a tio n s w h ic h a llo w th e la n g u a g e u s e r

to re ly h e a v ily o n a n tic ip a tio n a n d c o n te x t. It is c o rre s p o n d in g ly a rtificially
d ifficu lt to a s k s tu d e n ts to r e a d a n u n s e e n te x t w ith n o p re p a ra tio n . G o o d
te x t p r e p a r a tio n involves:
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Techniques — Texts

a . I n t r o d u c t io n
T h e te a c h e r gives a brief (tw o o r th r e e se n te n c e s ) in tro d u c tio n to th e content
o f th e tex t. If th e “te x t” is in d ia lo g u e fo rm , th e te a c h e r m e n tio n s th e situ a tio n
in w h ic h th e d ia lo g u e ta k e s p la c e , th e n u m b e r o f sp e a k e rs , a n d if n e c e ssary ,
s o m e th in g a b o u t th e ir re la tio n s h ip (frie n d s, stra n g e rs, e tc). If th e te x t is a
c h a p te r o f a c o n tin u o u s sto ry, a s k th e c la ss o r in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts to re -c a p
th e s to ry s o far.
If th e te x t is a o n e -o ff w ith a h e a d lin e , a s k th e s tu d e n ts w h a t th e y th in kit is
g o in g to b e a b o u t a n d (b riefly ) if th e y k n o w a n y th in g a b o u t th e to p ic . M a n y
w e ll-d e sig n e d m o d e m te x tb o o k s u s e p h o to g ra p h s o r o th e r illu s tra tio n s
w h ic h h e lp to in d ic a te th e g e n e ra l c o n te n t o f th e tex t. T e a c h e rs sh o u ld , if
n e c e ssa ry , sp ecifically d ra w a tte n tio n to th e s e a n d h e lp s tu d e n ts t o b rin g to
m in d v o c a b u la ry a n d id e a s w h ic h w ill o c c u r in th e tex t.

b . P r e - q u e s t io n s
P re -q u e s tio n s a re c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s a s k e d before th e s tu d e n ts re a d
th e te x t. T h e y h e lp s tu d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d th e te x t b y fo c u s in g a tte n tio n o n k e y
w o rd s a n d id e as.
T w o o r th re e p re -q u e s tio n s a r e e n o u g h . T h e s e q u e s tio n s s h o u ld fo llo w th e
m a in sto ry -lin e o r lin e o f a rg u m e n t in th e te x t a n d b e in th e c o rre c t se q u e n c e .
T h e y a re in te n d e d to in d ic a te th e b a s ic s tru c tu re o f th e te x t, a n d h e lp s tu ­
d e n ts ’ a n tic ip a tio n . In th is w ay th e y m a k e th e re a d in g o f th e te x t m o re
n a tu ra l.

c . V o c a b u la r y
T e a c h e rs s o m e tim e s p re -te a c h c e rta in n e w w o rd s w h ic h o c c u r in th e tex t.
T h is c a n b e h elp fu l, p a rtic u la rly if o n e o r tw o w o rd s w h ic h a r e k n o w n to b e
n e w o c c u r fre q u e n tly in th e tex t.
M o re g e n e ra lly u se fu l, h o w ev er, is to in v ite s tu d e n ts to a n tic ip a te v o c a b u la ry
th e m selv es. T h is m a y b e d o n e b y u s in g w o rd -la d d e rs , o r w o rd -ro s e s . F o r
th e s e a w o rd w h ic h is c e n tra l to th e c o n te n t o f th e te x t is w ritte n a t th e to p o f
th e la d d e r, o r in th e c e n tre o f th e ro s e lik e this:

S tu d e n ts th e n fill in th e o th e r “s te p s ” o f th e la d d e r, o r “p e ta ls ” o f th e ro s e . In
th e c a se o f th e la d d e r, e a c h w o rd th e y fill in sh o u ld b e c o n n e c te d to th e p re v i­
o u s ste p ; in th e c a s e o f th e ro s e e a c h w o rd m u s t b e c o n n e c te d to th e c e n tr a l
w o rd . A t lo w e r levels m o s t s tu d e n ts w ill p ro v id e th e s a m e g ro u p o f w o rd s b u t
a t in te rm e d ia te levels a n d u p w a rd s s tu d e n ts m a y p ro v id e v e ry d iffe re n t
s e q u e n c e s o r g ro u p s.
 Techniques — Texts

A f te r th e y h a v e c o m p le te d th e la d d e r o r ro s e , v a rio u s s tu d e n ts a re a s k e d
w h a t w o rd s th e y h a v e filled in . If s o m e s tu d e n ts d o n o t k n o w w o rd s u s e d b y
o th e r s th e y a re e n c o u ra g e d to a s k e a c h o th e r a b o u t th e u n k n o w n w o rd s; it
c a n a ls o b e a m u s in g to le t s tu d e n ts a s k e a c h o th e r to e x p la in how th e y c o n ­
s tru c te d th e s e q u e n c e o f th e w o rd -la d d e r.
O f c o u rs e m a n y o f th e w o rd s in tro d u c e d in th is w ay w ill n o t o c c u r in th e
te x t b u t, if th e first w o rd h a s b e e n w ell c h o se n , s tu d e n ts will re m in d
th e m se lv e s o f sev eral im p o r ta n t v o c a b u la ry ite m s b e fo re re a d in g th e text.
T h is k in d o f v o c a b u la ry fo c u s , in w h ic h th e la n g u a g e u s e r b rin g s to m in d
w o rd s h e th in k s will b e u se fu l, is ty p ic a l o f n a tu ra l la n g u a g e u se . L a d d e rs a n d
ro s e s p ro v id e a n a m u s in g w ay o f p re v ie w in g v o c a b u la ry , a n d p ro v id e a n
e x c e lle n t p a r t o f th e g e n e ra l p r e p a r a tio n f o r te x t study.

5 . D is tin g u is h b e tw e e n in te n s iv e a n d e x te n s iv e r e a d in g

In te n s iv e re a d in g m e a n s s tu d e n ts a re e x p e c te d to u n d e r s ta n d e v e ry th in g
th e y r e a d a n d to b e a b le to a n s w e r d e ta ile d v o c a b u la ry a n d c o m p r e h e n s io n
q u e stio n s .
E x te n siv e re a d in g m e a n s s tu d e n ts h a v e a g e n e ra l u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
te x t w ithout n e c e ss a rily u n d e rs ta n d in g e v e ry w o rd . In te n s iv e re a d in g h e lp s
to im p ro v e e x te n siv e re a d in g , b u t th e la tte r a ls o n e e d s to b e p ra c tis e d in its
o w n rig h t, p rin c ip a lly to give s tu d e n ts c o n fid e n c e in d e a lin g w ith a u th e n tic
m a te ria ls .
It is so m e tim e s a p p r o p r ia te to in tro d u c e m a te ria l sp ec ific a lly f o r e x te n ­
sive re a d in g p ra c tic e . M o r e c o m m o n , h o w ev er, is to u s e part o f a lo n g e r te x t
f o r e x te n siv e p ra c tic e , a n d a d if fe re n t p a r t f o r in te n s iv e p ra c tic e . T o o o fte n
te a c h e rs p lo u g h th ro u g h th e te x t in a u n if o rm fa s h io n , d e a lin g w ith all th e
m a te ria l inten sively , th e re b y e n s u rin g it ta k e s to o lo n g , in te re s t is lo st, a n d a n
im p o r ta n t la n g u a g e skill w h ic h n e e d s to b e p ra c tis e d is ig n o re d .
E v e n if a te x t is to b e d e a lt w ith la rg e ly in ten siv ely, it h e lp s to e n c o u ra g e
s tu d e n ts to g e t a g e n e ra l u n d e rs ta n d in g firs t b y u s in g p re -q u e s tio n s . In th e
e a rly sta g e s o f s tu d e n ts ’ le a rn in g p ro g ra m m e s it is h e lp fu l to in tro d u c e te x ts
c o n ta in in g s o m e u n k n o w n la n g u a g e , b u t w h e re s tu d e n ts w ill k n o w e n o u g h to
u n d e r s ta n d th e gist. H a v in g ta k e n s u c h a te x t in to c la ss, h o w e v er, it is th e n
e s s e n tia l th a t th e te a c h e r is n o /te m p te d to e x p la in all th e w o rd s , o r to a s k to o
m a n y q u e s tio n s . A ll th a t n e e d s to b e d o n e is to e n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts to p ic k
o u t p a rtic u la r in fo rm a tio n a n d , e q u a lly im p o rta n t, to e n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts n ot
to w o rry a t ig n o rin g o th e r, p e rh a p s q u ite la rg e , se c tio n s o f th e te x t w h ic h a re
n o t re le v a n t to th e ta s k th e y h a v e b e e n given.
T e a c h e rs u s e d to a tr a d itio n a l, s tru c tu ra l, a p p r o a c h e x p e c t th e te x ts o f
th e ir te x tb o o k s to b e c a re fu lly s tru c tu ra lly g ra d e d . T h e im p lic it a s s u m p tio n
is th a t a ll th e m a te ria l in th e te x tb o o k w ill b e d e a lt w ith inten sively. It is p a r ti­
c u la rly im p o r ta n t fo r th e s e te a c h e rs to re a liz e th a t w h e n a u th e n tic m a te ria l is
p re s e n te d a t a n e a rly sta g e in m o d e m te x tb o o k s , its o b je c tiv e s a r e d iffe re n t
a n d , if th e y a p p r o a c h s u c h m a te ria l in te nsive ly , th e y w ill d e -m o tiv a te th e ir
s tu d e n ts , a n d c re a te p ro b le m s f o r th e ir s tu d e n ts a n d th e m se lv e s . O n th e
o th e r h a n d , if th e y a p p r o a c h s u c h m a te ria l e x ten siv e ly th e y w ill s e e th a t it c a n
h a v e a v e ry p o sitiv e e ffe c t o n th e ir s tu d e n ts , w h o re a liz e th a t, e v e n w ith th e
little E n g lis h a t th e ir d is p o s a l, th e y c a n a c tu a lly use “re a l” E n g lis h la n g u a g e
m a te ria ls .
Techniques — Texts

6 . D o n o t a s k s tu d e n ts to rea d a lo u d u n s e e n

R e a d in g a lo u d is a v e ry d ifficu lt skill. U n s e e n te x ts p ro b a b ly c o n ta in n e w
v o c a b u la ry ite m s w h ic h s tu d e n ts w ill n o t k n o w h o w to p ro n o u n c e ; d ia lo g u e s
m a y re q u ire p a rtic u la r in to n a tio n p a tte rn s u n fa m ilia r to stu d e n ts . U n p r e ­
p a re d re a d in g w ill b e h e s ita n t, u n n a tu r a l a n d d ifficu lt fo r o th e r s tu d e n ts to
follow .
A s k in g a s tu d e n t to re a d a lo u d u n s e e n a ls o m e a n s th a t h e m a y
c o n c e n tr a te s o h a rd o n p ro n o u n c in g th e w o rd s th a t h e w ill b e u n a b le to
c o n c e n tr a te a d e q u a te ly o n th e ir m e a n in g to o . H e m a y re a d c o rre c tly b u t
a fte rw a rd s w ill n o t b e a b le to te ll y o u w h a t h e h a s re ad !
T h e firs t re a d in g is b e s t d o n e b y th e te a c h e r o r o n ta p e . A lte rn a tiv e ly th e
class m a y p re p a re silendy, w ith th e te a c h e r h e lp in g in d iv id u a ls w ith
d ifficu lties. P r e p a re d re a d in g w ill alw ays b e m o re e ffec tive th a n u n s e e n a n d
p r e p a ra tio n tim e is c e rta in ly n o t w a ste d .

7. V ary th e m e th o d o f r ea d in g

T h e r e a re m a n y m o r e w ays o f “re a d in g ” a te x t th a n a s k in g a s tu d e n t You

sta rt . . . Can you carry on please.
T h e sim p le st m e th o d o f re a d in g , fre q u e n tly fo rg o tte n b y la n g u a g e te a c h ­
e rs, is silent re a d in g . It is th e m e th o d w e n o rm a lly u s e w ith o u r n a tiv e
la n g u a g e, a n d o n th e w h o le th e q u ic k e s t a n d m o s t efficien t. It is th e o n ly
m e th o d w h ic h is a p p ro p ria te fo r extensive rea d in g .
It c a n , h o w e ver, a ls o b e a p p r o p r ia te f o r part o f th e in te n siv e re a d in g o f a
te x t — in th is c a se , u su a lly w ith a re lativ ely sim p le p a r t o f th e te x t w h e re sile n t
re a d in g c a n s p e e d u p re a d in g a s a w h o le . S ile n t re a d in g m u s t, o f c o u rs e , b e
fo llo w e d b y q u e s tio n s to e n s u re th a t all th e class d id re a d a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e
a p p ro p ria te se ctio n .
S ile n t re a d in g is o fte n ig n o re d b e c a u s e te a c h e rs s e e re a d in g a lo u d a s a
w ay o f te a c h in g p ro n u n c ia tio n . T h is is m o s t u n s a tisfa c to ry . T e a c h e rs m u s t
u n d e rs ta n d th a t te x ts sh o u ld o n ly b e re a d a lo u d w h ic h h a v e b e e n w ritte n to
b e re a d a lo u d — p o e try , rh y m e s, a n d d ia lo g u e s. V e ry few p ro s e te x ts a re
in te n d e d to b e re a d a lo u d a n d a sk in g s tu d e n ts to d o s o is to a s k th e m to d o
s o m e th in g c o m p le te ly u n n a tu ra l.
If te a c h e rs in sist o n s tu d e n ts re a d in g a lo u d , th e r e a re tw o g o ld e n ru le s — it
m u s t b e prepared; it m u s t b e d o n e in a variety o f w ays.

