ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION

 Power system transmission lines are the electrical connections between the
generating stations and the load centres.
 Basically, overhead lines or cables are used for this purpose.
 The need for power transmission arises from the fact that bulk power generation is
done at large electric power plants remotely located. Transmission offers the
following advantages :
1. Use of remote energy sources
2. Reduction of the power reserve of gen. stations
3. Utilization of the difference between various time zones when the peak
demands are not coincident
4. Improved reliability of the power network!
 The design of power line depends on :
1. Amount of real power it has to transmit
2
2. Di
Distance over which
hi h power must beb carried
i d
3. Cost of the power line
4. Esthetic considerations, urban congestion, ease of installation, expected load
growthh

103
 The basic characteristics of power lines are :

1.
1 To carry reall power (& reactive
T ti power))
2. As far as possible, voltage should remain constant over the line length
3. Line losses must be small, so that operating efficiency is high
4
4. I2R losses
l mustt nott overheat
h t the
th conductors
d t

 Overhead lines are made upp of metal conductors suspended

p on insulators from a
tower which is made of metal, wood, or reinforced concrete.

- Most modern overhead lines are constructed usingg ACSR ((aluminium

conductor steel reinforced) which consists of a central steel core on which
aluminium wires are wound. (The steel core increases the mech. strength)
- Multiwire conductors (strands) are preferred over single
single-wire
wire conductors
- Towers or poles carrying six trans. lines are called double-circuit lines
- Steel ground wires are placed atop towers/poles for protection against direct
lightning strikes

104
765-kV, 4-conductors/phase, 3- lines on tower 345-kV, double-circuit, 3- lines

Steel
Strands

Aluminium
Strands

Cross-section of ACSR conductors 24/7

105
 Cables have conductors insulated from one another and enclosed in protective
sheaths. [Please refer to Appen. C for details.]

- Cables laid directly in the soil, or in a bed of sand, or within special cable
ducts.

 By and large, overhead lines favored due to lower initial costs, ease/simplicity of
repair & maintenance. Cables, however, utilized in urban areas (eg. Singapore
has 100% cable network)
 Power transmitted

 V2

 
Length of line

 Trans. system voltages are usually v. high

 We will study overhead lines w some detail.

106
Transmission (Overhead) Lines
- Have 4 parameters : Resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance.
 Series inductance & shunt capacitance represent the effects of the magnetic &
electric fields respectively around the line conductors.
 Conductance
C d t exists
i t betn.
b t conductors
d t or betn.
b t conductors
d t & the
th ground.
d It
accounts for the leakage current at the insulators (thru cable insulation for
cables)
 Usually ll negligible,
li ibl hence
h conductance
d effect
ff iis neglected.
l d
Line Resistance (R)
l
R DC  
A
where  = Conductor resistivity,
resistivity -m
l = Conductor length, m
A = Cross-sectional conductor area, m2
= r2 for circular conductors
r = Conductor radius, m
RAC ~ ((1.05 to 1.10))  RDC
107
Due to stranding, temp. effects & skin effect (varying freq. causes I to segregate along
outer edge or “skin” of conductor; non-uniformly distributed I)
Line Inductance
Li I d t (L)
(a) Equal spacing between the 3 phases
a
 GMD 
D D L phase  2  107   n  H / m
 GMR 

c b
D
where : GMD = Geometric Mean Distance = D
GMR = Geometric Mean Radius of conductor
(b) Unequal spacing between phases
a
D1 GMD  3 D1D 2 D3
D3
 GMD 
& L phase  2  107   n  H / m
D2 b  GMR 
c
108
 Line reactance per phase
XL = L = 2fL(/m)
(c) Use of bundled conductors
 To reduce corona effect (extra-high voltages on lines ionize the air & produce a
discharge resulting in power loss, loss high-freq.
high freq noise
noise, electro-magnetic
electro magnetic
interference with TV/Radio sets)
 To reduce line inductance & resistance
 3 ways :

Each pphase has 2,, 3 or 4 conductors arranged

g as shown.
2-conductor case : GMRb = GMRbundle
= GMR cond  d
3-conductor case : GMRb = 3
GMR cond  d 2
4-conductor case : GMRb = 1.09  4 GMR cond  d 3
109
  GMD b 
 L phase  2  107   n   H/m
 GMR b 
where : GMD b  3 D1D 2 D3
For example, flat horizontal line with 2 conductors per phase.

