Vector Functions and Space Curves

Dr Petrovious Horton

University of Eswatini
[email protected]

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 1 / 39

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section, students will be able to:

find the domain of a vector function
find the limit of a vector function
find the derivative of a vector function
find the integral of a vector function
find the tangent, normal and binormal vectors of a space curve
find the arc length and curvature of a space curve

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 2 / 39

Vector Functions

Definition
Let S ⊆ R. A vector-valued function or, simply, a vector function on S
is a function a : S → Rn that assigns to each scalar t ∈ S, a vector a(t) in
Rn .
Thus, a vector function has a set of real numbers as its domain and a set
of vectors as its range. We will be mostly interested in vector functions
r : S ⊆ R → R3 whose values are three dimensional vectors.

If f (t), g (t) and h(t) where f , g , h : S ⊆ R → R are the components of

the vector r(t), then f , g and h are called the component functions of r
and we can write

r(t) = (f (t), g (t), h(t)) = f (t) ı̂ + g (t) ̂ + h(t) k̂.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 3 / 39

Example (Domain of a vector function)
√

If r = t 3 , ln(3 − t), t then the component functions are
√
f (t) = t 3 , g (t) = ln(3 − t), h(t) = t.

The domain of r consists of all values of t for which the expression for r(t)
is defined.

The function f is defined for all t ∈ R, since t 3 is a real number whenever

t is a real number.

The function g is defined when 3 − t > 0 (or t < 3) since the log function
is defined only for positive real numbers.

The function h is defined when t ≥ 0, since the square-root function

returns a real number only for non-negative real numbers.

Putting the above together, we find that the domain of r is the interval
[0, 3).
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 4 / 39
Limit of a Vector Function

Definition (Limit of a vector function)

If r(t) = f (t) ı̂ + g (t) ̂ + h(t) k̂, then

lim r(t) = lim f (t) ı̂ + lim g (t) ̂ + lim h(t) k̂

t→a t→a t→a t→a

provided the limits of the component functions exist.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 5 / 39

Example
Let
sin t
r(t) = (1 + t 2 ) ı̂ + te −t ̂ + k̂.
t
Find lim r(t).
t→0

Solution
We have
 
h i h
2 −t
i sin t
lim r(t) = lim (1 + t ) ı̂ + lim te ̂ + lim k̂
t→0 t→0 t→0 t→0 t

= (1 + 02 ) ı̂ + (0)(1) ̂ + (1) k̂
= î + k̂.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 6 / 39

Continuity

Definition (Continuity at a point)

A vector function is continuous at a if

lim r(t) = r(a).

t→a

Thus, a vector function is continuous at a point a if and only if its

component functions are continuous at a.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 7 / 39

Space Curves

Definition (Space curve)

Let f , g and h be continuous real-valued functions on an open interval I .
Then the set C of all points (x, y , z) in space where

x = f (t), y = g (t), z = h(t) (1)

and t varies throughout the interval I , is called a space curve. The

equations in (1) are called parametric equations of C and t is called a
parameter.

If we consider the vector function

r(t) = f (t) ı̂ + g (t) ̂ + h(t) k̂,
then r(t) is the position vector of the point P (f (t), y (t), z(t)) on C .
Thus, any continuous vector function r defines a space curve C that is
traced out by the tip of the moving vector r(t) as shown in the figure in
the next slide.
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 8 / 39
Space Curves

z
P (f (t), g(t), h(t))

~r(t) = hf (t), g(t), h(t)i

C
0 y

Figure: Curve C is traced out by the tip of a moving position vector r(t).