1. A t v e ry lo w levels, th e te a c h e r re a d s, fo llo w e d b y th e c la ss re a d in g c h o ra lly

s e n te n c e b y se n te n c e .

2 . A ls o f o r lo w levels, th e class re p e a ts c h o ra lly a fte r th e ta p e (m o re d iffic ult

th a n a fte r th e te a c h e r).

3 . T h e te a c h e r re a d s a p a ra g ra p h , th e n th e c la ss re a d s th e p a ra g ra p h c h o r­
ally, p o ss ib ly fo llo w e d b y a n in d iv id u a l re a d in g th e s a m e p a ra g a p h .

4. A n in d iv id u a l re a d s s e n te n c e b y s e n te n c e a fte r th e te a c h e r.

5 . P u p ils p re p a re th e ir p a rts — th e class is d iv id e d in to g ro u p s a n d e a c h

g ro u p p re p a re s , f o r e x a m p le , a p a ra g ra p h , th e n o n e re p re s e n ta tiv e fro m e a c h
g ro u p re a d s s o th a t th e w h o le te x t is re a d a lo u d . In th e c a se o f a d ia lo g u e ,
 Techniques — Texts

g ro u p s p r e p a r e d iffe re n t sp e a k e rs . In all c a se s th e te a c h e r g o e s fro m g ro u p to

g ro u p h e lp in g w ith p ro n u n c ia tio n , stre ss a n d in to n a tio n p ro b le m s q uietly,
b e fo re a n y b o d y re a d s a n y th in g f o r th e w h o le class.

6 . W ith d ia lo g u e s , s tu d e n ts p r e p a r e in p a irs , th e te a c h e r g o e s r o u n d a n d
h e lp s , a n d th e n all s tu d e n ts r e a d a lo u d in p a irs sim u lta n e o u sly b e fo re o n e
p a ir re a d s a lo u d f o r th e w h o le class.

T ex ts (in th e b r o a d se n s e , in c lu d in g d ia lo g u e s) re m a in o n e o f th e m a in
m e th o d s o f in p u t o f n e w la n g u a g e in to th e le s so n . T h e y a re a p a r t o f th e
le s s o n w h ic h c a n e asily d ra g a n d , a s th e y s o fr e q u e n tly c o m e a t th e b e g in n in g
o f th e le s so n , th e y c a n c re a te a d e a d a n d d e a d e n in g a tm o s p h e re . V a ry in g th e
m e th o d o f re a d in g — le ttin g p e o p le r e a d in g ro u p s , in d iv id u a lly , silently,
o c c a sio n a lly u s in g o n ly th e te a c h e r o r ta p e — m in im is e s th e p o ss ib ility o f th e
te x t k illin g th e le sso n .

8 . U s e s h o r t q u e s tio n s d u r in g in te n s iv e re a d in g

S o m e tim e s y o u m a y d e c id e , p a rtic u la rly w ith a la rg e s c h o o l c la ss, to re a d a

te x t y o u rse lf. E v e n th is s im p le te c h n iq u e c a n , h o w ev er, b e im p ro v e d b y a d d ­
in g s im p le q u e s tio n s as y o u re a d . T h e p u r p o s e o f th e s e q u e s tio n s is n o t to te s t
c o m p re h e n s io n , b u t to e n s u r e th a t s tu d e n ts a re fo llo w ing , a n d to h e lp th e m
m a in ta in c o n c e n tra tio n . T h e te a c h e r sim p ly s to p s a t f r e q u e n t p o in ts d u rin g
th e te x t a n d p o s e s s im p le q u e s tio n s , o fte n re q u irin g o n ly a sin g le w o rd o r
p h ra s e !

A n d y sw itc h e d o n th e ra d io . (W hat d id he do?) It w as ju s t a fte r 6

o ’c lo c k (W hat tim e?) T h e r e w a s n o m u sic . In s te a d th e r e w a s a fo g
w a rn in g (A what?) A n d y slo w e d d o w n a little. H e w as ju s t in tim e . H e
sa w a w all o f fo g (W hat d id he see?) H e s ta rte d to d riv e m u c h m o re
c are fu lly . (M uch m o re ...?)

In th is e x a m p le th e re a re to o m a n y q u e s tio n s b u t th e ty p e o f q u e s tio n is
im p o r ta n t — th e y d o n o t re q u ire m a n ip u la tio n o f th e tex t, o r e x te n d e d c o m ­
p re h e n s io n . T h e y c a n b e a n s w e re d if th e s tu d e n ts a re fo llo w in g th e te x t a n d
h a v e h e a r d th e la s t tw o o r th r e e w o rd s th e te a c h e r h a s re a d .
T h e s e q u e s tio n s a re m o s t e ffec tiv e if u s e d o n a s e c o n d re a d in g o f a text.
T h e y a re n o t a p p r o p r ia te w ith a te x t w h ic h is p a rtic u la rly d ifficu lt, w h e re
th e y w ill se rv e to d is tu rb , r a th e r th a n h e lp , th e s tu d e n ts ’ c o n c e n tra tio n .
A w o rd o f w a rn in g is n e c e ss a ry . T h is te c h n iq u e c a n h e lp to k e e p a c lass
a le r t w h ile d o in g in te n siv e re a d in g . It d o e s n o t, h o w ev er, h e lp th e m to read
b e tte r. R e a d in g inv o lves th e r e a d e r b u ild in g u p a c o m p le x p ic tu re o f th e tex t,
a n d q u e s tio n s o f th is ty p e in te r r u p t th is p ro c e s s . If, h o w e v er, th e te x t is p ri­
m a rily in te n d e d to in tro d u c e n e w v o c a b u la ry o r s tru c tu r e in to th e le s s o n th e
te c h n iq u e c a n b e p ra c tic a lly u s e fu l — p a rtic u la rly o n w a rm a fte rn o o n s!

9 . D o n ’t a s k W h a t d o e s ... m e a n ? U s e d e fin itio n q u e s tio n s

M a n y te a c h e rs , in c lu d in g n a tiv e s p e a k e rs , fin d e x p la in in g n e w ite m s difficult.

It is a skill w h ic h s tu d e n ts w ill n o t n e e d o u ts id e th e c la s s ro o m , a n d s o m e th in g
Techniques — Texts

th e y will fin d e x tre m e ly d ifficult. T h e re is, th e re fo re , n o p o in t in a sk in g stu ­

d e n ts W h a t d o e s . . . m e a n ? E x p e rie n c e sh o w s th a t if th e y a re a s k e d th is
q u e stio n th e y n o rm a lly re s p o n d w ith a sim p le tra n s la tio n . P ro v id in g th a t is
all th e te a c h e r e x p e c ts, th e q u e s tio n o c c a sio n a lly h a s a lim ite d use.
In d o in g w o rd stud y , h o w e ver, th e “d e fin itio n q u e s tio n ” is m u c h m o re
v a lu a b le — th e te a c h e r p ro v id e s th e d e fin itio n , a n d in v ites th e s tu d e n t to u se
a n e w w ord:

T W h a t w o rd in th e te x t m e a n t v ery v ery b ig?

51 E n o rm o u s .
T G o o d yes, a n d w h a t w o rd m e a n t w o rrie d a n d u p s e t?
52 A n x io u s.
T T h a t’s righ t, c a n w e all say th a t p le a s e — a n x io u s.
C A n x io u s .

A s th is s h o rt tr a n s c rip t sho w s, d e fin itio n q u e stio n s h av e tw o im p o rta n t

a d v a n ta g e s — th e te a c h e r d o e s th e d iffic ult w o rk o f v e rb a lisin g a d e fin itio n ,
a n d th e s tu d e n ts h a v e to lo c a te a n d s a y th e n e w w o rd o r p h ra se .
T h e sa m e te c h n iq u e c a n b e u s e d fo r fu n c tio n a l p h ra s e s w h e re th e te a c h e r
a sk s a q u e stio n su c h as:

W h a t p h ra s e d o e s J o h n u se w h e n h e w a n ts to tell M a ry th e b e st th in g to
d o n e x t? ( W h y d o n ’t y o u . . . )?

D e fin itio n q u e stio n s a re a n im p o rta n t p a rt o f th e te a c h e r’s stra te g y in follow ­

in g u p th e p re s e n ta tio n o f n e w la n g u a g e in a tex t, a n d a ls o fro m a ta p e
re c o rd in g .

1 0 . S tu d e n ts c a n n o t u s e w h a t th e y c a n n o t sa y

T e x tb o o k u n its fre q u e n tly b e g in w ith a p ro s e te x t o r a d ia lo g u e in te n d e d fo r

in ten siv e study. T h e s e , b y d e fin itio n , c o n ta in n e w la n g u a g e item s. S tu d e n ts
c a n n o t u s e th e s e u n til th e y k n o w h o w to say th e m . If th e y h a v e o n ly h e a rd th e
ta p e , te a c h e r, o r o n e o f th e ir c la ss m a te s re a d in g th e te x t, m a n y s tu d e n ts will
still feel in h ib ite d a t saying a n e w item .
T e a c h e rs so m e tim e s a sk a fte r th e te x t h a s b e e n re a d Is th ere a n y th in g y o u
d o n ’t u n d e r s ta n d ? a n d , e v e n m o re foolishly, Is th e r e a n y th in g y o u c a n ’t s a y ? It
is n o t c o m p le te ly c le a r h o w th e s tu d e n t is s u p p o s e d to a n sw e r th is s e c o n d
q u e stio n !
T h e w ise te a c h e r, b e fo r e g o in g o n to c o m p re h e n s io n q u e stio n s, o r o th e r
m a te ria l w h ic h e x p lo its th e tex t, d o e s b rie f c h o ra l a n d in d iv id u a l p ro n u n c ia ­
tio n o f a ll th e ite m s s tu d e n ts m a y fin d it d ifficu lt to say. U sin g th e te c h n iq u e
C IP d is c u ss e d e ls e w h e re (p a g e 6 7 ) a s m a n y a s a d o z e n ite m s c a n b e
p ra c tis e d in th is w ay in a m a tte r o f th re e o r fo u r m in u te s . T h is tim e is fa r fro m
w a ste d as it in c re a se s s tu d e n ts ’ c o n fid e n c e b e fo re g o in g o n to th e p rin c ip a l
w o rk o f e x p lo itin g th e n e w m a te ria l o f th e text.

11. “D iffic u lt” w o r d s a re n o t th e s a m e a s lo n g w o rd s

T e a c h e rs h av e a te n d e n c y , w h e n lo o k in g a t th e “d ifficu lt w o rd s ” a fte r s tu ­
d e n ts h a v e re a d a te x t, to e q u a te ‘d ifficu lt w o rd s ’ w ith ‘lo n g w o rd s ’. D ifficu lt
 Techniques — Texts

d o e s n o t re fe r to th e in trin sic m e a n in g o f th e w o rd s , b u t to th e d iffic u lty f o r a

p a rtic u la r s tu d e n t o r g ro u p o f stu d e n ts . A w o rd h a s a n a p p e a ra n c e , a so u n d ,
a n d a m e a n in g . A w o rd w ill b e “d iffic u lt” f o r s tu d e n ts if a n y o n e o f th o s e fa c ­
to rs c o n fu se .

1. If th e p ro n u n c ia tio n is n o t re fle c te d b y th e sp ellin g , te a c h e rs s h o u ld

e n s u re th a t th e y give a m o d e l p ro n u n c ia tio n , a n d fo llo w w ith c h o ra l a n d
in d iv id u a l re p e titio n .
2 . If th e w o rd lo o k s sim ila r in th e s tu d e n ts ’ o w n la n g u a g e b u t is d iffe re n t in
m e a n in g , p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n s h o u ld b e d ra w n to it. F o r m o s t E u r o p e a n
le a rn e rs th e E n g lis h w o rd sym pathetic a a d iffic u lt w o rd , b e c a u s e th e y h a v e a
w o rd in th e ir o w n la n g u a g e w h ic h looks sim ilar, sounds sim ilar, b u t is u s e d
d iffe re ntly.
3 . If a w o rd lo o k s sim ilar, a n d h a s a sim ila r m e a n in g , te a c h e rs te n d to
ig n o re it; b e c a u s e s tu d e n ts c a n u n d e r s ta n d it, te a c h e rs d o n o t se e th a t it c a n
still b e “d iffic u lt”. A n e x a m p le w o u ld b e th e E n g lis h w o rd opera , a n d th e
F re n c h w o rd opera.

In e x a m in in g , e x p la in in g , a n d p ra c tis in g “th e d iffic u lt w o rd s ”, te a c h e rs n e e d

to th in k o f e a c h o f sp e llin g , p ro n u n c ia tio n , a n d m e a n in g a n d n o t c o n c e n tr a te
o n ly o n th e last.

1 2 . ‘C o r r e c tio n q u e s tio n s ’ p ro m p t s tu d e n t la n g u a g e

A re s p o n s e is lin k e d ling u istically w ith th e re m a rk w h ic h p ro m p te d it.

A lth o u g h th is is o b v io u s , m a y te a c h e rs fail to re c o g n ise it in fo rm in g ‘q u e s t­
io n s ’ to p u t to s tu d e n ts . It is all to o e a sy to q u e s tio n s tu d e n ts in s u c h a w ay
th a t y o u e lic it o n ly a s e q u e n c e o f Yes a n d N o a n sw ers:

T D id J a n e a rriv e e a rly ?
51 Yes.
T W a s it ra in in g ?
52 N o.