Line Capacitance (C)

 It is a shunt between conductors; thus charging current flows in the line even
when line is not loaded (is open)

110
(a) Equal conductor spacing
a
D D 2
Cn  F / m to neutral
 GMD 
n 
c b  r 
D
where :  = Permittivity of free space
8 85 10
= 8.85 10-12
12
F/
F/m
r = radius of conductor &
GMD = D
(b) Unequal conductor spacing
a
D1
2
2
c D3 Cn  F / m to neutral
 GMD 
n 
 r 
D2
b
where : GMD = 3 D1D 2 D3
111
Using bundled conductors
2
Cn  F / m to neutral
 GMDb 
n 
 b 
r
where : GMDb = 3 D1D 2 D3 , and
rb = r d For 2-conductor case
= 3 r d 2 For 3-conductor case
= 1.09 4 r d 3 For 4-conductor case
Capacitive reactance per phase
1 1
XC = = (  m)
C 2f Cn
Example 11
Each conductor of the bundled-conductor trans. line shown below has a GMR of
0.0466, and outside diameter of 1.382. Find :
(1) Line inductance per phase per metre
(2) Inductive reactance per phase in /mile
(3) Line capacitance in F/metre to neutral
(4) Capacitive reactance to neutral in -km
 km per phase (given f = 60 Hz)
112
Solution :

GMRconductor = 0.0466 = 0.0466  0.3048

= 0.0142036 m

 GMR b (for 2-cond. bundle)  GMR conductor  d = 0.0142036  0.45  0.08 m

GMD b = 3 D1D 2 D3  3 8  8  16  10.0794 m

113
(1)  Line inductance
 GMD b 
L phase  2  107   n   H/m
 GMR b 
= 9.6724  10-7 H/m
(2) Line reactance
XL = 2fL = 2  60  9.672  10-7
3646 43  10-77 /m
= 3646.43 /
= 0.587 /mile
1.382
(3) r  0 691  0.0175514
 0.691 0 0175514 m
2
 rb (for 2-cond. bundle)  r d  0.0175514  0.45
= 0.08887 m
2 2 8.85  1012
 Cn  
 GMD b   10.0794
10 0794 
n  n 
 b 
r  0.08887 
11 7534  1012 F/m to neutral
 11.7534
114
(4) Capacitive reactance
1 1
Xc  
2fC 2 60  11.7534  1012
 2.257  108 -m
=0.2257 106 -km per phase

Exercise 16

(i) A three-phase transposed line is composed of one ACSR (aluminium conductors steel-reinforced) conductor per
phase, with a flat horizontal spacing of 8 m between adjacent conductors. The geometric mean radius (GMR) of
each conductor is 1.515 cm. Determine the inductance per phase per km of the line.
(i) 13  10-4 H/km

(ii) The line in part (i) is to be replaced by a two-conductor bundle with 8 m spacing between the centres of adjacent
bundles. The spacing between the conductors in the bundle is 40 cm. If the new line inductance per phase per km
is to be 77% of the inductance in part (i), what would be the GMR of each new conductor in the bundle?
1.1416 cm

115
 ELECTRICAL NETWORK MODELS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

 W
We have
h examined
i d the
th parameters
t (R,
(R L,L C) off a transmission
t i i line,
li andd are ready
d
to consider the line as an element of a power system.

 A
Analysis
l i off power system requiresi a mathematical
h i l model
d l off transmission
i i lines
li in
i
order to calculate voltages, currents, and power flows.