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 9 / 39

Derivatives of Vector Functions

Definition (Derivative)
dr
The derivative (or r 0 (t)) of a vector function r is defined as
dt
dr r(t + ∆t) − r(t)
r 0 (t) = = lim (2)
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
if this limit exists.
dr
Notation: If t represents time, so that is the time derivative, we may
dt
write ṙ (i.e., a dot above the r) to denote this derivative.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 10 / 39

Geometric Intepretation of the Derivative
z
~r(t + ∆t) − ~r(t)

~r(t) ~r(t + ∆t)

Refer to the above figure. If the points P and Q have the position vectors
−→
r(t) and r(t + ∆t) respectively, then PQ represents the vector
r(t + ∆t) − r(t), which can therefore be regarded as a secant vector.
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 11 / 39
Geometric Intepretation of the Derivative
If ∆t > 0, the scalar multiple (1/∆t) (r(t + ∆t) − r(t)) has the same
direction as r(t + ∆t) − r(t). As ∆t → 0, it appears that the vector
r(t + ∆t) − r(t)
approaches a vector that lies on the tangent line at P
∆t
(see figure below).
z ~r(t + ∆t) − ~r(t)
d~r ∆t
dt
Q

~r(t) ~r(t + ∆t)

x
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 12 / 39
The Unit Tangent Vector

For this reason, the vector r 0 (t) is called the tangent vector to the curve
defined by r at the point P, provided r 0 (t) exists and r 0 (t) 6= 0. The
tangent line to C at P is defined to be the line through P and parallel to
the tangent vector r 0 (t).

We will on occasion consider the unit tangent vector which is

r 0 (t)
T̂ = .
|r 0 (t)|

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 13 / 39

Derivatives of Vector Functions
Theorem
If r(t) = (f (t), g (t), h(t)) = f (t) ı̂ + g (t) ̂ + h(t) k̂, where f , g , and h
are differentiable functions, then

r 0 (t) = f 0 (t), g 0 (t), h0 (t) = f 0 (t) ı̂ + g 0 (t) ̂ + h0 (t) k̂

Proof.

r(t + ∆t) − r(t)

r 0 (t) = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
f (t + ∆t) − f (t) g (t + ∆t) − g (t) h(t + ∆t) − h(t)
 
= lim , ,
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t ∆t
f (t + ∆t) − f (t) g (t + ∆t) − g (t)

h(t + ∆t)
= lim , lim , lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
0 0 0


= f (t), g (t), h (t)
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 14 / 39
Example (Finding a unit tangent vector)
Find the derivative of

r(t) = (1 + t 3 ) ı̂ + te −t ̂ + sin 2t k̂.

Hence, find the unit tangent vector at the point where t = 0.

Solution
r 0 (t) = 3t 2 ı̂ + (−te −t + e −t ) ̂ + 2 cos 2t k̂.

Then r 0 (0) = ̂ + 2k̂.

Hence √ √
r 0 (0) ̂ + 2k̂ 5 2 5
T̂(0) = 0 =√ = ̂ + k̂.
|r (0)| 12 + 22 5 5

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 15 / 39

Differentiation Rules

Theorem
Suppose that u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a scalar, and
f is a real-valued function. Then
d
1. [u(t) + v(t)] = u 0 (t) + v 0 (t)
dt
d
2. [cu(t)] = cu 0 (t)
dt
d
3. [f (t)u(t)] = f 0 (t)u(t) + f (t)u 0 (t)
dt
d
4. [u(t) · v(t)] = u 0 (t) · v(t) + u(t) · v 0 (t)
dt
d
5. [u(t) × v(t)] = u 0 (t) × v(t) + u(t) × v 0 (t)
dt
d
6. [u(f (t))] = f 0 (t)u 0 (f (t)) (Chain Rule)
dt

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 16 / 39

Example (The position vector and the tangent vector are
perpendicular if r(t) has constant length)
Show that if |r(t)| = c (a constant), then r 0 (t) is perpendicular to r(t) for
all t.

Solution
Since r(t) · r(t) = |r(t)|2 = c 2 and c is a constant, differentiating each
side and using Formula 7 of the above theorem gives
d
0= [r(t) · r(t)] = r 0 (t) · r(t) + r(t) · r 0 (t) = 2r 0 (t) · r(t).
dt
Thus, r 0 (t) · r(t) = 0, which says that r 0 (t) is perpendicular to r(t).

