Basic Electronics & Communication

Module 4
Embedded System:
 An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform a
specific function and a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
 Every embedded system is unique and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly
specialized to the application domain.
 Embedded systems are becoming an inevitable part of any product or equipment in all
fields including household appliances, telecommunications, medical equipment,
industrial control, consumer products, etc.
 Embedded system is a combination of 3 things
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Mechanical component & it is supposed to do only one specific task only

Examples:
Example1: Washing Machine
A washing machine from an embedded systems point of view has:
a.Hardware: Buttons, displays & buzzer, electronic circuitry.
b.Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software which drives controls &
monitors various operations possible.
c.Mechanical components: the internals of a washing machine which actually wash the
clothes control the input and output of water.

Example-2: Air Conditioner

An Air Conditioner from an embedded systems point of view has:
a.Hardware: Remote, display & buzzer, infrared Sensors, electronic circuitry
b.Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software which drives control &
monitors the various operations possible. The software monitors the external temperature
through the sensors and then releases the coolant or suppresses it.
c. Mechanical components: The internals of an air conditioner the motor, the outlet, etc.-

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Differences between General Purpose computing system and Embedded system:

Criteria General Purpose computing system Embedded system

Contents A system which is a combination of a A system which is a combination of a
generic hardware and general-purpose special-purpose hardware and
operating system for executing a embedded OS for executing a variety
variety of applications of applications

OS It contains a general-purpose operating It may or may not contain an operating

system (GPOS) system for functioning

Alterations Applications are alterable The firmware of the Embedded system

(programmable) by the user. (It is is pre-programmed and it is non-
possible for end user to re-install the alterable by the end user.
OS and also add or remove user
applications)

Key Factor Performance is the key deciding factor Application specific requirements (like
in the selection of the system. Faster is performance, power requirements,
better. memory usage etc) are the key deciding
factor.

Power More Less

consumption
Response Time Not Critical Critical for some applications
Execution Need not be deterministic Deterministic for certain types of ES
like ‘Hard real time systems’.

Classification of Embedded Systems:

The classification of embedded system is based on following criteria's:
 On generation
 On complexity & performance
 On deterministic behaviour
 On triggering

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On generation:
1. First generation (1G):
 Built around 8bit microprocessor & microcontroller.
 Simple in hardware circuit & firmware developed.
 Examples: Digital telephone keypads.
2. Second generation (2G):
 Built around 16-bit µp & 8-bit µc.
 They are more complex & powerful than 1G µp & µc.
 Examples: SCADA systems
3. Third generation (3G):
 Built around 32-bit µp& 16-bit µc.
 Concepts like Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), Application Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASICs) evolved.
Examples: Robotics, Media, etc.
4. Fourth generation:
 Built around 64-bit µp & 32-bit µc.
 The concept of System on Chips (SoC), Multicore Processors evolved.
 Highly complex & very powerful.
Examples: Smart Phones.
On complexity & performance:
1. Small-scale:
Simple in application need
Performance not time
time-critical.
Built around low performance& low cost 8 or 16 bit µp/µc.
Example: an electronic toy
2. Medium-scale:
Slightly complex in hardware & firmware requirement.
Built around medium performance & low cost 16 or 32 bit µp/µc.
Usually contain operating system.
Examples: Industrial machines.
3. Large-scale:
Highly complex hardware & firmware

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Major Application Areas of ES:

The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few of the
important domains and products are listed below:
 Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
 Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge,
microwave oven, etc.
 Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder
detection alarms, closed circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.
 Automotive industry: Anti
Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition
systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.
 Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications,
etc.
 Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
 Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
 Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.
 Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, digital CROs, logic analyzers
PLC systems, etc.
 Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of
sales (POS).
 Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

Elements of an embedded system:

 An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware Software Mechanical
Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only.
 A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller which acts as the master
brain of the system. Diagrammatically an embedded system can be represented as
follows:
 Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such
Microwave Oven) or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals
to the actuators or devices connected to the output port system (such as temperature in
Air Conditioner), in response to the input signal provided by the end users or sensors
which are connected to the input ports. Hence the embedded systems can be viewed
as a reactive system.

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 The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and
user interfaces and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
 Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input
devices and LEDs, LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user
interface output devices for a typical embedded system. The requirement of type of
user interface changes from application to application based on domain.
 Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation.
They automatically sense the input parameters from real world through sensors which
are connected at input port. The sensor information is passed to the processor after
signal conditioning and digitization. The core of the system performs some predefined
operations on input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends
some actuating signals to the actuator connect connected to the output port of the
system.
 The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and
other important configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in
any embedded system. Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program.

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 The user cannot change the firmware in this type of memory. The most common types
of memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are OTP,
PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and FLASH.
 An embedded system without code (i.e. the control algorithm) implemented memory
has all the peripherals but is not capable of making decisions depending on the
situational as well as real world changes.
 Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may be
implemented as a separate chip interfacing the processor
 In a controller based embedded system, the controller may contain internal memory
for storing code such controllers are called Micro-controllers with on-chip ROM.
eg. Atmel AT89C51.

The Core of the Embedded Systems:

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.
 General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
 Digital Signal Processors
 Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
 Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
 Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)
General Purpose and Domain Specific Processor:
 Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
 The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor,
depending on the domain and application.
Microprocessor:
 A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of
performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer
 In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and
Working registers
 Microprocessor is a dependant unit and it requires the combination of other hardware
like Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper functioning.