 T. line models must account for the series resistance & inductance, and shunt
capacitance of each phase. These parameters are distributed along the entire line
length.
1. Experience reveals that a simple series impedance with negligible capacitive
shunting is acceptable for lines up to 80 km long. These lines are called short
lines.
lines
2. When T. line lengths are between 80 & 240 km, the capacitive effect becomes
sufficiently important to be included in the analysis.

 Medium lines

116
 3. Finally, for line lengths exceeding 240 km, it becomes necessary to treat it
by a continuous distribution of elemental parameters (rather than lumped
parameters as in 1 & 2)
parameters,
 Long lines
 We shall study the short & medium lines only!
We shall adopt the following nomenclature :

(Accurate line representation)

Z = Total series impedance per phase = (r + jL)  l
where : r = resistance /m
 = 2f
L = inductance H/m
l = line length
R = rl
jX = jjLl
Ll
117
Y = Total shunt admittance per phase to neutral
= 1/(-jXc)
= (jC)  l
where : C = capacitance F/m
Review of ABCD-parameters
p of a 2-port
p network

Recall V1 = AV2 – BI2 (–ve sign for I2)

I1 = CV2 – DI2
Now

118
Then IR = -I2
VS  AVR  BI R  VS   A B   VR 
   I 
IS  CVR  DI R  S
I  C D  R 
Reciprocal  AD – BC = 1; Symmetric  A = D.
The Short Transmission Line ((< 80 km)

(Equivalent circuit)
Obviously, IS = IR = 0VR + 1IR
and VS = VR + IRZ
Compare these with IS = CVR + DIR
and VS = AVR + BIR
 C=0 D=1
A=1 B=Z
Note : Often R << XL. Hence R is ignored
g
119
Phasor Diagrams

(i) Lagging p.f. load (ii) Unity p.f. load

((iii)) Leading
gpp.f. load
120
 VR,NL  VR,FL
%Voltage regulation (VR) of a line =  100
VR,FL
R FL

where : VR,NL = Magn. of receiving-end voltage at no load

VR,FL = Magn. of receiving-end voltage at full load with VS
= constant
t t

Note : VR is positive for lagging & UPF loads, but can be negative for leading pf
l d
loads

Example 12

A 60-Hz, 3- T. line is 40 miles long & has a series impedance of (35 + j140) . It
delivers 40 MW at 220 kV, 0.9 pf lag.

( ) Find the voltage,

(a) g current & pfp at the line sending
g end.
(b) Find the voltage regulation & line efficiency.

121
Solution
40
Let Vb = 220 kV & Sb   44.44
44 44 MVA
0.9
40 MW
Given SR   44.44 MVA  SR pp.u.  1.0
0 9 pf
0.9
 SR pu = 125.84 & VR pu = 10 (reference)
 I R pu = 1  25.84
25 84
Next,
Vb 2 2202
Zb    1089.0 
Sb 44.44
(35 + j140) 
 ZLine p.u. =  0.132575.96
1089 
VS = VR + ZLine I R = 10  (0.132575.96)(1  25.84)
 1  0.132550.12  1.085  j0.1017  1.095.35
 VS Actual  VS pu  Vb  239.74 kV (Line  to  line)

122
IS  I R  I R pu  I b
 Sb  103 
 1.0
1 0   116.6
116 6 A
 3  Vb 
Angle between VS pu & IS pu = 5.35 – (–25.84) = 31.2
 Sending end pf = cos 31.2 = 0.855 lag
Alt.,
SS pu = VS pu I*S pu = (1.095.35)(125.84)  1.0931.2  0.932  j0.565
 PS pu + jQS pu

VR NL  VR FL 1.09  1.0
Volt. regulation = 100  100  9%
VR FL 1.0
PR
Line efficiency,    100%
PS
where PS = Sending-end power = VS pu IS pu cos S = 1.09  1.0  0.855
= 0.9317 pu

123
& PR = Receiving-end power
40
= 40 MW   0.9 pu
44 44
44.44
0.9
   100  96.6%
0.9317
Medium Lines (> 80 km but < 240 km)
(1) Nominal- model : Here shunt admittance (Y) is divided into 2 equal parts –
one is placed at sending end, other at receiving end.