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 17 / 39

Higher Order Derivatives

Higher order derivatives for vector functions are defined in a similar way to
those for real-valued functions. For example, the second derivative of a
vector function r is the derivative of r 0 , that is, r 00 = (r 0 )0 . Therefore, if

r(t) = (1 + t 3 ) ı̂ + te −t ̂ + sin 2t k̂,

then
r 0 (t) = 3t 2 ı̂ + (−te −t + e −t ) ̂ + 2 cos 2t k̂
and
r 00 (t) = 6t î + (te −t − 2e −t ) ĵ − 4 sin 2t k̂.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 18 / 39

Integrals of Vector Functions
Suppose
r(t) = f (t) ı̂ + g (t) ̂ + h(t) k̂
where the component functions f , g and h are integrable on the interval
[a, b]. Divide [a, b] into n subintervals of length ∆t = (b − a)/n and let ti∗
be any point in the i-th subinterval. Then, just as for real-valued
functions, we define the definite integral of r(t) as follows:
Z b n
X
r(t) dt = lim r(ti∗ )∆t
a n→∞
i=1
n n
" ! !
X X
= lim f (ti∗ )∆t ı̂ + g (ti∗ )∆t ̂+
n→∞
i=1 i=1
n
! #
X
h(ti∗ )∆t k̂
i=1

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 19 / 39

Integrals of Vector Functions

Thus,
Z b Z b  Z b  Z b 
r(t) dt = f (t) dt ı̂ + g (t) dt ̂ + h(t) dt k̂
a a a a

That is, to evaluate an integral of a vector function, integrate

component-wise.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) extends to continuous

vector functions as follows:
Z b b
r(t) dt = R(t) = R(b) − R(a)
a a

where R is 0
Z an antiderivative of r, that is, R (t) = r(t). We use the
notation r(t) dt for indefinite integrals (antiderivatives).

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 20 / 39

Example (Integral of a vector function)
If r(t) = 2 sin 2t ı̂ + cos t ̂ + 3t 2 k̂, then
Z Z  Z  Z 
2
r(t) dt = 2 sin 2t dt ı̂ + cos t dt ̂ + 3t dt k̂

= − cos 2t ı̂ + sin t ̂ + t 3 k̂ + C

where C is a vector constant of integration.

Hence
Z π h iπ
r(t) dt = − cos 2t ı̂ + sin t ̂ + t 3 k̂
π/2 π/2

π3
   

π 3
= − cos 2π + cos π ı̂ + sin π − sin ̂ + π − k̂
2 8
7π 3
= −2 î − ĵ + k̂.
8

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 21 / 39

Arc Length

A smooth parametrisation on an interval I is a parametrisation r(t) such

that r 0 is continuous and r 0 (t) 6= 0 on I .

A smooth curve is a curve that has a smooth parametrisation.

Recall that the arc length of a curve with parametric equations

x = f (t), y = g (t), z = h(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

where f 0 , g 0 , h0 are continous, is given by

Z q b
L= [f 0 (t)]2 + [g 0 (t)]2 + [h0 (t)]2 dt
a
s
Z b  2  2  2
dx dy dz
= + + dt.
a dt dt dt

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 22 / 39

Arc Length

Note that the above formulas can be written as

Z b
L= r 0 (t) dt (3)
a

because for space curves, r(t) = f (t) ı̂ + g (t) ̂ + h(t) k̂,

r 0 (t) = f 0 (t) ı̂ + g 0 (t) ̂ + h0 (t) k̂

q
= [f 0 (t)]2 + [g 0 (t)]2 + [h0 (t)]2 .

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 23 / 39

Arc Length
Now, suppose C is a curve given by a vector function
r(t) = f (t) ı̂ + g (t) ̂ + h(t) k̂, a ≤ t ≤ b,
where r 0 (t) is continuous and C is traversed exactly once as t increases
from a to b.

Define the arc length function s(t) of the curve by

Z t Z tq
s(t) = r 0 (τ ) dτ = [f 0 (τ )]2 + [g 0 (τ )]2 + [h0 (τ )]2 dτ. (4)
a a
Thus s(t) gives the length of that part of the curve C that lies between
r(a) and r(t).