T h e s im p le st te c h n iq u e to a v o id th is is f o r th e te a c h e r to m a k e a w ro n g s ta te ­
m e n t fo llo w e d b y a q u e s tio n tag , stim u la tin g th e s tu d e n t to both a fo rm a l
a n s w e r (No) a n d th e a d d itio n a l, c o rre c t in fo rm a tio n .

T J a n e a rriv e d la te , d id n ’t sh e ?
51 N o , sh e w as early.
T T h e su n w as sh in in g , w a sn ’t it?
52 N o , it w as raining .

T h is te c h n iq u e m a y b e a p p lie d b o th to c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s a fte r a te xt,

a n d a s a g e n e ra l c o n v e rs a tio n a l te c h n iq u e . It b o th stim u la te s m o r e la n g u a g e
fr o m th e s tu d e n t, a n d e n s u re s th a t th e la n g u a g e stim u la te d is m o re n a tu ra l.

1 3 . N o t a ll c o m p r e h e n s io n q u e s tio n s c h e c k u n d e r s ta n d in g

N o tic e w h a t h a p p e n s w ith th e fo llo w in g te x t a n d “c o m p r e h e n s io n ”

q u e stio n s:
Techniques — Texts

The sharve thrang up the hill.

T W h a t d id th e sh a rv e d o ?
SI T h ra n g u p th e hill.
T G o o d . W h e re d id it th rin g ?
S2 U p th e hill.
T G o o d . W h a t th ra n g u p th e hill?
S3 T h e sh arve.
T T h a t’s rig h t, a n d h o w d id it g e t th e re ?
S4 It th ra n g .
T T h a t’s rig h t, c a n y o u give m e th e p rin c ip a l p a rts ?
S5 T h rin g , th ra n g , tim in g .
T G o o d . N o w , d o y o u th in k it w as tire d w h e n it g o t to th e to p ?
C ???

It is p o ss ib le to p ro d u c e a n o n s e n s e tex t, a n d a sk q u e stio n s w h ic h a re all

“c o rre c tly ” a n s w e re d b u t n o n e o f w h ic h e x h ib it a n y k in d o f u n d e rs ta n d in g —
h o w c a n th e y w h e n th e te x t itse lf is n o n se n s e !
T h e a n sw e rs d o e x h ib it a c e rta in u n d e rs ta n d in g o f b a sic E n g lish s tru c tu re ,
su c h a s th e fa c t th a t th e firs t w o rd o f th e s e n te n c e is p ro b a b ly th e su b je c t, b u t
su ch m a n ip u la tio n s d o n o t rev ea l u n d e rs ta n d in g .
T h e re a re th re e k in d s o f “c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s ” :
a . T h o s e w h e re th e a n s w e r m a y b e read d ire c tly fro m th e tex t.
b . T h o s e w h e re th e a n s w e r is a sim p le s tru c tu ra l m a n ip u la tio n o f th e g ra m ­
m a r o f th e text.
c . E x te rn a l q u e s tio n s — it is n e c e s s a ry to u n d e rs ta n d h o w th e w o rd s o f th e
te x t re la te to so m e th in g outside th e tex t. In th e e x a m p le it w as o n ly th e last
q u e s tio n w h ic h w a s a g e n u in e c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n in th is way.
T h e first k in d o f q u e s tio n — w h e re th e a n s w e r c a n b e re a d — is a lm o st
u se le ss sa v e p e rh a p s f o r c h e c k in g th a t s tu d e n ts k n o w w h e re y o u a r e in th e
text. T h e s e c o n d k in d is u se fu l o n ly fo r in te n siv e la n g u a g e p ra c tic e — if th e
te a c h e r w ish e s s tu d e n ts to sa y a p a rtic u la r w o rd o r p h ra s e . T o c h e c k
u n d e rs ta n d in g , it is only th e th ird k in d o f q u e stio n w h ic h is effective.
T h e e a sie st w ay to c o n s tru c t q u e s tio n s o f this k in d is to a sk q u e s tio n s
w hich e x p e c t th e a n s w e r No; th e q u e s tio n is in so m e w ay b a s e d o n a false
a s s u m p tio n . A s h o r t e x a m p le illu stra te s this:

M r Sm ith hates getting up early. H e loves to stay in bed late. D uring the
week he gets up at 8 0 ’clock bu t at weekends he som etim es stays in bed
until 10 .

D o e s M r S m ith lik e g e ttin g u p e a rly ?

D o e s h e g e t u p a t th e sa m e tim e e v e ry d a y ?
H e g ets u p a t 9 o ’c lo c k o n S a tu rd a y s, d o e s n ’t h e ?

T h e s e q u e stio n s , b e c a u s e th e y in tro d u c e e x te rn a l id e a s , d o te s t c o m p r e ­
h e n s io n . A j i u n d e rs ta n d in g o f hate, f o r e x a m p le , involves u n d e rs ta n d in g th a t
it is “n o t lik in g ”. A n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f weekend, m e a n s id e n tify in g it w ith
Saturday.
In g e n e ra l, c o m p re h e n s io n q u e stio n s w h ic h re q u ire th e r e s p o n d e r to
“c o rre c t” th e q u e stio n e r, d o te s t c o m p re h e n s io n .
 Techniques — Texts

1 4 . U s e c o m p r e h e n s io n a n d c o n v e r s a tio n q u e s tio n s to g e th e r

C o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s a re a b o u t th e text; c o n v e rs a tio n q u e s tio n s a b o u t

th e s tu d e n ts . C o n v e rs a tio n q u e s tio n s in v o lv e th e s tu d e n ts in d iv id u a lly a n d
p e rs o n a lly re s p o n d in g to w h a t th e y a re stu d y in g . C o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s
a re re la te d to th e im m e d ia te c o m m o n e x p e rie n c e o f th e class — th e te x t —
a n d p ro v id e a c o m m o n b a s is f o r d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e le sso n .
C o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s u s e d a lo n e m a k e th e te x t re m o te , a n d , u n le s s it
is o f e x c e p tio n a l in te re st, r a th e r b o rin g . C o n v e rs a tio n q u e s tio n s in v o lv e in d i­
v id u a ls, b u t d o n o t k e e p th e c la ss m o v in g fo rw a rd togeth er. C o m b in e d , th e
le s so n d e v e lo p s w ith e v e ry o n e in v o lv e d , a n d in d iv id u a ls p e rs o n a lly in v o lv e d.
H e re is a sim p le e x a m p le :

W h en s h e o p e n e d th e e n v e lo p e a n d r e a d th e letter, s h e
f o u n d sh e h a d w o n th e f ir s t p r iz e : £ 5 ,0 0 0 ! S h e w o n d e r e d
w h e th e r to s p e n d it o r s a v e it.

W h a t d id sh e fin d o u t fro m th e le tte r?

H o w d o y o u th in k sh e fe lt? H o w w o u ld y o u fe e l?
D id sh e k n o w w h a t to d o w ith it?
W h a t w o u ld y o u d o w ith £ 5 ,0 0 0

1 5 . I f y o u rea d a d ia lo g u e , d is tin g u is h th e tw o s p e a k e r s c le a r ly

If s tu d e n ts ’ b o o k s a re c lo s e d w h ile y o u a re re a d in g a d ia lo g u e a lo u d , th e y
m a y h a v e d ifficu lty in id e n tify in g w h ich c h a ra c te r is sp e a k in g a t a p a rtic u la r
tim e . If y o u try to h e lp th e m b y v a ry in g y o u r v o ic e, y o u m a y h a v e to o v e r­
e x a g g e ra te , s o u n d rid ic u lo u s, a n d d is tra c t s tu d e n ts fro m th e ta sk .
In s te a d , h e lp th e m to v isu aliz e th e c o n v e rs a tio n b y c h a n g in g p o s itio n fo r
e a c h s p e a k e r (fac in g o p p o s ite w ays) o r p e rh a p s b y u sin g y o u r h a n d s as
p u p p e ts a n d ra isin g a d iffe re n t o n e f o r e a c h sp e a k e r. T h is c a n b e a m u s in g
a n d e ffec tive if y o u r h a n d s “ta lk ” to e a c h o th e r like this:
C h a p ter 11

T e c h n iq u e s — C o n v e r sa tio n

M a r k e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a f te r y o u r e a d th e c h a p te r.
M a r k e a c h s ta te m e n t
✓ if y o u ag^ee.
X if y o u disagree.
? if y o u a re undecided.

1. C o n v e rs a tio n le ss o n s n e e d d e ta ile d p re p a ra tio n .

2. T h e b e s t c o n v e rs a tio n le s so n s a re u su a lly a b o u t s e rio u s to p ic s .

3. T h e te a c h e r s h o u ld e n c o u ra g e e v e ry o n e to c o n tr ib u te .

4 . A v o id p ro v o c a tiv e re m a rk s in c o n v e rs a tio n classes!

5. G r o u p w o rk is o fte n a g o o d b a s is f o r a c o n v e rs a tio n le s so n .
T e c h n iq u e s — C o n v e r sa tio n

1. E x p lo it o p p o r tu n itie s fo r s h o r t s p o n ta n e o u s c o n v e r s a tio n s

It is u su a lly a m ista k e to p la n a c o n v e rs a tio n in to a le sso n . P la n n e d c o n v e rs a ­

tio n s u su a lly d e g e n e ra te in to sile n c e o r involve o n ly a sm a ll n u m b e r o f
stu d e n ts. T h is is in e v ita b le — if th e to p ic is to o g e n e ra l it w ill n o t ex c ite
in te re st, if it is to o sp e cific s o m e s tu d e n ts w ill b e in te re s te d , a n d o th e rs n o t.
N a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n o u ts id e th e c la s s ro o m is s p o n ta n e o u s . It e b b s a n d
flow s, a n d d iffe re n t p e o p le c o n trib u te in d iffe re n t w ays. S o m e p e o p le a re
n a tu ra lly talk a tiv e , a n d o th e rs n a tu ra lly q u ie t. F o r th e s e re a s o n s it is u n w ise
to e x p e c t sim ila r c o n trib u tio n s fro m all th e s tu d e n ts in c la s s ro o m
c o n v e rs a tio n . A s fa r a s p o ss ib le , th e fe a tu re s o f n a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n sh o u ld
b e in c o r p o ra te d in to th e c la s sro o m activity.
C la s s ro o m c o n v e rs a tio n w ill b e m o s t effectiv e if it a ris e s n a tu ra lly a n d
s p o n ta n e o u s ly fro m th e tex t, a n e x a m p le , a re m a rk m a d e b y a s tu d e n t o r
so m e th in g w h ic h happens d u rin g th e le sso n . T h e n o is e o f a h e a v y lo rry p a s s ­
ing th e w in d o w is m o re likely to s tim u la te c o m m e n t fro m th e c lass th a n a n y
d is c u ss io n w h ic h y o u h av e d e c id e d in a d v a n c e .
P ro b a b ly th e le a s t su c ce ssfu l o f all la n g u a g e le s so n s a re so -c a lle d
“c o n v e rs a tio n le sso n s.” T h e re a s o n is o b v io u s — to require a g ro u p o f p e o p le
to ta lk a b o u t a g iven to p ic , fo r a g ive n le n g th o f tim e , w ith e a c h p e rs o n
c o n tr ib u tin g sim ilarly is c o m p le te ly u n n a tu ra l. F ro m a la n g u a g e te a c h in g
p o in t o f v iew it is a ls o v ery s u s p e c t sin c e th e skills re q u ire d to c o n trib u te to a
re a l c o n v e rs a tio n inv o lve th e a b ility to fo rm u la te y o u r id e a s quickly, to
in te rru p t n a tu ra lly a n d in th e rig h t p la c e , to a g re e o r d is a g re e p le a s a n tly —
o fte n o n ly sm iling o r n o d d in g . P re p a ra tio n fo rm s n o p a r t o f n a tu ra l c o n v e r­
sa tio n . S p o n ta n e ity is n o t a r e c o m m e n d a tio n f o r c la s sro o m c o n v e rs a tio n , it
is e sse n tia l.