Y Y
2 2

 ZY 
 1 Z
A B   2 
 C D     ZY  ZY 
  Y  1  1

  4 
 2
124
 VS
VS  AVR  BI R  A  [Re c. end open]
VR I R 0

VS
 VR NL 
A
VS
 VR FL
VR NL - VR FL A
 Voltage regulation =   100%
VR FL VR FL
(2) Nominal-T model : Here series imped. (Z) is split into 2 equal parts & Y is
placed at the line mid-point.

Z Z
2 2

 ZY  ZY  
  1   1 Z 
 A B  2  4 
 C D   
  
1 
ZY
Y
 2 
125
Example 13
 100-mile, 60-Hz T. line has a total series impedance
A 3-, p of ((18.26 + jj78.4)) ohms
per phase, and a total capacitive reactance of 185.5  103   90 -mile per phase. A
200-MVA, 230-kV, unity pf load is connected at the receiving end. Using the
nominal-
nominal  model,
(a) Find the sending-end voltage, current, real & reactive powers.
((b)) Find the voltage
g regulation.
g
Solution
(a) Let Sb = 200 MVA & Vb = 230 kV
Vb 2
 Zb   264.5 
Sb
18 26  j78.4
18.26 j78 4
 Zpu   0.304376.9
264.5
185.5  103
Gi en jX
Given 185 5  10   90 -mile
jXC = 185.5 3
 mile    90 
100
1855
  jX C pu   j  7.0132  90
264 5
264.5
126
 1
 Ypu   0.142690
 jX C pu
Given SR = 200 0 MVA = 1 0 pu
& VR = 230 0 kV = 1 0 pu
 IR = 1 0 pu
ZY (0.304376.9)(0.142690)
DA 1  1
2 2
 0.97890.288 pu
B  Z  0.304376.9 pu
 ZY 
C  Y  1  0.141190.142 pu
 4 
Now,
VS = AVR + BI R
 (0.9789
(0 978900.288
288)(10)  (0 304376
(0.3043 9)(10)
76.9
 1.090316.04 pu
 VS Actual
A l
 VS pu  Vb  250.775 kV
127
Also,
IS = CVR + DI R
 (0.141190.14)(10)  (0.97890.288)(10)  0.98948.49 pu

Sb  103 200  103

Ib    502.044 A
3  Vb 3  230

 IS Actual  IS pu  I b  496.722 A

 SS pu = VS pu I*S pu
= (1.090316.04)(0.9894  8.49)
 1.0694
1 0694  j0.1417
j0 1417

 SS Actual p  Sb  (213.88  j28.35) MVA

Act al = SS pu
 PS  213.88 MW
& Qs = 28.35 MVAr

128
(b)
VS
 VR 1.0903
1
A
Volt. reg.=  100%  0.9789  100%  11.38%
VR 1
Exercise
E i 17
The configuration of a transposed three-phase, 230-kV, 50-Hz ACSR transmission line is shown below. Each stranded
conductor has an outside diameter of 2.814 cm, and a GMR of 1.137 cm.

(a) Calculate the inductance and capacitance per meter of the line.
(b) If the line length is 240 km, calculate the parameters of the nominal  equivalent circuit. Ignore the resistance of
the conductor. ( = 8.85 * 10-12 F/m)
(c) When one end of the line is maintained at the rated voltage with the other end left open,
open calculate the voltage at
the open terminals and the charging current drawn by the line.
(a) 12.9314 * 10-7 H/m; 8.8933 * 10-12 F/m
(b) Z = j97.5 ohms, Y/2 = j0.3353 mS
( ) 237.77
(c) 237 77 kV (li
(line to
t line);
li ) 90.456
90 456 Amps
A