Differentiating both sides of 4 we obtain

ds
= r 0 (t) (5)
dt
by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 24 / 39
Example (Finding an arc length parametrisation)
Reparametrise the helix r(t) = cos t ı̂ + sin t ̂ + t k̂ with respect to arc
length measured from (1, 0, 0) in the direction of increasing t.

Solution
The point (1, 0, 0) corresponds to t = 0. Now,

ds p √
= r 0 (t) = − sin t ı̂ + cos t ̂ + k̂ = sin2 t + cos2 t + 1 = 2,
dt
so Z t√ t
√ √

s(t) = 2 dτ = 2τ = 2 t,
0 0
√
and hence t = s/ 2. Thus
   
s s s
r(s) = cos √ ı̂ + sin √ ̂ + √ k̂.
2 2 2

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 25 / 39

Curvature
The curvature of a curve C at a given point measures how quickly the
tangent vector changes direction at that point. To ensure that the
curvature is independent of parametrisation, we use arc length in its
definition.
Definition (Curvature)
The curvature of a curve C is

dT̂
κ= (6)
ds

where T̂ is the unit tangent vector. The reciprocal of curvature

1
R=
κ
is called the radius of curvature.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 26 / 39

Curvature

dT̂ dT̂ ds
Since by the Chain Rule, = , Formula 6 becomes
dt ds dt

dT̂ d T̂/dt
κ= = .
ds ds/dt

But by 5, ds/dt = |r 0 (t)|, so the curvature can be written as

T̂ 0 (t)
κ(t) = (7)
|r 0 (t)|

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 27 / 39

The Normal and Binormal Vectors

At any given point on a smooth curve r(t), there are many vectors that
are perpendicular to the unit tangent vector

T̂(t) = r 0 (t)/|r 0 (t)|

We define two such vectors.

Note that for any vector function r(t) with constant magnitude |r(t)| = c,
differentiating each side of the dot product

r(t) · r(t) = |r(t)|2 = c 2

gives
r(t) · r 0 (t) = 0.
Thus, a vector function r with constant magnitude is perpendicular to its
tangent vector r 0 .
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 28 / 39
The Normal and Binormal Vectors

Now, since |T̂(t)| = 1, by above discussion, we have

T̂(t) · T̂ 0 (t) = 0

so that T̂(t) is perpendicular to T̂ 0 (t). Note that T̂ 0 is not itself a unit

vector. At any point where the curvature κ 6= 0 we can define the
principal unit normal vector N̂(t) (or, simply unit normal) as

T̂ 0 (t)
N̂(t) = .
T̂ 0 (t)

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 29 / 39

The Normal and Binormal Vectors

ds
Since |T̂ 0 (t)| = κ(t)|r 0 (t)| = κ(t) , where κ is the radius of curvature,
dt
we can write

1 d T̂/dt 1 dT̂ dT̂

N̂(t) = = = R(t)
κ(t) ds/dt κ(t) ds ds

where R is the radius of curvature.

The binormal vector is the vector B̂ defined by

B̂(t) = T̂(t) × N̂(t).

It is perpendicular to both T̂ and N̂ and is also a unit vector.

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 30 / 39

Example
Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the circular helix

r(t) = cos t ı̂ + sin t ̂ + t k̂.

Solution
√
r 0 (t) = − sin t ı̂ + cos t ̂ + k̂, so |r 0 (t)| = 2. Then

r 0 (t) 1  
T̂(t) = = √ − sin t ı̂ + cos t ̂ + k̂
|r 0 (t)| 2
and
1   1
T̂ 0 (t) = √ − cos t î − sin t ĵ T̂ 0 (t) = √
2 2
so
T̂ 0 (t)
N̂(t) = = − cos t î − sin t ĵ.
T̂ 0 (t)

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 31 / 39

Solution (Contd.)
The binormal vector is

B̂(t) = T̂(t) × N̂(t)