2 . D o n ’t flo g a d ea d h o r s e

A s s o o n a s y o u see in te re s t in a p a rtic u la r to p ic is flagging, d r o p it

im m e d ia te ly e v e n if y o u , th e te a c h e r, fin d th e su b je c t fascin atin g . T h e
p u rp o s e o f c o n v e rs a tio n in a le s s o n is to give th e s tu d e n ts a c h a n c e to ta lk
a b o u t so m e th in g th a t in te re sts them. In re a l life if sen sitiv e p a rtic ip a n ts in a
c o n v e rs a tio n re a lise th a t a to p ic is n o t o f in te re st to th e o th e r p e rs o n , th e y
c h a n g e th e su b je c t. T h e s a m e a p p lie s to th e c la s sro o m . Y o u r s tu d e n ts w ill
th in k y o u a re a b o re if y o u in sist o n p u m p in g th e m fo r a re s p o n s e w h e n it is
o b v io u s th a t th e y h a v e n o th in g m o re to say.
 Techniques — Conversation

3 . E n c o u r a g e c o n tr ib u tio n s w ith o u t in te r fe r in g

N a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n is a re la x e d activ ity ; ideally, c la s s ro o m c o n v e rs a tio n

s h o u ld b e re la x e d to o . T o o o fte n it is in h ib itin g — th e te a c h e r a sk s q u e s tio n s
su c h a s W hat do you think, Tomas? — in fa c t T o m a s m a y n o t b e th in k in g
a b o u t th e issu e a t all a n d , if h e is, m a y h a v e v e ry little to say a b o u t it. H e m a y
w a n t to a g re e w ith th e p re v io u s sp e a k e r, o r h e m a y h a v e a c o m p le x a n d in te r­
e stin g v ie w w h ic h h e k n o w s h e c a n n o t e x p re s s w ith h is c u r r e n t level o f
E n g lish . T e a c h e rs n e e d to re m e m b e r th a t, in in tro d u c in g “c o n v e rs a tio n ” in to
a le s so n , th e y a re in tro d u c in g o n e o f th e m o s t d iffic u lt total skills o f la n g u a g e
u s e — th e a b ility to c o m b in e th e a c c u ra te e x p re s s io n o f y o u r id e a s w ith th e ir
p re s e n ta tio n in a so cia l s itu a tio n . S tu d e n ts a re in h ib ite d b y la c k o f la n g u a g e ,
a n d b y th e fa c t th a t th is k in d o f a c tiv ity n o rm a lly d o e s n o t ta k e p la c e in la rg e
g ro u p s . T e a c h e rs s h o u ld , th e re fo re , e x p e c t o n ly sim p le c o n trib u tio n s a n d b e
c o n te n t to e n c o u ra g e th e s e . E n c o u ra g e m e n t c a n ta k e th e fo rm o f a g e n e ra l
q u e s tio n , a n e n q u irin g lo o k , a sm ile , a n d , p e rh a p s m o s t im p o rta n tly o f all, a
p a u s e , d u rin g w h ic h s tu d e n ts h a v e tim e to fo rm u la te th e ir th o u g h ts a n d to
d e c id e w h a t th e y w ish to say, a n d h o w th e y w ish to say it.
T e a c h e rs w ill n o t e n c o u ra g e s tu d e n ts to ta lk b y p re s s u ris in g th e m w ith
q u e s tio n s o r b y c o n s ta n tly “h e lp in g ” b y fin ish in g s tu d e n ts ’ s e n te n c e s f o r
th e m . A p le a s a n t, re la x e d a tm o s p h e re , a n d a fe w m o m e n ts sile n c e fro m th e
te a c h e r a re m o r e likely to b e effective.
T e a c h e rs m u s t b e c a re fu l, to o , n o t to d is c o u ra g e c o n trib u tio n s b y ju m p in g
o n m ista k e s. O f all c la s s ro o m a c tiv itie s, “c o n v e rs a tio n ” is th e o n e w h ic h m o s t
o b v io u sly c o n c e n tra te s o n flu e n c y r a th e r th a n a c c u ra c y . A c c o rd in g ly , te a c h ­
e rs m u s t not c o rre c t sm a ll s tru c tu ra l e rro r s , a n d , if th e y a re to p ro v id e a n y
c o rre c tio n a t all, it m u s t c o m e after the c o n v e rs a tio n r a th e r th a n in te rru p tin g
its flow.
L a n g u a g e te a c h e rs s e ld o m re a liz e h o w d o m in a n t th e y a re in a la n g u a g e
c la s sro o m ; th e y c o n tro l d rills, e x e rc ise s a n d te x ts; th e y in itia te m o s t
ac tivities. T h is is m o s t u n lik e re a l life, so in th o s e p a rts w h ic h m o s t re s e m b le
n a tu ra l situ a tio n s, y o u m u s t le a rn to ta k e a b a c k seat.

4 . C o n v e r s a tio n d o e s n o t n e e d to b e a b o u t s e r io u s is s u e s

C o n v e rs a tio n o u ts id e th e c la s s ro o m is m o s t fre q u e n tly a b o u t v e ry b a n a l to p ­

ics — a T V p ro g ra m m e w e h a v e se e n , n e w s a b o u t a m u tu a l frie n d , th e
w e a th e r, th e fa c t th e b u s is la te , e tc . O n ly re lativ ely o c c a sio n a lly d o w e
d isc u ss m o r e se rio u s issues.
W h e n m a n y la n g u a g e te a c h e rs ta lk a b o u t “a c o n v e rs a tio n c la s s ”, th e y a re
m o r e lik ely to h a v e in m in d d is c u s s io n s o f re lativ ely s e rio u s “is su e s” . M a n y
te x tb o o k s re fle c t th is c o n c e rn w ith “is su e s ” b y h a v in g c h a p te rs o n “th e ro le o f
W o m e n ”, “P o llu tio n ,” e tc . T h e r e is lo g ic ally n o m o r e re a s o n f o r s tu d e n ts to
e x p re s s th e ir view s o n th e ro le o f w o m e n in th e E n g lis h le s s o n th a n in p h y sic s
a n d , b e a rin g in m in d th a t in th e E n g lis h le s s o n th e y a re re q u ire d to e x p re ss
th e ir v ie w s in a la n g u a g e o v e r w h ic h th e y h a v e a n im p e rfe c t, a n d o fte n r a th e r
p o o r, c o m m a n d , it is h a rd ly s u rp ris in g th a t s o m e s tu d e n ts a r e p o sitiv e ly
u n w illin g to e x p re s s th e ir v iew s o n a s u b je c t a b o u t w h ic h th e y m a y n o t a c tu ­
ally c a re . W h ile te x tb o o k w rite rs n a tu ra lly c h o o s e to p ic a re a s w h ic h th e y
th in k w ill in te re s t th e ir re a d e rs (itse lf a d a n g e ro u s a s s u m p tio n ), te a c h e rs
s h o u ld b e w a r e o f “b ig is su e s ” a s th e b a s is o f c o n v e rs a tio n le sso n s. M a n y
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Techniques — Conversation

e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e rs w ill te ll y o u th a t it is fre q u e n tly e a s ie r to s tim u la te c o m ­

m e n t fro m a c la ss a b o u t less s e rio u s to p ic s. R a th e r su rp risin g ly , it is o fte n
e a sie s t o f all to s tim u la te c o m m e n t a b o u t s o m e th in g w h ic h is, intrinsically ,
to ta lly u n im p o rta n t.

5 . P r o v o c a tiv e s ta te m e n ts a re o fte n b e tte r th a n q u e s tio n s

W e h a v e a lr e a d y n o te d th a t it is o fte n b e tte r to m a k e a ‘w ro n g ’ ta g g e d
s ta te m e n t r a th e r th a n a sk a q u e s tio n if th e s tu d e n t is to b e s tim u la te d to p r o ­
d u c e la n g u a g e in, f o r e x a m p le , th e fo llo w -u p to a tex t. T h e s a m e te c h n iq u e
a p p lie s to stim u la tin g a s tu d e n t re s p o n s e in fre e activitie s. N o rm a l
c o n v e rs a tio n a l d is c u ss io n d o e s n o t u s u a lly c o n sist o f a strin g o f q u e s tio n s
a n d a n sw e rs; th e sp e a k e rs re s p o n d to e a c h o th e r ’s a ttitu d e s a n d o p in io n s.
S tu d e n ts c a n o fte n b e m u c h m o re w illing to re s p o n d to a p ro v o c a tiv e
s ta te m e n t th a n to a q u e stio n . N o t D o y o u th in k b o y s a n d g irls s h o u ld g o to th e
s a m e s c h o o ls ?, b u t I th in k i t ’s b e tte r f o r b o y s a n d g irls to b e in d iffe re n t classes.
T e a c h e rs a re so m e tim e s in h ib ite d a b o u t e x p re ss in g th e ir o w n view s in th is
p ro v o c a tiv e way. S u c h w o rrie s a r e n o t u su a lly w e ll-fo u n d e d , a s s tu d e n ts h a lf
re a lise th a t th e te a c h e r is p ro v o k in g th e m , a n d h a lf e x p e c t th e ir te a c h e r to
h o ld u n u s u a l view s anyw ay!
If te a c h e rs d o fe el in h ib ite d , h o w ev er, th e y c a n o v e rc o m e th e d ifficu lty b y
in tro d u c in g a “frie n d ” in to th e le s s o n — A n E n g lish f r ie n d o f m in e to l d m e /
w ro te to m e th e o th e r d a y th a t h e th o u g h t it w a s b e tte r t h a t . . . . N e e d le s s to
say, th e “frie n d ” c a n b e g iv en a n y v iew s w h ic h th e te a c h e r fin d s c o n v e n ie n t!

6 . P r o b le m s o lv in g is o fte n an e x c e lle n t b a s is fo r
“c o n v e r s a tio n ”

M o s t te a c h e rs n o w re c o g n ise th e im p o rta n c e o f “th e in fo rm a tio n g a p ” in

la n la n g u a g e tea ch in g . In n o rm a l life w e d o n o t s p e a k u n le s s w e h a v e a re a s o n
to d o so. T h e m o s t c o m m o n re a s o n is th e e x is te n c e o f a n in fo rm a tio n g a p —
th e tw o s p e a k e rs h a v e d iffe re n t se ts o f in fo rm a tio n (in th e b r o a d se n s e ) a n d
th e c o n v e rs a tio n c o n sists o f th e e x c h a n g e o f in fo rm a tio n . M a n y s itu a tio n a l
o r p a ir w o rk p ra c tic e s a r e n o w b a s e d o n th is p rin c ip le .
It c a n , h o w e ver, b e e v e n m o r e effectiv e if m o r e frilly d e v e lo p e d . T e a c h e rs
c a n , fo r e x a m p le , d e lib e ra te ly d iv id e th e c la ss in to tw o g ro u p s , h a v e th e stu ­
d e n ts c o lle c t d iffe re n t se ts o f in fo rm a tio n — p e rh a p s in fo rm a tio n fro m
re fe re n c e b o o k s a b o u t a to p ic th e y a re stud y ing . W h e n th e tw o g ro u p s re tu rn
to r e p o r t w h a t th e y h a v e fo u n d , e a c h h a s a n a tu ra l in te re s t in w h a t th e o th e r
h a s to sa y a n d ,'if s o m e p a r t o f th e in fo rm a tio n is u n c le a r o r in c o m p le te , it is
n a tu ra l to a sk fo r c la rific a tio n o r f u r th e r in fo rm a tio n . I t is a ls o n a tu ra l, fo r
e x a m p le , to e x p re ss s u rp ris e a b o u t c e rta in b its o f in fo rm a tio n fo u n d b y th e
o th e r s tu d e n ts . S u c h n a tu ra l in v o lv e m e n t is c lo s e r to n o rm a l la n g u a g e u s e
o u ts id e th e c la s s ro o m th a n a n y c o n triv e d c la s s ro o m d isc u ss io n .
In a sim ila r way, p ro b le m so lv ing o f all k in d s c re a te s in fo rm a tio n g a p s,
a n d , th e re fo re , th e c o n d itio n s f o r n a tu ra l la n g u a g e u se . S u c h p ro b le m so lv ing
a ctiv ities h a v e a fu rth e r, a n d e x tre m e ly im p o rta n t, a d v a n ta g e — n am ely , th e y
in v ite th e s tu d e n ts to u s e in fo rm a tio n fro m e x p e rie n c e o u ts id e th e la n g u a g e
le a rn in g c la s sro o m . A sim p le e x a m p le m a y illu s tra te th e p o in t. O n n u m e ro u s
 Techniques — Conversation

o c c a s io n s w e h a v e in v ite d s tu d e n ts to p ic k “th e o d d m a n o u t” fro m th e fo l­

low ing:

a p p le p e a r t o m a t o b a n a n a p e a c h

O n e v e ry sin g le o c c a s io n a t le a s t o n e m e m b e r o f th e g ro u p q u e s tio n e d h a s
su g g e ste d to m a to a n d , w h e n a s k e d w hy, h a s re p lie d I t ’s th e o n ly o n e w h ic h
is n ’t a fru it. T h e re m a rk a b le th in g is th a t, o n e v e ry sin g le o c c a s io n w ith n o
f u r th e r p ro m p tin g , a n o th e r m e m b e r o f th e g ro u p h a s im m e d ia te ly
r e s p o n d e d O h , b u t it is.
T h e “p ro b le m ” is h a rd ly im p o rta n t; se v e ra l “c o rre c t” a n sw e rs a re p o s s ib le
— w hy n o t b a n a n a b e c a u s e it’s th e o n ly o n e w h ic h is y ello w — b u t th e
e x tr a o rd in a r y th in g is th a t s tu d e n ts s p o n ta n e o u s ly re s p o n d to e a c h o th e r ’s
o p in io n s a n d id e a s . S u c h re s p o n s e s a re n o t, h o w ev er, a c c id e n ta l — th e y a re
b a s e d o n th e fa c t th a t s tu d e n ts b rin g in to th e c la s s ro o m k n o w le d g e w h ic h
th e y c a n u se . T h e y d o n o t fee l a t risk in d is c u ssin g s u c h a triv ia l p ro b le m ; it is
w ith in th e ir lin g u istic c a p a b ility ; d iffe re n t p e o p le c a n , leg itim ately, h a v e d if­
fe re n t o p in io n s ; p e o p le c a re e n o u g h to “c o r r e c t” o th e r s ’ o p in io n s , b u t n o t
e n o u g h to fee l in h ib ite d b y th e to p ic .
P ro b le m solv ing a c tiv itie s m a y ra n g e fro m sim p le p u z z le s o f th e k in d ju s t
m e n tio n e d to th e k in d o f fu ll-s c a le m a n a g e m e n t tra in in g p ro b le m s
so m e tim e s u s e d to te a c h b u s in e s s s tu d e n ts . T h e y m a y ta k e a n y th in g fro m
tw o o r th r e e m in u te s to se v e ra l h o u r s o f c la s s ro o m tim e . T h e e ss e n tia l
fe a tu re is, h o w ev er, alw ay s th e s a m e — b y g e n e ra tin g a n a tu r a l in fo rm a tio n
g a p th e y e n s u re th a t la n g u a g e u s e is a s p o n ta n e o u s , n a tu r a l a ctivity, v astly
m o r e in v o lv in g a n d m o r e h e lp fu l f o r s tu d e n ts th a n th e c o n triv e d s e t-p ie c e
d is c u ss io n s fre q u e n tly p la n n e d b y te a c h e rs a s “c o n v e rs a tio n c la s se s”.

