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Material issues in additive manufacturing: A review
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 185–200
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro
Review
Material issues in additive manufacturing: A review

Sunpreet Singh a,∗ , Seeram Ramakrishna b , Rupinder Singh c
a
Production Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
b
Center for Nano Fibers and Nano Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
c
Production Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Today, Additive manufacturing (AM) is a well known technology for making real three dimensional object,
Received 15 July 2016 with metal or ceramic or plastic or thereby combination, which may be subjected to various applications.
Received in revised form 5 November 2016 Additive bio-manufacturing (ABM) techniques are highly in demand and researches have been going on for
Accepted 17 November 2016
making these safer and more versatile. For more utilization and versatility, special attention is required
to develop new materials which can help in increasing the service life, bioactivity, cell growth along
Keywords:
with the desired mechanical properties. The present paper aims to review some of the most widely used
Additive manufacturing
AM techniques for biomedical applications. Special attention has been paid on Fused deposition modeling
Biomedical
Ceramic
(FDM) based AM technique as it is economical, environmentally friendly and adaptable to flexible filament
Digital hybrid AM material. This review paper will be helpful to the researchers, scientists, manufacturers, etc., working in
Metal the field of ABM.
Polymer © 2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2. Materials for AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.1. Production of metal powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.2. Production of ceramic powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.3. Production of polymer/composite feedstock filaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3. AM techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.1. Selective laser sintering (SLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.2. Direct laser metal forming/sintering (DLMF/DLMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.3. Electron beam melting (EBM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.4. Stereolithography (SLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.5. Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.6. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.7. Fabrication of medical implant/scaffold with FDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.8. FDM based natural composites for biomedical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.9. Hybrid digital AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4. Technology road map from the materials perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
In today’s scenario, modern industries are liable to implementing

1. Introduction several AM techniques such as: Stereo-lithography (SLA), Selective
laser sintering (SLS), Laminated object manufacturing (LOM), Fused
AM is one of the most widely used technique for constructing deposition modeling (FDM), Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), 3D
prototypes with higher dimensional accuracy and much less time. printing (3DP), etc. Basically, all these AM techniques employ the
same basic principle wherein the final component is fabricated with
layer by layer addition of the material. A brief schematic for fabri-
∗ Corresponding author. cating implant in medicine is shown in Fig. 1, while Fig. 2 describes
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Singh). a detailed classification of various types of ABM techniques.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2016.11.006
1526-6125/© 2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
186 S. Singh et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 185–200
Table 1
Commercial AM techniques, their manufacturer(s) and material provider(s).
Name Manufacturer(s) Material provider(s)
SLS, selective heat sintering 3DSYSTEMS, Farsoon Technologies, Blueprinter 3DSYSTEMS, Paramount Product Development
(Denmark), eos, MC Machinary Systems, Specialists, Farsoon Technologies, Concept
Wuhan Binhu Mechanical & Electrical Co., Ltd. Laser, eos, LuxExcel, Wuhan Binhu Mechanical
& Electrical Co., Ltd.
Selective laser melting MICROFABRICA, REALIZER, SLM Solutions, MICROFABRICA, REALIZER, SLM Solutions,
Wuhan Binhu Mechanical & Electrical Co., Ltd. Wuhan Binhu Mechanical & Electrical Co., Ltd.
Metal laser melting Concept Laser Concept Laser
EBM Arcam (Sweedon), Sciaky Arcam (Sweedon), Sciaky
Laser metal deposition BEAM (France) BEAM (France)
Inkjet, poly jet, binder jet Envisiontec, ExOne, MicroFab, Stratasys, Envisiontec, ExOne, MicroFab, Prodways,
Solidscape Stratasys, Solidscape
SLA, lithography-based ceramic manufacturing 3DSYSTEMS, CMET Inc., Somos, Lithoz, 3DSYSTEMS, CMET Inc., Somos, Lithoz,
Prodways, Wuhan Binhu Mechanical & Prodways, Wuhan Binhu Mechanical &
Electrical Co., Ltd. Electrical Co., Ltd.
Digital wax machine DWS DWS
FDM UP-3D, Stratasys, CandyFab, Fab@Home, UP-3D, Stratasys, CandyFab, Fab@Home,
MAKERBOT, Solidscape, Polyflex MAKERBOT, LuxExcel, RepRap, Solidscape,
®
Argyle Materials Inc., Polymakers
DMLS Insstek Concept Laser, Insstek
Metal powder bed fusion Renishaw Renishaw
Ultrasonic additive manufacturing Fabrisonic Fabrisonic
LENS Optomec Optomec, Concept Laser
LOM Cubic Technologies Cubic Technologies
3DP Asiga, Keyence Corporation Asiga, Keyence Corporation
ZCast ZCast ZCast
CT scan or MRI or Design Concepts