ı̂ ̂ k̂
1
=√ − sin t cos t 1
2 − cos t − sin t 0
1
= √ (sin t, − cos t, 1) .
2

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 32 / 39

Exercises

1. Find the domain of the vector function.

√ √

(a) r(t) = t 2 , t − 1, 5 − t [ANS: 1 ≤ t ≤ 5]
t −2
(b) r(t) = ı̂ + sin t ̂ + ln(9 − t 2 ) k̂ [ANS: t ∈ (−3, −2) ∪ (−2, 3)]
t +2
2. Find the limit.
1 + t2 1 − e −2t
 
(a) lim , tan−1 t, [ANS: (−1, π/2, 0)]
t→∞ 1 − t 2
 t
−2t ln t
(b) lim arctan t, e , [ANS: (π/2, 0, 0)]
t→∞ t
3. Find the vector equation and parametric equations for the line
segment that joins P to Q.
(a) P(0, 0, 0), Q(1, 2, 3)
[ANS: r(t) = (t, 2t, 3t) , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1; x = t, y = 2t, z = 3t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1]
(b) P(1, −1, 2), Q(4, 1, 7)
[ANS: r(t) = (3t + 1, 2t − 1, 5t + 2) , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1]

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 33 / 39

Exercises
4. If two objects travel through space along two different curves, it is
often important to know whether they will collide. (e.g. Will two
aircraft collide?) The curves might intersect but we need to know
whether the objects are in the same position at the same time.
Suppose the trajectories of two particles are given by the vector
functions
r1 (t) = t 2 , 7t − 12, t 2 , r2 (t) = 4t − 3, t 2 , 5t − 6

for t ≥ 0. Do the particles collide?

5. Find the derivative of the vector

function.
(a) r(t) = t sin t, t 2 , t cos 2t[ANS: (t cos t + sin t, 2t, cos 2t − 2t sin 2t)]
t2
2 3
(b) r(t) = e î − ĵ + ln(1 + 3t) k̂ [ANS: 2te t î + k̂]
1 + 3t
(c) r(t) = â + t b̂ + t 2 ĉ [ANS: b̂ + 2t ĉ]
6. Find the unit tangent vector T̂(t) at the point with the given value of
the parameter t.
(a) r(t) = (te −t , 2 arctan t, 2e t ) , t = 0 [ANS: 31 (1, 2, 2)]
(b) r(t) = cos t ı̂ + 3t ̂ + 2 sin 2t k̂, t = 0 [ANS: 35 ĵ + 45 k̂]
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 34 / 39
Exercises
7. If r(t) = t, t 2 , t 3
, find r 0 (t), T̂(1), r 00 (t), and r 0 (t) × r
00 (t).

[ANS: 1, 2t, 3t 2 ; √114 (1, 2, 3) ; (0, 2, 6t) ; 6t 2 , −6t, 2 ]

8. Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the curve with the
parametric equations

x = e −t cos t, y = e −t sin t, z = e −t

at the point (1, 0, 1). [ANS: x = 1 − t, y = t, z = 1 − t]

9. Find the given integral.
Z 1  
(a) 16t 3 î − 9t 2 ĵ + 25t 4 k̂ dt [ANS: 4 î − 3 ĵ + 5 k̂]
0
Z π/2  
(b) 3 sin2 t cos t î + 3 sin t cos2 t ĵ + 2 sin t cos t k̂ dt
0
Z  [ANS: î + ĵ + k̂]

2 2 3 2
(c) sec t î + t(t + 1) ĵ + t ln t k̂ dt
[ANS: tan t î + 81 (t 2 + 1)4 ĵ + 1 3
ln t − 19 t 3 k̂]


3t
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 35 / 39
Exercises
√
10. Find r(t) if r 0 (t) = 2t ı̂ + 3t 2 ̂ + t k̂ and r(1) = î + ĵ.
[ANS: t 2 î + t 3 ĵ + 23 t 3/2 − 23 k̂]