7. E n c o u r a g e a c tiv e lis te n in g

U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e n o rm a l p a tte r n o f c la s s ro o m c o n v e rs a tio n s is te a c h e r-

q u e s tio n , stu d e n t-a n s w e r. N a tu ra l c o n v e rs a tio n d o e s n o t, h o w e v er, c o n s is t o f
strin g s o f q u e s tio n s a n d a n sw e rs ; fr e q u e n tly w h e n o n e s p e a k e r m a k e s a
s ta te m e n t, th e o th e r p e r s o n sign a ls in te re s t a n d e n c o u ra g e s th e firs t to
e x p a n d . W h e n o n e s p e a k e r d e liv e rs a rela tiv e ly lo n g m o n o lo g u e , th e lis te n e rs
c o n s ta n tly sign al th e ir re a c tio n s . R e fle c t th is in th e c o n v e rs a tio n s y o u h a v e in
y o u r c la s s ro o m . A t all levels, te a c h th e k in d o f re s p o n s e s w h ic h e n c o u ra g e
th e s p e a k e r to e x p a n d :

R e a lly ?
T h a t’s v ery in te re stin g .
W e re y o u ? D id y o u ? H a s s h e ? i.e. (au x ilia ry v e rb ) (p r o n o u n )

Y ou y o u rse lf, w h ile c o n d u c tin g th e c o n v e rs a tio n p a r t o f th e le s so n , will fin d

th a t if y o u u s e s u c h ta c tic s , th e s tu d e n ts w ill a u to m a tic a lly re s p o n d a n d
e x p a n d . If y o u h a v e ta u g h t th e m in a d v a n c e , y o u w ill fin d th a t th e y w ill s ta rt
u sin g th e m to o . A im to s to p th e m re ly in g o n d ire c t q u e s tio n s w h ic h c a n so
e asily m a k e th e m se e m a s if th e y a re in te rro g a tin g th e listen er.
C h a p ter 1 2

S o m e m isu n d e r sto o d
la n g u a g e p o in ts

M a rk e a c h o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts b e fo re a n d a fte r y o u re a d th e c h a p te r.
M a rk e a c h s ta te m e n t
✓ if y o u agree.
X if y o u disa g ree.
? if y o u a re u n d e c id e d .

1. S o m e d o e s n o t o c c u r in n e g a tiv e se n te n c e s.

2. T h e p re s e n t sim p le re fe rs to th e fu tu re a s fa c t.

3. E n g lish c o n tin u o u s fo rm s re fe r to p e r io d s .

4 . T h e p a s t p a rtic ip le is u s e d to m a k e th e p r e s e n t p e rfe c t.

5. U n c o u n ta b le n o u n s a re sing u lar.

6 . C o u ld is th e p a s t te n s e o f can.

7. M u s t is s tro n g e r th a n h a v e to.

8 . I t ’s a lo v e ly d a y, is n ’t it is a q u e s tio n .

9. S tre ss in g a n a u x ilia ry c a n c h a n g e th e m e a n in g o f a se n te n c e .

1 0 . (D o ) a s a n a u x ilia ry is a n irre g u la rity in E ng lish.

S o m e M isu n d e r sto o d
L a n g u a g e P o in ts

E a rly in this b o o k w e o b s e rv e d th a t g o o d ru le s c a n h e lp s tu d e n ts a n d , later,

th a t a “ru le ” w a s a c o m b in a tio n o f e x a m p le , e x p la n a tio n a n d th e re la tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n th e s e tw o . U n fo rtu n a te ly , it o fte n re m a in s tr u e th a t th e e le m e n t o f
la n g u a g e te a c h in g w h ic h is b a s e d o n u n d e rs ta n d in g th e u n d e rly in g s tru c tu re
o f th e la n g u a g e is e ith e r a v o id e d b y te a c h e rs , o r h a n d le d b y th e m in a w ay
w h ic h in tim id a te s a n d c o n fu s e s s tu d e n ts . C a re le s s, lazy, a n d o ff-h a n d
e x p la n a tio n s c o n fu s e in s te a d o f h e lp in g . M a n y te x tb o o k s p re s e n t e x a m p le s
b u t n o t e x p la n a tio n s , a n d g ra m m a r b o o k s so m e tim e s o n ly c o n fu s e .
T h is b o o k is a b o u t p ra c tic a l te a c h in g te c h n iq u e s. It is n o t a g ra m m a r
b o o k . In th is c h a p te r, h o w ev er, w e tu r n o u r a tte n tio n to te n fe a tu re s o f E n g ­
lish w h ic h a re fre q u e n tly b a d ly -ta u g h t a n d e v e n m is u n d e rs to o d b y te a c h e rs
th e m se lv es. T h e e x a m p le s c h o s e n h e re a re in n o s e n s e c o m p re h e n siv e . T h e y
a re c h o s e n b e c a u s e e a c h ex em p lifies a g e n e ra l p rin c ip le w h ic h d istin g u ish e s
g o o d la n g u a g e te a c h in g fro m b a d .
T h e e x p la n a tio n s o ffe re d a r e n e c e ssa rily b rie f. T h e p o in ts a re m u c h m o re
e x h a u stiv e ly d is c u ss e d in T h e B a sic S tru c tu re o f th e E n g lish V erb (M ic h a e l
L e w is, L a n g u a g e T ea ch in g P u b lic a tio n s ,1985).

1. s o m e /a n y

L a n g u a g e te a c h e rs o fte n p re s e n t th e “ru le ”:

S o m e in p o s it iv e se n te n c e s
A n y in n e g a t iv e s a n d q u e s t io n s

d e s p ite th e fa c t th a t th e y k n o w th a t all o f th e fo llo w ing a re p o ss ib le E n g lish

se n te n c e s:

I lik e s o m e p o p m u sic.
I lik e a n y p o p m u sic.
I d o n ’t like s o m e p o p m u sic.
I d o n ’t lik e a n y p o p m u sic.

T e a c h e rs, a n d e v e n b o o k s , g o to g re a t le n g th s to e x p la in “sp e c ia l” u se s o f
s o m e a n d a n y in a n a tte m p t to p re s e rv e th e “b a sic ru le ” w hich th e y h a v e
a lre a d y ta u g h t. In fa c t th is ru le is c o m p le te ly w ro ng .
 125
Som e m isunderstood language points

T h e u s e o f s o m e a n d a n y is d e te r m in e d b y m e a n in g , n o t b y s tru c tu re :

S o m e a n d a n y a re b o th u s e d f o r in d e fin ite q u a n titie s.

S o m e is u s e d if th e q u a n tity is r e s t r ic t e d in s o m e way.
A n y is u s e d if th e q u a n tity is n o t r e s t r ic t e d .

T h is ru le , a lth o u g h m o r e a b s tra c t a n d “d iffic u lt” , c o v e rs all u s e s o f s o m e a n d

an y, a n d th e ir c o m p o u n d s (s o m e b o d y , a n y th in g , etc.).
S o m e alw ay s re fe rs to p a r t; a n y re fe rs to a ll o r n o n e . T h e fo u r se n te n c e s
a b o v e m a y b e sh o w n d ia g ra m m a tic a lly :

I lik e s o m e p o p m u s ic . I lik e a n y p o p m u s ic .

If p a r t o f th e a r e a is s h a d e d , s o m e is u s e d .
O
d o n ’t lik e a n y p o p m u s ic .

If th e w h o le a r e a is th e s a m e (s h a d e d o r u n s h a d e d ), a n y is u se d .
T ra d itio n a l te a c h in g , ig n o rin g th is b a s ic ru le , first ta u g h t th e ‘ru le ’ re la tin g
to p o sitiv e s, n e g a tiv e s a n d q u e s tio n s , a n d th e n fo llo w e d w ith “e x c e p tio n s ”
c o n c e rn in g “p o lite re q u e s ts ” ( C a n I g e t y o u s o m e th in g to e a t? ) , a n tic ip a te d
a n sw e rs (H a v e y o u g o t s o m e to m a to e s , p le a s e ? ) etc.
T h e p rin c ip le is th a t if y o u p r e s e n t a “ru le ” a n d th e n fin d th a t y o u h a v e to
p re s e n t a lo n g strin g o f sp e c ia l c a se s o r e x c e p tio n s, y o u s h o u ld g o b a c k to th e
o rig in a l ru le a n d q u e s tio n th a t. O n s o m e o c c a s io n s it m a y b e b e tte r to p re s ­
e n t a fuller, m o r e a c c u ra te ru le initially, r a th e r th a n h a v e to d e a l w ith a strin g
o f ‘sp e c ia l c a se s’ w h ic h m o s t sim p lifie d ru le s p ro d u c e .

2 . “T h e F u tu r e ”

E n g lish d o e s n o t p o s se ss a sin g le v e rb fo rm w h ic h is stro n g ly a s s o c ia te d w ith

th e e x p re s s io n o f fu tu re tim e . S e v e ral v e rb fo rm s m a y b e u s e d to ta lk a b o u t
Som e m isunderstood language points

th e fu tu re . A m o n g th e m o s t im p o rta n t are:

1 . T h e p r e s e n t s im p le

M y b ir th d a y is o n W e d n e sd a y n e x t w eek.
We ta k e o f f a t 1 0 o ’c lo c k to m o r r o w m o rn in g .

T h is fo rm is m o s tly u s e d if th e s p e a k e r se e s th e fu tu re a s a fa c t, o fte n d e te r ­
m in e d b y th e c a le n d a r o r a n official tim e ta b le .

2 . T h e p r e s e n t c o n t in u o u s

I ’m p la y in g te n n is w ith B ill o n S a tu rday.

W e’re g o in g to I ta ly f o r o u r h o lid a y s th is year.

T h is fo rm is u su a lly u s e d w h e n a n a rra n g e m e n t h a s a lr e a d y b e e n m a d e . In
th e s p e a k e r’s m in d th e re is s o m e e v e n t b e fo re th e m o m e n t o f sp e a k in g , w h ic h
is lin k e d w ith th e fu tu re e v en t. In th is se n s e th e e v e n t “s u r ro u n d s th e m o m e n t
o f sp e a k in g ” in th e s a m e w ay a s w ith o th e r u se s o f th e p re s e n t c o n tin u o u s
su c h a s I t ’s raining.

3 . ( b e ) g o in g t o

L o o k a t th o s e c lo u d s , i t ’s g o in g to rain.
O h d ear, I ’m th in k I ’m g o in g to sn e e ze .
W e’re g o in g to m o v e a s s o o n a s w e can.

T h is fo rm is u su a lly u s e d w h e n th e re is s o m e e v id e n c e a t th e m o m e n t o f
s p e a k in g w h ic h le a d s th e s p e a k e r to e x p e c t th e fu tu re e v e n t. T h e e v id e n c e
m a y b e e x te rn a l (c lo u d s , th e tic k le in th e n o s e ) o r in te rn a l (a d e c is io n ).

4 . T h e ’11 fu tu r e

H a n g o n , I ’ll ju s t g e t m y co a t.
W h o e ls e ’ll b e th e r e ?

T h is fo rm gives th e s p e a k e r’s o p in io n (o r a sk s fo r th e liste n e r’s o p in io n )

f o r m e d a t th e m o m e n t o f sp ea k in g . It re fe rs to fu tu re tim e b u t is th e fo rm
w h ic h is m o s t c lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s p e a k e r’s ( o r liste n e r’s) p r e s e n t
o p in io n .

T h e m e a n in g o f th e in d iv id u a l w o rd s o f a s e n te n c e m a y m e a n th a t p a rtic u la r
c o llo c a tio n s a re im p o ss ib le ( * / ’m g o in g to s n e e z e to m o r r o w ) o r th a t o n e fo rm
is c o m m o n a n d a n o th e r u n c o m m o n . In o th e r c a se s, th e w h o le g ro u p o f c o n ­
tra stin g s e n te n c e s , all n a tu ra l, m a y b e fo rm e d :

W e le a v e to m o rro w .
W e a re le a v in g to m o rro w .
W e’r e g o in g to le a v e to m o rro w .
W e ’ll le a v e to m o rro w .