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 Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit
processor which was released in Nov 1971. Developers of microprocessors:
 Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit)
 Intel – Intel 4040.
 Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
 Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit).
 Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976.
Microcontroller:
 A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
Timer and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
 Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors
 Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic
applications and domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from Atmel
Corporation. Designed specifically for automotive applications)
 Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent
working, they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors
 Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market
 Texas Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the world’s first microcontroller.
Differences between Microprocessor and Microcontroller:

Microprocessor Microcontroller
1. Microprocessor is widely used in computer 1. Microcontroller is widely used in embedded
systems.
systems.
2. It has only a CPU embedded into it 2. It has a CPU, a fixed amount of RAM, ROM
and other peripherals all embedded on it.

3. In case of microprocessors we have to connect 3. As all the components are internally connected
all the components externally so the circuit
in microcontroller so the circuit size is less.
becomes large and complex.
4. It consumes more power. 4. It consumes less power than a microprocessor.

5. It has very less internal register storage so it 5. It has many registers so processing time is less.
has to rely on external storage. So, all memory
based external commands which results in high
processing time.

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Difference between CISC and RISC Processor:

CISC RISC

1. Complex instructions. 1. Simple instructions.

2. Main focus is hardware. 2. Main focus is software.

3. Complexity lies in Processor. 3. Complexity lies in Compiler.

4. Multiple clock cycle. 4. Single clock cycle.

5. Transistors are used to store complex 5. Transistors are used for storing memory.
instructions.
6. CISC has 100-300 minimum Instructions. 6. RISC uses few instructions (30-40).

7. 8-10 Addressing modes. 7. Few Addressing modes.

8. Variable size/length instructions. 8. Fixed size/length instructions.

Instrumentation and control systems:

 Instrumentation and control systems Fig.(a) Shows the arrangement of an
instrumentation system. The physical quantity to be measured (e.g. temperature) acts
upon a sensor that produces an electrical output signal. This signal is an electrical
analogue of the physical input but note that there may not be a linear relationship
between the physical quantity and its electrical equivalent.

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 Fig.(b) shows the arrangement of a control system. This uses negative feedback in
order to regulate and stabilize the output. It thus becomes possible to set the input or
demand (i.e. what we desire the output to be) and leave the system to regulate itself by
comparing it with a signal derived from the output (via a sensor and appropriate signal
conditioning).
 A comparator is used to sense the difference in these two signals and where any
discrepancy is detected the input to the power amplifier is adjusted accordingly. This
signal is referred to as an error signal (it should be zero when the output exactly
matches the demand). The input (demand) is often derived from a simple
potentiometer connected across a stable d.c. voltage source while the controlled
device can take many forms (e.g. a d.c. motor, linear actuator, heater, etc.).

Transducers:

 Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form of sound, light, heat, etc., into
an equivalent electrical signal, or vice versa. Before we go further, let’s consider a
couple of examples that you will already be familiar with. A loudspeaker is a
transducer that converts low frequency electric current into audible sounds. A
microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer that performs the reverse function i.e.
that of converting sound pressure variations into voltage or current. Loudspeakers and
microphones can thus be considered as complementary transducers.

 Transducers may be used both as inputs to electronic circuits and outputs from them.
From the two previous examples, it should be obvious that a loudspeaker is an output
transducer designed for use in conjunction with an audio system. A microphone is an
input transducer designed for use with a recording or sound reinforcing system.

Sensors:
 A sensor is a special kind of transducer that converts energy from one form to another
for any measurement or control purpose ex. A Temperature sensor. The signal

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produced by a sensor is an electrical analogy of a physical quantity, such as distance,

velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure, light level, etc. The signals returned
from a sensor, together with control inputs from the user or controller (as appropriate)
will subsequently be used to determine the output from the system. The choice of
sensor is governed by a number of factors including accuracy, resolution, cost and
physical size.
 Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive. An active sensor generates a
current or voltage output. A passive transducer requires a source of current or voltage
and it modifies this in some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in the sensor’s resistance).
The result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by the sensor on its
own.
 Sensors can also be classed as either digital or analogue. The output of a digital sensor
can exist in only two discrete states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1’ or
‘logic 0’, etc. The output of an analogue sensor can take any one of an infinite number
of voltage or current levels. It is thus said to be continuously variable. Table 15.3
provides details of some common types of sensor.
Actuator:
Actuator is used for output. It is a transducer that may be either mechanical or
electrical which converts signals to corresponding physical actions.
LED (Light Emitting Diode):
LED is a p-n junction diode and contains a CATHODE and ANODE for functioning
the anode is connected to +ve end of power supply and cathode is connected to –ve end of
power supply. The maximum current flowing through the LED is limited by connecting a
resistor in series between the power supply and LED as shown in the figure below

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There are two ways to interface an LED to a microprocessor/microcontroller:

 The Anode of LED is connected to the port pin and cathode to Ground: In this
approach the port pin sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high (ie. 1).
 The Cathode of LED is connected to the port pin and Anode to Vcc : In this approach
the port pin sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high (ie. 1). Here the
port pin sinks the current and the LED is turned ON when the port pin is at Logic low
(ie. 0)

7- segment display:

A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic

display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot
matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters,
basic calculators, and other electronic devices that display numerical information.

 The seven elements of the display can be lit in different combinations to represent the
Arabic numerals. Often the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted)
arrangement, which aids readability.
 In most applications, the seven segments are of nearly uniform shape and size (usually
elongated hexagons, though trapezoids and rectangles can also be used), though in the
case of adding machines, the vertical segments are longer and more oddly shaped at
the ends in an effort to further enhance readability.
 The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by the letters A to G, where the
optional decimal point (an "eighth segment", referred to as DP) is used for the display
of non-integer numbers.

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