The ability of AM technology to produce actual functioning parts is
also a contributing factor to its newly acquired popularity [2]. Gen-
erally in medicine, AM usually work integrated with digital imaging
3D CAD Modelling techniques such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic res-
onance imaging (MRI). The data collected from CT or MRI scans (in
Analysis and optimization Ducom format) is converted into a 3D bio-model with the help of
Mimics or 3D-doctor like computer software. Further, the 3D bio-
model is converted to Standard Triangulation Language (.STL) file
.STL format conversion
format and imported into an AM setup, [147]. Till date, numerous
medical applications have been fabricated with available AM which
Yes
3D printing includes: soft scaffold, human osteosarcoma, blood vessels, carti-
lage, hip joint, knee joint, bone, soft tissues, etc. [3,4,5]. Currently, a
Post processing number of vendors are available for a single AM technique and for
3D object (functional part)
their materials too. Table 1 shows the manufacturer(s) of various
types of AM techniques and their recognized materials provider(s).
Fig. 1. Schematic of implant fabrication, [142].
2. Materials for AM
AM has a strong share market in medical and dental industry A variety of materials are used for AM applications and the
and it is the 3rd largest sector [1]. The new era of AM enables the research for further development of new materials is in progress.
designer to simulate the implant design prior to their manufactur- Today, various categories of biomedical materials are available with
ing. AM techniques cut the cost and time of implant manufacturing. us in-terms of metals, alloys, ceramics, bioactive glass, plastics
AM
Technologies in medicine
Electron Fused
beam deposition
melting modelling
Direct laser metal Stereo

sintering/Selective -lithography
laser melting
Selective laser sintering Laser engineered net shaping
Fig. 2. Classification of various types of AM techniques in medicine.

S. Singh et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 185–200 187
Fig. 3. Materials category for AM technologies [143].
Table 2
Biomedical materials, [146].
Implant material Abbreviation/notation Application
Ti and Ti alloys CP–Ti Bone fixation