S ev eral p o in ts a re im p o rta n t — if th e s tu d e n ts ’ o w n la n g u a g e p o ss e ss e s a
single fo rm (“th e fu tu re ”) stro n g ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e e x p re s s io n o f fu tu re
tim e , th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s u s e s in E n g lis h w ill b e difficult. It
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Som e m isunderstood language points

will n o t b e suffic ie n t to p r e s e n t e a c h fo rm s e p a ra te ly ; it w ill a ls o b e n e c e s s a ry

to p r e s e n t th e fo rm s c o n tra stiv e ly , a n d , r a th e r th a n sim p ly e x p e c tin g s tu d e n ts
to u n d e r s ta n d th e d iffe re n c e , it w ill b e n e c e s s a ry to e x p lo re th e d iffe re n c e o n
su c c e ssiv e o c c a s io n s a s th e s tu d e n ts b u ild u p a se rie s o f p ic tu re s o f th e d iffe r­
e n t u se s.
T ry in g to “sim p lify” will o fte n c o n fu s e , a n d try in g to is o la te p a rtic u la r u se s
w ill d elay , n o t so lve, th e p ro b le m .
T w o im p o rta n t p rin c ip le s e m e rg e fro m th is e x a m p le — la n g u a g e s a re
d iffe re n t, o fte n in fu n d a m e n ta l w ays, a n d th o s e d iffe re n c e s n e e d to b e
e x p lo re d , n o t ig n o re d , if s tu d e n ts a re to d e v e lo p a re a l u n d e rs ta n d in g o f, a n d
a b ility to u se , th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e . S e co n d ly , la n g u a g e le a rn in g is cyclical. N o
s tu d e n t c o u ld le a rn o n e u s e , th e n a n o th e r, th e n a n o th e r, w ith o u t a lso n e e d in g
to rev ise, s e e c o n tra stiv e ly , a n d c o n s ta n tly lo o k a g a in a t th e s a m e p ro b le m s
fro m d iffe re n t p o in ts o f view.

3 . C o n tin u o u s fo r m s

A n y E n g lis h v e rb fo rm m a y o c c u r in e ith e r th e sim p le o r th e c o n tin u o u s . T h e

c o n tin u o u s fo rm s a re c h a ra c te ris e d b y c o n ta in in g (be) + . . . ing.

S im p le C o n t in u o u s

I liv e in B ir m in g h a m . I ’m liv in g in B ir m in g h a m .
T h e y a r e m a d e in H o n g K o n g . T h e y ’r e b e in g m a d e in H o n g K o n g .
I’v e w a it e d t h r e e m o n t h s . I ’v e b e e n w a itin g t h r e e m o n t h s .
I ’ll s e e h im to m o r r o w . I ’ll b e s e e i n g h im to m o r r o w .

A ll c o n tin u o u s fo rm s a re u s e d if th e s p e a k e r (w rite r), a t th e m o m e n t o f u se ,

se e s th e e v e n t d e s c rib e d as g o in g o n f o r a lim ited period o f tim e . B o th e le ­
m e n ts o f th a t d e fin itio n a re im p o r ta n t — th e s p e a k e r c o n c e p tu a lis e s th e
e v e n t a s a p e rio d ; th e s p e a k e r a ls o c o n c e p tu a lis e s th e p e r io d a s limited. I t is
n o t a q u e s tio n o f o b je c tiv e fac t, b u t o f th e s p e a k e r’s su b je c tiv e in te rp re ta tio n
o f th e s itu a tio n a t th e m o m e n t o f la n g u a g e u se .
A g a in , tw o im p o rta n t p rin c ip le s e m e rg e — te a c h e rs m u s t alw ay s b e a w a re
o f th e fa c t th a t in le a rn in g a n e w la n g u a g e s tu d e n ts a re s o m e tim e s le a rn in g
n e w c o n c e p ts , n o t sim p ly n e w w o rd s f o r o ld th in g s. U n d e rs ta n d in g is
n e c e ssa ry , a n d th is ta k e s tim e . S ec o n d ly , m o s t te x tb o o k s p r e s e n t th e p r e s e n t
c o n tin u o u s , a n d p e rh a p s c o n tr a s t it w ith th e p r e s e n t sim p le . T h e y p r e s e n t
th e p a s t c o n tin u o u s , p e r h a p s c o n tr a s te d w ith th e p a s t sim p le . R a re ly d o th e y
g a th e r to g e th e r th e c o n tin u o u s fo rm s a n d sh o w th a t th e y h a v e s o m e th in g in
com m on. F o r th e m o r e a d v a n c e d s tu d e n t, it h e lp s to c o n s id e r to g e th e r
p o in ts o f similarity, as w ell a s p o in ts o f c o n tra s t.
M o s t im p o rta n tly o f all, c o n tin u o u s fo rm s a re a fe a tu re o f English, b u t n o t
o f m o s t E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e s . If th e te a c h e r is c o n s ta n tly c o n tra s tin g E n g lis h
a n d th e s tu d e n ts ’ n a tiv e la n g u a g e — p e rh a p s u s in g a m e th o d w h ic h re fe rs
fre q u e n tly to tra n s la tio n — s tu d e n ts w ill b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e c o n fu s e d .
T h e m o r e th e stu d y o f E n g lis h is b a s e d o n c o n tra s tin g E n g lis h w ith E n g lish ,
ra th e r th a n E n g lis h w ith th e s tu d e n t’s n a tiv e la n g u a g e , th e m o r e lik e ly s tu ­
d e n ts a re to u n d e r s ta n d h o w E n g lis h is u se d . T h is d o e s n o t m e a n
e x p la n a tio n s a n d d is c u s s io n o f la n g u a g e p ro b le m s m a y n o t ta k e p la c e in th e
s tu d e n t’s n a tiv e la n g u a g e , b u t th a t it s h o u ld b e b a s e d o n p ro b le m s o f c o n tr a s t
w ith in E n g lish .
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Som e m isunderstood language points

4 . go — w en t — go n e

E n g lish is n o t a h igh ly in fle c te d la n g u a g e . M o s t v e rb s h a v e o n ly fo u r form s:

w a lk — w a lk s — w a lk e d — w a lk in g

S o m e ir re g u la r v e rb s h a v e five:

g o — g o e s — w e n t — g o n e — g o in g

E v e n th e v e rb (be) h a s o n ly e ig h t fo rm s.

W ith so few fo rm s , it s h o u ld n o t b e n e c e s s a ry to h a v e a c o m p le x sy s te m o f
n a m e s f o r th e fo rm s. T e rm in o lo g y s h o u ld alw ay s a im a t b e in g b o th a c c u ra te
a n d h elp fu l. M a n y o f th e tr a d itio n a l g ra m m a tic a l n a m e s a re c e rta in ly n o t
h e lp fu l w h e n u s e d to d e s c rib e E n g lish v e rb fo rm s . T h e “p a s t p a rtic ip le ”, is
u s e d to m a k e th e p r e s e n t p e rfe c t, a n d all p a ssiv e s (m a d e ; I'v e m a d e a m ista k e ;
T h e y ’re m a d e o f w o o d ) . S tu d e n ts m u s t o fte n w o n d e r w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d —
w h y is th e p a s t p a rtic ip le , u s e d f o r th e p r e s e n t p e rfe c t?
A m u c h s im p le r sy ste m o f te rm in o lo g y is p o s sib le . W h a t is w ro n g w ith
th e s e sim p le n a m e s ?

G oes — T h e —s f o r m
G o in g — T h e —in g f o r m
Go — T h e fir s t f o r m
W en t — The se c o n d fo rm
G one — T h e th ir d f o r m

M a n y s tu d e n ts le a rn th e ir re g u la r v e rb lists, u sin g a s a p a tte r n g o — w e n t —

g o n e , s o th a t th e te rm s first, s e c o n d , th ir d a re h elp fu l. T h e ir m a in a d v a n ta g e is
th a t th e y a re n o t c o n fusing .
U sin g th is v e ry sim p le s e t o f te rm s it is in te re stin g to n o te th a t it is n o t
n e c e s s a ry to u s e “im p e ra tiv e ”, “in fin itiv e”, “p a rtic ip le ”, o r “g e ru n d ”, w hich
a re all te rm s w h ic h c o n fu s e s tu d e n ts a n d m a k e th e ta s k o f le a rn in g th e
fo re ig n la n g u a g e s e e m m o re difficult.
T h e p rin c ip le is sim p le — te rm in o lo g y s h o u ld d e s c rib e , a n d b e a s h e lp fu l
a s p o ss ib le . T e a c h e rs s h o u ld in tro d u c e te rm in o lo g y o n ly if th e y a re s u re stu ­
d e n ts u n d e rs ta n d it, a n d it is n e c e ssa ry . M u c h c o n v e n tio n a l term in o lo g y ,
w h ile s u ita b le fo r m o r e h igh ly in fle c te d lan g u a g e s, is q u ite u n s u ita b le fo r
E n g lis h a n d m a k e s th e s tu d e n t’s ta s k u n n e c e s s a rily c o m p lic a te d .

5 . C o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n ta b le n o u n s

L ik e v e rb s, E n g lis h n o u n s h a rd ly c h a n g e e x c e p t to fo rm p lu ra ls (u su a lly b y
th e a d d itio n o f —s). E v e n so , s tu d e n ts o fte n fin d th e m c o n fu s in g b e c a u s e
th e y a re n o t p r e s e n te d c le a rly w ith th e o n e im p o rta n t c o n tr a s t fo r E n g lis h
n o u n s . E n g lish n o u n s d iv id e in to tw o g ro u p s — c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n ta b le .
C o u n ta b le n o u n s a re n o u n s w h ic h a r e c o n c e p tu a lis e d in u n its. B e c a u se
th e y a re c o n c e p tu a lis e d in u n its th e y c a n c o llo c a te w ith n u m b e rs , a re p r e ­
c e d e d b y a/an, a n d fo llo w e d b y e ith e r sin g u la r o r p lu ra l v e rb s a s a p p ro p ria te .
U n c o u n ta b le n o u n s a re n o t c o n c e p tu a lis e d in u n its; th e y a re n e v e r
p re c e d e d b y n u m b e rs , n o r b y a/an. T h e y a re alw ays fo llo w e d b y a sin g u la r
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Som e m isunderstood language points

v e rb b u t, a n d th is is th e im p o r ta n t p o in t, th e y a re n o t sing u lar.
T e a c h e rs w h o u s e th e te r m s “s in g u la r” a n d “u n c o u n ta b le ” in te rc h a n g e ­
a b ly a r e g o in g to c o n fu s e s tu d e n ts .
T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n ta b le n o u n s is b a s e d o n
o n e d iffic u lt id e a , n a m e ly th a t a la n g u a g e c a n d iv id e w o rd s n o t a c c o rd in g to
m e a n in g , o r s tru c tu re , b u t a rb itra rily , in to g ra m m a tic a l g ro u p s . M a n y
E n g lis h s tu d e n ts w h e n firs t m e e tin g , f o r e x a m p le , F r e n c h w o u ld lik e to k n o w
why s o m e n o u n s a re “m a s c u lin e ” a n d o th e r s ‘f e m in in e ” . T h e r e is n o a n s w e r
— F re n c h d iv id e s n o u n s in to tw o g ro u p s , tw o g ra m m a tic a l c a te g o rie s. W h e n
s tu d e n ts le a rn a n e w n o u n th e y n e e d to k n o w w h ic h g ro u p it b e lo n g s to . F o r
m a n y s tu d e n ts th is is a d iffic u lt id e a — th e y w o u ld lik e to b e g iv en a n
e x p la n a tio n o r ru le w h ic h tells th e m w h ic h g ro u p a n o u n w ill b e lo n g to .
T h e d is tin c tio n in E n g lis h b e tw e e n c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n ta b le n o u n s is a
gram m atical d is tin c tio n o f th is k in d . S o m e g e n e ra l h in ts c a n b e g iv e n — c o n ­
c re te o b je c ts w h ic h c a n b e c o u n te d a r e c o u n ta b le (boy, chair, tree), b u t
a b s tra c t n o u n s c a n a ls o b e c o u n ta b le (idea, worry). W o rd s w h ic h a re sim ila r
in m e a n in g m a y b e lo n g to d iffe re n t c a te g o rie s - weather is u n c o u n ta b le , b u t
clim ate is c o u n ta b le . S e v e ra l w o rd s w h ic h a r e c o m m o n ly p lu ra l in E u r o p e a n
la n g u a g e s a re u n c o u n ta b le in E n g lis h (inform ation, furniture).
It is im p o r ta n t to re c o g n ise th a t n o u n s c a n n o t b e s o r te d d e cisiv e ly in to
c o u n ta b le a n d u n c o u n ta b le . It is n o t th e n o u n , b u t a p a rtic u la r u s e o f th e
n o u n , w h ic h is e ith e r c o u n ta b le o r u n c o u n ta b le :

I’v e b e e n th e r e m a n y tim e s. C o u n ta b le
T im e flies. U n c o u n ta b le

S h e h a s lov ely h air. U n c o u n ta b le

T h e r e ’s a h a ir o n y o u r ja c k e t. C o u n ta b le

W a rs h a v e n e v e r so lv e d p ro b le m s . C o u n ta b le
W a r h a s n e v e r so lv e d p ro b le m s . U n c o u n ta b le

T h is r o o m n e e d s s o m e c o lo u r. U n c o u n ta b le
T h is r o o m n e e d s so m e b rig h t c o lo u rs . C o u n ta b le

T h is is a d iffic u lt id e a . W o rd s c a n n o t b e s o r te d b y th e ir fo rm , o n ly b y th e ir
m e a n in g . T e a c h e rs m u s t b e p r e p a r e d to d isc u ss th is w ith c la sse s, a n d to
r e tu r n to th e d is c u s s io n fro m tim e to tim e a s e x a m p le s a rise .
T h e p rin c ip le is th a t s tu d e n ts m u s t b e in tro d u c e d c a re fu lly to th e id e a o f
g ra m m a tic a l c a te g o rie s , a n d it m u s t b e m a d e c le a r to th e m th a t th e y m u s t n o t
e x p e c t th o s e c a te g o rie s to b e re fle c te d b y th e c a te g o rie s th e y a r e u s e d to in
th e ir o w n la n g u a g e .
S ec o n d ly , h a v in g in tr o d u c e d th e te r m s — in this c a s e countable, uncount­
able, singular and plural— te a c h e rs m u s t b e c a re fu l a n d c o n s is te n t in th e w ay
th e y u s e th e m .