11. If u(t) = (sin t, cos t, t) and v(t) = (t, cos t, sin t), use differentiation
d d
rules to find [u(t) · v(t)] and [u(t) × v(t)].
dt dt
[ANS: 2t cos t + 2 sin t − 2 cos t sin t; (cos 2t − cos t + t sin t) î + (2t −
sin 2t) ĵ + (cos 2t − cos t + t sin t) k̂]
12. Find f 0 (2), where
f (t) = u(t) · v(t), 0
2 3

u(2) = (1, 2, −1) , u (2) = (3, 0, 4) and
v(t) = t, t , t . [ANS: 35]
d 1
13. If r(t) 6= 0, show that |r(t)| = r(t) · r 0 (t).
dt |r(t)|
[Hint: |r(t)|2 = r(t) · r(t)]
14. Show that if r is a vector function such that r 00 exists, then
d 
r(t) × r 0 (t) = r(t) × r 00 (t)

dt
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 36 / 39
Exercises

15. If u(t) = r(t) · [r 0 (t) × r 00 (t)], show that

u 0 (t) = r(t) · r 0 (t) × r 000 (t)

 

16. Reparametrise the curve r(t) = 2t ı̂ + (1 − 3t) ̂ + (5 + 4t) k̂ with

respect to arc length measured from the point where t = 0 in the
direction of increasing t.    
2s 3s 4s
[ANS: r(s) = √ ı̂ + 1 − √ ̂ + 5 + √ k̂]
29 29 29
 
2 2t
17. Reparametrise the curve r(t) = 2
− 1 ı̂ + 2 ̂ with
t +1 t +1
respect to arc length measured from the point (1, 0) in the direction
of increasing t. Express this parametrisation in its simplest form.
What can you conclude about the curve?
[ANS: r(s) = cos(s) ı̂ + sin(s) ̂; a circle in the plane]

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 37 / 39

Exercises

18. Find T̂(t) and N̂(t) and κ(t).

(a) r(t) = (2 sin t, 5t, 2 cos t)
1 2
[ANS: √ (2 cos t, 1, −2 sin t); (− sin t, 0, − cos t); ]
√29 29
2 t, e t , e −t


(b) r(t) =
[ANS: √ 2t
1 √  1  √ t √ t 2e
t 2t 2t
2t
2e , e , −1 ; 2t 1 − e , 2e , 2e ; ]
e +1 e +1 (e + 1)2
2t

19. Prove that

|r 0 (t) × r 00 (t)|
κ(t) = .
|r 0 (t)|3
Use this formula to find the curvature of the curves
(a) r(t) = t 2 ı̂ + t ̂ [ANS: 2/(4t 2 + 1)3/2 ]
(b) r(t) = 3t ı̂ + 4 sin t ̂ + 4 cos t k̂ [ANS: 4/25]

Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 38 / 39

Exercises
20. Let r(t) = t 2 , 23 t 2 , t . Find the vectors T̂, N̂ and B̂ at the point

(1, 23 , 1).
[ANS: 23 , 32 , 31 ; − 13 , 32 , − 23 ; − 23 , 13 , 23 ]

21. For each of the following space curves, find T̂(t), N̂(t) and B̂(t).
t2 (b) r(t) = 4 sin t ı̂ + 4 cos t ̂ + 8 k̂
(a) r(t) = t ı̂ + ̂ + t k̂
2
ANS:
1 1 1
(a) T̂ = √ (1, t, 1) , N̂ = p (−t, 2, −t) , B̂ = √ (1, 0, 1)
2+t 2 2(2 + t 2 ) 2
 t,− sin t, 0) , N̂(t)
(b) T̂(t) = (cos
s s  = (− sin t, − cos t, 0) , B̂(t) = −k̂
22. If r(s) = a cos ı̂ + a sin ̂, where s denotes arc length and a
a a
is a constant, find the unit tangent vector T̂(s), the curvature κ(s),
the unit principal
 s  normal  sN̂(s)
 and the hunit binormal vector
 s B̂(s).
s i
T̂ = − sin ı̂ + cos ̂, N̂ = − cos ı̂ + sin ̂ ,
a a a a
κ = 1/a, B̂ = k̂
Dr Petrovious Horton (UNESWA) Vector Functions 39 / 39