129
Review Exercise 18
A 3- T. line using bundle conductors is shown below. (D = 4 m, d = 20 cm) (Conductor radius = 0.75 cm) (GMR =
0.5841 cm)

(i) Find the R, L & C per km of the line. ( = 1.78  10-8 -m,  = 8.85 * 10-12 F/m)
((ii)) Draw the nominal-T representation
p of the line p
parameters if the system
y freq
q = 50 Hz,, and the line length
g is 200 km.
(i) R = 0.0504  per km, L = 1 mH per km, C = 0.01142 F per km
(ii) Z  (5.04  j31.42) 
2
Y = j0
j0.718
718 mS
Exercise 19
A single-circuit, 50-Hz, 3-phase transmission line is 150 km long. The line is connected to supply a load of 30 MVA at
0.85 pf lag and 138 kV. The line constants are : R = 0.186 /km, L = 2.60 mH/km, and C = 0.012 F/km. Using nominal
 representation calculate :
(a) the ABCD constants of the line.
(b) the sending end voltage when supplying (i) no load, and (ii) the above load at the receiving end at the rated voltage
of 138 kV.
(c) If the sending end voltage is fixed at 138 kV, calculate the load bus voltage at (i) no load and (ii) the above load of
30 MVA at 0.85 pf lag.
(a) A = D = 0.9650.47, B = 125.6677.17 , C = 0.556  10-390.23 S
((b)) 133.2 kV,, 153.58 kV ((c)) 142.95 kV;; 117.5 kV

130
Exercise 20
A three-phase, 345-kV, 60-Hz, 150-km long transposed line is composed of two ACSR conductors per phase. The
conductors are in a flat horizontal configuration, spaced 11 m apart. The conductors have a diameter of 3.195 cm and a
GMR of 1.268 cm. The bundle spacing is 45 cm. The resistance of each conductor in the bundle is 0.1076  per km.
(a) Determine the line inductance (in Henries) and capacitance (in Farads).
(b) Determine the element values of the nominal- model.
((c)) Determine the ABCD-constants of the line using g the nominal- representation.
p
(d) If the line is now delivering 400 MW and 10 MVAr at 345 kV at the receiving end, determine the sending-end
voltage, current and apparent power. What is the line efficiency under this condition?
(a) 0.15644 H, 1.63659 F
Y
(b) = j0.3085  10-3; Z = 59.497 82.2 
2
(c) A = D = 0.98182 0.145
59 497 82.2
B = 59.497 82 2 
C = 611.366  10-6 90.072 
(d) 356.522 kV, 665.784 A, 411.128 MVA; 97.34%
Exercise 21

A 230-kV, 3-phase transmission line has a per phase series impedance of (0.05 + j0.45)  per km, and a per phase shunt
admittance of j3.4 S per km. The line is 80 km long. Using the nominal- model, determine the sending-end voltage
and current, sending-end complex power, and the transmission efficiency when the line delivers 200 MVA, 0.8 pf lagging
att 220 kV att the
th receiving
i i end.
d
242.67 kV, 502.37 A, 163.17 MW + j134 MVAr, 98.06%

131
Further reading for Lines

1. Weedy & Cory, “Electric Power Systems”, 4th Ed., Wiley, 1998.
2. Turan Gonen, “Modern Power System Analysis”, Wiley, 1988.
3. A. R. Bergen & V. Vittal, “Power Systems Analysis”, 2ndd Ed., Prentice-Hall,
2000.
4. J. J. Grainger & William Stevenson, “Power System Analysis”, McGraw-Hill,
1994.
5. T. R. Bosela, “Introduction to Electrical Power System Technology”, Prentice-
Hall, 1997.
6. V. Del Toro, “Electric Power Systems”, Prentice-Hall, 1992.
7. T. Wildi, “Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems”, 3rd Ed., Prentice-
Hall, 1997.
8. S. A. Nasar, “Electric Energy Systems”, Prentice-Hall, 1996.

132