6 . c a n /c o u ld

A t first sig h t e a c h o f th e s e fo rm s h a s m a n y d iffe re n t u se s:

C a n I h a v e a n a p p le ? C o u ld I h a v e a n a p p le ?
C a n y o u tr a v e l a n y w h e r e y o u lik e ? C o u ld y o u tr a v e l a n y w h e r e y o u lik e ?
C a n y o u d r iv e ? C o u ld y o u d r iv e ?
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Som e m isunderstood language points

M a n y te a c h e rs w o u ld e x p la in th a t th e firs t p a ir o f s e n te n c e s w as sim ila r in

m e a n in g b u t “ c o u ld is m o r e p o lite th a n c a r t \ b u t it is im p o ss ib le to a p p ly th a t
e x p la n a tio n to th e th ird p a ir o f se n te n c e s .
T h e b a s ic c o n fu s io n a ris e s b y th in k in g o f c o u ld a s “th e p a s t te n s e ” o f can .
It m a y a p p e a r so in th e c o n tra st:
S o r r y I c a n ’t c o m e o n S a tu rd a y.
S o r r y I c o u ld n ’t c o m e la s t S a tu rd a y.
b u t c le a rly th e r e is n o c o n n e c tio n w ith p a s t tim e in:
C a n y o u le n d m e a p o u n d ?
C o u ld y o u le n d m e a p o u n d ?
A s w ith th e s o m e /a n y e x a m p le s a lre a d y d is c u sse d , it is e ss e n tia l to q u e s tio n
th e b a s ic e x p la n a tio n .
P e rh a p s su rp ris in g ly it is e a sy to fin d a n e x p la n a tio n w h ic h c o v e rs a //u s e s
o f c a n a n d c o u ld c o n siste n tly : C o u ld is alw ays m o r e r e m o te th a n can ,
a lth o u g h th a t “re m o te n e s s ” m a y b e o f d iffe re n t k in d s:
I c o u ld s p e a k b e tte r S p a n ish w h e n I w a s a t sc h o o l, (re m o te in tim e )
Y ou c o u ld d o it i f y o u tried , ( m o re re m o te p o ssib ility )
C o u ld y o u le n d m e a p o u n d p le a s e ? (re m o te in re la tio n s h ip = “m o re
p o lite ”).

T h is e x a m p le sh o w s a n im p o rta n t p rin c ip le — w h ile it m a y b e a g o o d id e a , o r

e v e n e sse n tia l, to te a c h in d iv id u a l u se s o f a p a rtic u la r fo rm o n e b y o n e , it is
a ls o im p o r ta n t to s h o w s tu d e n ts th a t la n g u a g e is n o t ra n d o m , b u t it is b a s e d
o n p a tte rn s a n d th a t th e p a tte rn s a re c o n siste n t. B y c o lle c tin g d iffe re n t u se s
o f c a n a n d c o u ld a t a s u ita b le sta g e in th e s tu d e n ts ’ le a rn in g , a n d sh o w in g th a t
th e c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n th e m is c o n s is te n t — c o u ld is a lw a y s m o r e r e m o te th a n
c a n — stu d e n ts a re re a s s u re d th a t th e ta s k th e y a re u n d e rta k in g in le a rn in g a
fo re ig n la n g u a g e is n o t im p o ssib le . T h e p o in t is a ls o m a d e fo r th e m th a t th e
m o s t im p o rta n t p a r t o f la n g u a g e is m ea n in g . L a n g u a g e is n o t a c o lle c tio n o f
w o rd s a n d s tru c tu re s , it is a s y s te m fo r c o m m u n ic a tin g m ea n in g .

7. m u s t/h a v e to

T h e fu n d a m e n ta l d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n m u s t a n d h a v e to is th a t h a v e to is u s e d
if th e s p e a k e r is in v o k in g a n a u th o rity o u ts id e h im self, w h ile m u s t is u s e d if
th e s p e a k e r is th e s o u rc e o f th e a u th o rity .
S o m e tim e s tw o se n te n c e s c a n a p p e a r sim ila r in m e a n in g :
I h a v e to c a tc h th e 8 o ’c lo c k train.
I m u s t c a tc h th e 8 o ’c lo c k train.
T h is is p a rtic u la rly th e c a se if th e su b je c t o f th e s e n te n c e is T , w h e n th e d iffe r­
e n c e b e tw e e n th e s p e a k e r’s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f n ec essity, a n d th e s p e a k e r
im p o sin g a u th o rity o n h im - o r h e rs e lf is v e ry sm all.
T h e d iffe re n c e is m o r e o b v io u s w ith o th e r su b je cts:
Y o u h a v e to b e th e re b y 3 o ’clo ck .
Y o u m u s t b e th e r e b y 3 o ’c lo c k .
M o s t fo re ig n le a rn e rs o v e r-u s e m u s t, a n d s o m e d o n o t u s e h a v e to a t all. T h e
first re a s o n f o r th is is th a t s o m e E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e s p o s s e s s a w o rd sim ila r
in s o u n d a n d a s s o c ia te d in m e a n in g to m u st. T h e r e is a s e c o n d difficulty,
h o w ev er, w h ic h is th a t te a c h e rs te n d to give p e rs o n a l e x a m p le s w h ic h b e g in
w ith ‘I ’, w h e re th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n m u s t a n d h a v e to is a t its sm a llest.
If a w id e ra n g e o f e x a m p le s is c h o se n , it is m u c h e a s ie r to s e e th a t th e fu n d ­
 Som e m isunderstood language points

a m e n ta l d iffe re n c e is th a t b o th fo rm s re fe r to n ecessity, b u t h a v e to re fe rs to
th e s p e a k e r’s p e rc e p tio n o f o b je c tiv e n e c essity , w h ile m u s t re fe rs to th e
s p e a k e r’s im p o s itio n o f s u b je c tiv e necessity .
T h e p o in t is, p e rh a p s , in trin sic a lly difficu lt. It w ill n o t fe a tu re in e le m e n ­
ta r y la n g u a g e c o u rs e s . It d o e s , h o w ev er, d e m o n s tra te a m o s t im p o r ta n t
p rin c ip le , n a m e ly th a t th e e x a m p le s m u s t n o t b e c h o s e n to fit a
p re -c o n c e iv e d ru le , b u t, if th e la n g u a g e is tru ly to b e e x p lo re d a n d p re s e n te d
to s tu d e n ts , a w id e ra n g e o f e x a m p le s m u s t b e u se d .

8 . T ags

T ags a re a v ery im p o rta n t fe a tu re o f s p o k e n E n g lish . T h e re a re m a n y k in d s

a n d m o s t te x tb o o k s give th e m o n ly s u p e rfic ia l tre a tm e n t. It is o f p a rtic u la r
im p o rta n c e to n o te th e s e fo u r se n te n c e s:
S h e ’s F ren ch — g iving in fo rm a tio n .
I s s h e F ren ch ? — a s k in g f o r in fo rm a tio n .
S h e ’s F ren ch , is n ’t sh e? — a c o n firm a tio n ta g (s e e b elow ).
S h e ’s F ren ch is n ’t sh e. — a n in v ita tio n ta g (se e b e lo w ).
E v e n th e m o s t tr a d itio n a l la n g u a g e te a c h in g h a s id e n tifie d s ta te m e n ts a n d
q u e s tio n s , th o u g h it h a s n o t u s u a lly th o u g h t it n e c e s s a ry to d e s c rib e w h a t
th e y a re d o in g (giving a n d se e k in g in fo rm a tio n ). M o s t re fe re n c e b o o k s , h o w ­
ever, id e n tify o n ly o n e k in d o f ta g , fre q u e n tly re fe rre d to a s “q u e s tio n ta g s” .
T h e im p lic a tio n , th o u g h n o t s ta te d , is th a t th e y h a v e th e s a m e fu n c tio n a s
q u e s tio n s — th e y a re a sk in g f o r in fo rm a tio n . T h is is n o t th e c a se . C e rta in
w e ll-k n o w n re fe re n c e b o o k s sug g e st th a t th e r e a re tw o k in d s o f ta g , sa id w ith
falling a n d risin g in to n a tio n , in d ic a tin g th a t th e s p e a k e r e x p e c ts e ith e r
a g re e m e n t, o r c o n firm a tio n . T h is to o is in c o r re c t a n d c o n fu sin g .
T h e tr u th is th a t, s a id in a c e rta in way, a ta g g e d r e m a r k se e k s
c o n firm a tio n . A p p r o p r ia te re s p o n s e s w ill b e:
Yes, th a t’s right.
N o , a s a m a tte r o f f a c t s h e is n ’t/it w a s n ’t/w e c a n ’t.
M o s t fre q u e n tly , h o w ev er, ta g s a re p ro p o s in g a d ire c tio n f o r th e e x te n s io n o f
a c o n v e rs a tio n , in v itin g th e o th e r s p e a k e r to d e v e lo p th e c o n v e rs a tio n . It is
c le a r th a t th e b e s t k n o w n e x a m p le : I t ’s a lo v e ly d a y , is n ’t it c o u ld n o t b e a
q u e s tio n — b o th s p e a k e rs a re o b v io u s ly w ell a w a re o f th e s ta te o f th e
w e ath e r!
W h a t is h a p p e n in g h e r e is th a t o n e s p e a k e r is in v itin g th e o th e r to m a k e a
c o m m e n t a b o u t th e w e a th e r — n o t m e re ly to a g re e , b u t to o ffe r s o m e n e w
c o n tr ib u tio n to th e c o n v e rs a tio n . T h e s e n te n c e h a s little d e n o ta tiv e m e a n in g ,
b u t a n im p o r ta n t so cia l fu n c tio n . T h e s tu d e n t w h o tre a ts se v e ra l c o n s e c u tiv e
in v ita tio n ta g s a s q u e s tio n s w ill b e th o u g h t so c ia lly r a th e r stra n g e :

A Y ou p la y te n n is , d o n ’t y o u .
B Y es.
A Y o u ’v e b ro u g h t y o u r th in g s w ith y o u , h a v e n ’t you.
B Y es.
A I t’s a n ic e d a y fo r a g a m e , is n ’t it.
B Yes.

T ags a re e x tre m e ly im p o r ta n t in n a tu r a l c o llo q u ia l c o n v e rs a tio n in E n g lish .

T h e y a re , h o w ev er, g iven rela tiv e ly little tr e a tm e n t in te x tb o o k s , o r e v e n
s ta n d a rd s tu d e n t g ra m m a rs . S u c h tr e a tm e n t a s is given, is fre q u e n tly e ith e r
w ro n g o r c o n fu sin g . W h y ?
Som e m isunderstood language points

T w o im p o r ta n t p rin c ip le s e m e rg e . T ag s a r e h a rd ly e v e r w ritte n (e x c e p t in
p riv a te le tte rs), a n d h a v e b e e n g iv e n to o little im p o rta n c e in tr a d itio n a l la n ­
g u a g e te a c h in g w h ic h w a s la rg e ly b a s e d o n th e w ritte n la n g u ag e . S e co nd ly ,
b e c a u s e th e tw o tag s m e n tio n e d a b o v e — c o n firm a tio n a n d in v ita tio n ta g s —
a re structurally id e n tic a l, te a c h e rs, a n d e v e n te x tb o o k s , h a v e te n d e d to tr e a t
th e m a s id e n tic a l. E v e n m o d e m s o -c a lle d fu n c tio n a l te x tb o o k s h a v e m a d e
this m is ta k e , a lth o u g h th e fu n c tio n o f th e tw o s e n te n c e s is q u ite d iffe re n t. T h e
p rin c ip le th e te a c h e r n e e d s to b e a r in m in d in lo o k in g fo r a n e x p la n a tio n to
o ffe r a c la ss is to a s k tw o q u e s tio n s — W hat was s a id ? (s tru c tu re ), a n d Why
w a s it s a id ? (fu n c tio n ). A n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m e a n in g im p lie s a n
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f b o th s tru c tu re a n d fu n c tio n . K n o w le d g e o f s tru c tu re s a lo n e
is n o t a k n o w le d g e o f a la n g u a g e .

9 . A u x ilia r ie s

A u x ilia rie s a r e o f g re a t s tru c tu ra l im p o rta n c e in E n g lish . T h e y a re u s e d in a

n u m b e r o f im p o rta n t w ays, in c lu d in g th e follow ing:

1 . M a k in g a n e g a tiv e
n ’t is a d d e d to th e e n d o f th e first auxiliary.
H e c a n sw im - > H e c a n ’t sw im
T h ey have g o n e - > T h e y h a v e n ’t g o n e

2 . F o r m in g q u e s t io n s
C h a n g e th e o r d e r o f th e s u b je c t a n d th e first auxiliary.
H e c a n sw im - > C a n h e sw im ?
T h ey have g o n e -> H a v e th e y g o n e?

3 . M a k in g c o n fir m a tio n o r in v it a t io n t a g s
P ositiv e se n te n c e /n e g a tiv e tag , n e g a tiv e s e n te n c e /p o s itiv e tag.
U s e th e first auxiliary.
H e c a n sw im . - > H e c a n sw im , c a n ’t h e .
S h e m u s t’v e g o n e . S h e m u s t’v e g o n e , m u s t n ’t s h e .

4 . M a k in g s u r p r is e o r a n n o y a n c e t a g s
P o sitiv e s e n te n c e /p o s itiv e tag , n e g a tiv e s e n te n c e /n e g a tiv e tag.
U s e th e firs t auxiliary.
Y ou ’v e m e t b e fo re . - > O h , y o u ’v e m e t b e fo re , h a v e y o u !
S o y o u c a n ’t c o m e . - > S o y o u c a n ’t c o m e , c a n ’t y o u !

5 . M a k in g a n in t e r e s t e d r e s p o n s e
U s e th e firs t a u x ilia ry in w h a t th e first s p e a k e r says.
A I ’v e b e e n th e re b e fo re . A I’d b e su rp ris e d .
B H ave you? B W o u ld y o u ?

6 . M a k in g a s h o r t a n s w e r
A H a v e y o u b e e n th e r e b e fo re ? A C a n y o u s p e a k F re n c h ?
B Y es I h a v e . B Y es I c a n .

A I c a n ’t u n d e rs ta n d i t A I w as g o in g to tell h er.
B N o , n e ith e r c a n I. B Y es, so w a s I.
 Som e m isunderstood language points

7. E m p h a s is
P r o n o u n c e th e a u x ilia ry w ith its full, s tre s s e d , fo rm .
T h e y ’re w aiting. T h e y a r e w aiting.
H e ’s F re n c h . H e is F re n c h .

T h e la s t e x a m p le is o f p a rtic u la r im p o rta n c e . I t sh o w s c le a rly th a t in th e

s p o k e n la n g u a g e stre ss c o n tr ib u te s as m u c h to m e a n in g as s tru c tu re ; stre ss is
p a r t o f th e g ra m m a r o f th e la n g u a g e .
S e v era l o th e r p rin c ip le s a re illu s tra te d b y th e im p o rta n c e o f th e auxiliary.
T h e a b ility to p r o d u c e a g re e m e n t o r in te re s te d re s p o n s e s , f o r e x a m p le ,
d e p e n d s o n th e s tu d e n t’s a b ility to id e n tify a u to m a tic a lly th e a u x ilia ry w h ic h
is re q u ire d . It is a n e x a m p le o f la n g u a g e a s h a b it, a n d re m in d s th e te a c h e r o f
th e im p o rta n c e o f in te n s iv e o ra l p ra c tic e .
T h e sim ila rity o f, f o r e x a m p le , a g re e m e n t re s p o n s e s :

H ave y o u . . . C an y o u . .. D id y o u . . .
Y es I h av e. - > Y es I c a n . - > Y es I d id .

I c a n ’t . . . I h a v e n ’t . . . I d id n ’t . . .
-> N o n e ith e r c a n I. N o n e ith e r h a v e I. - > N o n e ith e r d id I.

e m p h a s is e s th e im p o rta n c e f o r th e te a c h e r o f d ra w in g th e s tu d e n t’s a tte n tio n

to sim ila ritie s as w ell a s d iffe re n c e s . I f s tu d e n ts a re to a c q u ire th e a b ility to
g e n e ra te la n g u a g e q u ic k ly a n d a c c u ra te ly , th e y n e e d b o th in te n siv e p ra c tic e ,
a n d a n a b ility to s e e th e p a tte rn s .

1 0 . (D o ) a s th e d u m m y a u x ilia r y

T h is is th e fe a tu re o f E n g lis h s tru c tu r e w h ic h is p ro b a b ly m o s t m is u n d e r­
s to o d . V e ry o fte n q u e s tio n s a n d n e g a tiv e s m a d e w ith (d o ) (do, does, d id ) a re
tr e a te d a s e x c e p tio n s . In fac t, E n g lis h p o s s e s s e s to ta lly c o n s is te n t p a tte rn s
a n d th e r e is o n e ru le o f E n g lis h w h ic h is h e lp fu l f o r s tu d e n ts a n d te a c h e rs
w h ic h o c c u rs in f a r to o fe w te x tb o o k s . It m a y b e s ta te d a s follow s:

If a p a rtic u la r p a tte r n is m a d e u sin g a n a u x ilia ry a n d y o u w a n t to u s e

th a t p a tte r n w ith a s e n te n c e w h ic h d o e s n o t c o n ta in a n a u xilia ry, y o u
fo llo w th e u s u a l p a tte r n a n d u s e ( d o ) (do, does, d i d ) a s th e d u m m y
auxiliary. T h e p a tte r n s a re alw ay s fo rm e d in e x a c tly th e s a m e way.

T h e e x a m p le s u n d e r A uxiliaries a b o v e , sh o w th e p a tte r n s clea rly:

1 . N e g a t iv e s
H e c a n sw im . -» H e c a n ’t sw im .
H e g o e s o fte n . H e w e n t y esterday .
- > H e does go often. - » H e d id go yesterday.
-> H e d o e s n ’t g o o fte n . -> H e d id n ’t g o y e ste rd a y .

2 . M a k in g q u e s t io n s
H e c a n sw im . C a n h e sw im ?
H e g o e s o fte n . H e w e n t y esterd ay .
- > H e does go often. - > H e d id go yesterday.
-> D o e s h e g o o fte n ? D id h e g o y e ste rd a y ?
134
Som e m isunderstood language points

3 . M a k in g c o n fir m a t io n o r in v ita tio n ta g s

H e c a n sw im . -> H e c a n sw im , c a n ’t h e.
H e k n o w s h e r. -> H e k n o w s h e r, d o e s n ’t h e.
T h e y w e n t. T h e y w e n t, d id n ’t they.

4 . M a k in g a s u r p r is e o r a n n o y a n c e ta g
Y o u ’v e m e t b e fo re . -> Y o u ’ve m e t b e fo re , h a v e you!
Y ou k n o w e a c h o th e r. -> Y ou k n o w e a c h o th e r, d o you!

5 . M a k in g a n in t e r e s t e d r e s p o n s e
A I’v e b e e n th e re b e fo re . A I’d b e v e ry su rp ris e d .
B H av e you? B W o u ld y o u ?

A I k n o w th e m well. A I sa w th e m y esterd ay .
B D o you? B D id y o u ?

6 . M a k in g a s h o r t a n s w e r
A H a v e y o u b e e n th e re b e fo re ? A C a n y o u s p e a k F re n c h ?
B Y es I ha ve. B Y es I c a n .
N o I h a v e n ’t. N o I c a n ’t.

A D o y o u k n o w w h e re it is? A D id y o u p o s t th a t le tte r?
B Y es I d o . B Yes I d id .
N o I d o n ’t. N o I d id n ’t.

A I c a n c o m e o n S atu rday . A I w a s g o in g to tell h er.

B Y es, s o c a n I. B Y es, s o w as I.

A I e n jo y e d th a t. A H e d o e s n ’t lik e it.
B Y es, so d id I. B N o , n e ith e r d o I.

7 . E m p h a s is
T h e y ’re w aiting. T h e y a re w aiting.
I fe el y o u s h o u ld a s k h im . I d o fee l y o u s h o u ld a sk him .
I w a ite d a n h o u r. I d id w a it a n h o u r.

T h is v e ry p o w e rfu l ru le — th e u s e o f ( d o ) as th e d u m m y a u x ilia ry — is o f c o n ­
s id e ra b le im p o rta n c e a n d m a k e s c le a r o n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t p rin c ip le s
o f g o o d la n g u a g e te a c h in g — th a t w h e n e v e r th e re is a p a tte rn w h ic h h e lp s to
re d u c e th e m e m o ry lo a d fo r th e s tu d e n t, th e te a c h e r s h o u ld d ra w a tte n tio n to
th a t p a tte rn . T o o o fte n , te a c h e rs e m p h a s is e d ifficu lties a n d d iffe re n c e s a n d
ig n o re o p p o rtu n itie s to sy ste m a tise a n d sim plify.
 135

F u r th e r r e a d in g
M o r e a b o u t la n g u a g e te a c h in g
T h e L e x ic a l A p p r o a c h , M ic h a e l L e w is , 0 9 0 6 7 1 7 9 9 X
A n ev aluatio n o f the th eo ry and p ra c tic e o f ELT w ith a c le a r sta te m e n t o f a
n ew d ire c tio n . T h e L e x ic a l A p p ro a c h d e v e lo p s c u rre n t th in k in g b y
in v alid atin g the g ra m m a r / v o cab u lary d istin ctio n a n d p lac in g lex is in all its
fo rm s a t th e c en tre o f lan g u a g e p re se n ta tio n and practic e.

I m p le m e n t in g t h e L e x ic a l A p p r o a c h , M ic h a e l L e w is , 1 8 9 9 3 9 6 6 0 8
D ev elo p s the th e o re tic al p o sitio n set o u t in T h e L ex ical A p p ro a ch , adds new
insig h ts a n d gives c o m p reh en siv e su g g e stio n s to e n a b le te a ch e rs to tak e the
a p p ro a ch d irec tly in to the classro o m .

T h e E n g lis h V e r b , M ic h a e l L e w is , 0 9 0 6 7 1 7 4 0 X
A step -b y -ste p survey o f th e c en tral p ro b le m o f E n g lish - the stru c tu re o f the
verb. E x ten sive d isc u ssio n o f the g ra m m a r itself, an d o f c la ssro o m ru les.
P ra c tica l h in ts o n h o w to p re s e n t g ra m m a r in the classro o m . R e c o m m en d ed
re a d in g o n m an y co u rses.

A T e a c h e r s ’ G r a m m a r , R .A . C lo s e , 0 9 0 6 7 1 7 4 8 5
In tro d u c e s the b a sic co n c ep ts o f E n g lish g ra m m a r to te ach ers. It sh o u ld b e
re a d b y all teach ers b e fo re they start e x p la in in g g ra m m a r in the classro o m .
M o s t g ra m m a r b o o k s list a m ass o f d etails. C lo se arg u es th a t th e g ra m m a r o f
E n g lish is a m atte r o f relativ ely few, b u t v ery p o w erfu l, d istin ctio n s.

B u s in e s s E n g lis h

O n e t o O n e , P e t e r W ilb e r g , 0 9 0 6 7 1 7 6 1 2
D e sp ite its title, this b o o k p ro v id es a genera] in tro d u c tio n to the te ac h in g o f
b u s in e s s E n g lis h . It p ro v id e s b a c k g ro u n d in fo rm a tio n , d is c u s s io n o f
th e o re tic al issu es, a n d c o n ta in s h u n d red s o f p rac tic al su g g e stio n s fo r w ha t to
d o in this typ e o f class. F o r an y o n e w ho te a ch e s b usine ss E n g lish , this b o o k is
a m u st-h av e.

T e a c h in g C h ild r e n

T e a c h in g E n g lis h t o C h ild r e n , W e n d y S c o t t a n d L is b e t h Y t r e b e r g ,
0 582 74606 X
A h ig h ly p rac tic al in tro d u c tio n to the w orld o f y o u n g learn ers. A n e x c elle n t
re so u rc e b o o k and full o f p rac tica l id eas fo r lesso n s and activities.

T e a c h in g E x a m in a t io n C la s s e s

E x a m C la s s e s , P e t e r M a y , 0 1 9 4 3 7 2 0 8 1
C o n ta in s in fo rm a tio n a b o u t all the m a in B ritish , E u ro p e an , an d A m e ric an
e x am in atio n b o a rd s as w ell as lots o f p rac tica l ac tiv ities to u se in exam
classes.
 F o r r e fe r e n c e
G r a m m a r R e fe r e n c e

P r a c t ic a l E n g lis h U s a g e , M ic h a e l S w a n , 0 1 9 4 3 1 1 9 7 X
T h e o rg an isatio n o f th is b o o k m ak es it e asy to u se, a n d th e a u th o r’s stra ig h t­
fo rw a rd style m ea n s th a t h is trem e n d o u s k n o w le d g e a n d u nd ersta n d in g o f
E n g lish g ra m m a r is m a d e acc essib le to re a de rs w h o h av e little o r no
b a c k g ro u n d in the subject. It is e q u a lly u sefu l to tea ch ers an d to students.

D ic t io n a r ie s

T h e f o u r m a in E L T d ic t io n a r ie s a r e :

O x f o r d A d v a n c e d L e a r n e r ’s D ic t io n a r y
C o b u ild E n g lis h D ic t io n a r y
L o n g m a n D ic t io n a r y o f C o n t e m p o r a r y E n g lis h
C a m b r id g e I n t e r n a t io n a l D ic t io n a r y o f E n g lis h

A ll th ese d ic tio n a rie s are ex cellen t. A d ic tio n a ry d esig n ed fo r n ativ e speakers,

b u t p o te n tia lly o f g re a t u se to E F L teach ers a n d a d va nc ed le a rn e rs is th e
C o llin s C o n c is e D ic t io n a r y a n d T h e s a u r u s , 0 0 0 4 7 0 8 4 4 X .

T h e L T P D ic t io n a r y o f S e le c t e d C o llo c a t io n s , 1 8 9 9 3 9 6 5 5 1
A new k in d o f d ictio n ary fo r te ac h e rs a n d le a rn e rs w hich lists c o llo c a tio n s
ra th e r th a n m ean in g s. C o n v en tio n al d ictio n a rie s a re lim ite d in the a m o u n t o f
in fo rm a tio n they c a n give o n c o llo c ation . T h is d ic tion ary gives 5 0,00 0
c o llo c atio n s o f 2 ,0 0 0 e sse n tia l n o u n s a n d 5 ,00 0 ad v erb s w ith o v e r 1,200 verbs
an d adjectives. D O S C is e sse n tia l fo r stud en ts w h o h av e to w rite e ssay s o r
re p o rts, an y o n e inv o lved in tra nsla tio n , a n d h as a n active c la ssro o m u se fo r all
stud en ts a t in term e d ia te level an d above.