Ti–6A1–4V Artificial valve, stent, bone fixation
Ti–6Al–7Nb Dental application, knee joint, hip joint
Ti–5Al–2.5Fe Spinal implant
Ti–15 Zr–4Nb–2Ta–0.2Pd Dental applications
Ti–29Nb–13Ta–4.6Zr Dental applications
83%–87%Ti–13%–17%Zr (Roxolid) Dental application
Stainless steel 316L Dental, knee joint, hip joint, surgical tools
Cobalt chromium alloy Co–Cr–Mo, Co–Ni–Cr–Mo Artificial valve, bone fixation, dental
applications, knee joint, hip joint
Shape memory alloy NiTi Catheters, stents
Polymers PMMA, PE, PEEK Dental applications, articular cartilage, hip
joint bearing surface, knee joint bearing
surface, soft tissues
Bio-glass SiO2 /CaO/Na2 O/P2 O5 Dental applications, orthopaedic implants
Zirconia Zirconia Porous implants, dental applications
Alumina Al2 O3 Dental applications
Hydroxyapatite Ca5 (PO4 )3 (OH) Dental applications, implant coating material
and their combinations. Fig. 3 illustrates the category of mate- carbon content. However, there are huge chances that SS-316L may
rial allotted to various AM techniques. Metals have been used for corrode inside the body under high stressed oxygen-depleted envi-
implant manufacturing since more than 120 years ago [6]. During ronment [13]. However, SS-316L is easy to fabricate and processes
early development, corrosion and insufficient strength problems required level of mechanical and corrosion properties, as a result of
were faced, however, after the introduction of the stainless steel which it has established as one of the most predominant implant
(SS) in 1920, superior corrosion resistance properties attracted alloy [14]. The continuous research for the development of safer
clinical interest. In the recent past, along with SS-316L, Ti and material led to the invention of cobalt based alloys. Further the dis-
Co–Cr–Mo alloys, various polymers, glass and ceramic materi- covery of Ti, and specifically Ti–6Al–4V, has become one of the most
als found their applications as an implant material [7,8]. Table 2 commonly used materials for biomedical applications. Ti–6Al–4V
summarizes different type of biomedical material. It is a well alloy offers most desirable medical characteristics which include:
established assumption that the mechanical properties of selected corrosion resistance, bio-compatibility, shear strength, good elastic
implant material must fulfill its functions such as providing sup- modulus, density and osteointegration [15]. All aforesaid materi-
port, fixation and bone replacement. Further, it should possess an als are printable with existing AM equipments such as: SLS, DMLS,
inertness and corrosion resistance properties in the body so that its LENS, EBM, etc.
implantation should not cause any harm to body [9]. Post treatment Ceramic such as alumina (Al2 O3 ), zircon dioxide (ZrO2 ),
and processing techniques plays a vital role in required implant hydroxyapatite (HAp or Ca10 (PO4 )6 (OH)2 ), bio-glass
properties [10]. (SiO2 –CaO–Na2 O–P2 O5 –MgO), titanium oxide (TiO2 ), tri-calcium
Commercially pure Ti, Ti alloys, surgical grade stainless steel phosphate (TCP or ␣/␤Ca3 (PO4 )2 ), are very efficient for their tasks
and cobalt–chromium alloys are among most widely used metal- inside the human body. These materials are most commonly used
lic based implant materials [11,12]. Particularly, austenitic SS-316L as/in the coating material, hip joint caps, articular cartilage, etc.
is the first recommended biomaterial for nails, screws, plates, etc. Current studies have been focused for searching new materials
It has a reasonable corrosion resistance tendency due to its lower further filling the gaps in-terms of rapid healing, biocompatibility
issues, poor wet-ability, etc. [16,17]. Bio-active glass is one of order to suit best the required applications and being economi-
latest inventions which have been used extensively for clinical cal simultaneously [27,28,29]. Plasma rotating electrode process,
applications [18]. One advantage associated with bio-active glass gas atomization, plasma atomization, electrolytic processing, high-
and glass-ceramic material is their tendency to form biologically pressure water atomization and mechanical crushing are some of
active HAp surface layer, which permits their bonding between the commercially established processes (for a detailed list, refer
bone and soft tissue [19]. Z-Cast is the most suitable 3D printer for Fig. 4) for the production of metal powders [30,31,32,33,25,34].
fabricating ceramics based biomedical components. Each of the above mentioned routes has integral advantages and
Equipments like: SLA, FDM, LOM, etc., use various types of limitations. The plasma rotating electrode process is known for pro-
polymer materials for dental, cardiovascular, soft tissue, drug deliv- ducing high purity metal powders, however the powder produced
ery, and tissue engineering and orthopedic applications. Natural by this route is not fine as desired for most of applications, espe-
polymers (cellulose, natural rubber, sutures, collagen, deoxyri- cially in biomedicine [30]. On the other hand, gas atomization uses
bonucleic acid, etc.) are known for their friendly behavior to air, steam or an inert gas to produce powders from molten metal
the biological environment in which these are used. These are and produces finer spherical powder ranging from 10 to 300 ␮m
generally an extracellular matrix of connective tissue like: ten- [35]. In gas atomization, satellite formation is difficult to avoid in
dons, ligaments, skin, blood vessel, and bone [20]. Also, these which shows detrimental to achieving good flow-ability. Plasma
materials are degradable and are more environmental friendly. atomization, patented by PyroGenesis and Hydro-Quebec, is used
On the other side synthetic polymers (which include poly- to produce highly pure spherical the powders, molybdenum, cop-
ethylene (PE), poly-propylene (PP), poly-ethylene-terephthalate per and Inconel with a variety of sizes [36]. This process includes
(PET), poly-vinyl-chloride (PVC), poly-ethylene-glycol (PEG), poly- an electric source which is used to supply power to a plasma torch,
caprolactone (PCL), poly-tetra-floroethylene (PTFE), poly-glycolide generates a jet of extremely hot ionized inert gas with high velocity.
(PGA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), Ultra high molecu- The high velocity of striking ions ensured atomization and extended
lar weight poly-ethylene (UHMWPE), Poly(lacticacid) (PLA), high temperature zone to allow spheroidization. The equipment
Poly(ethylene terephthalate), poly-etheretherketone (PEEK), poly- required for this technique is costly and required specially trained
methyl-methacrylate (PMMA), nylon and others) are also used for operators.
biomedical applications and offer superior properties comparative In an another powder production process, metal oxide ores are
to natural polymers. reduced with the help of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and dissoci-
Apart from the wide availability of AM techniques and their ated ammonia gas to produce their respective metals such as: iron,
processing materials, still most of biomedical implants/devices cobalt, copper, tungsten and molybdenum powders on a commer-
demands post treatment in order to improve the surface charac- cial scale. However, reduction processes are time consuming and
teristics of the fabricated part. This highlights some weak pools demands lots of experimental setups to get the required properties
of existing AM techniques or their materials or of both. Generally, of the reduced metal powders [37].
pure materials are employed for most of the AM techniques due to An electrolytic process involves the deposition of a metallic
which the properties possessed by the resulting components are element at the cathode of an electrolytic cell. The most common
sometimes unsuitable for different end user applications. Advance application is in the production of copper powder. The electrolysis
materials (such as composites) could be developed for various ABM conditions for the production of copper powder are electrolysis-
techniques in a way to eliminate the time and cost incurred during solution temperature of 48–52 ◦ C, sulfuric-acid concentration of
their post treatments. Cost of metal powders, limited number of 120–250 g/L. The deposited copper powder is periodically scraped
varieties and controlled by the AM machine manufacturers, safety from the cathode and post treated to produce copper powder [38].
issues (lasers in the case of metal powders based AM), shrinkage of Mechanical alloying is a dry and a high energy milling pro-
the parts, poor surface finishes and multi-behavioral components cess for the production of fine metallic powders with controlled
(for e.g. Combinations of both magnetic and non-magnetic) are microstructure. This process involves the repeated welding and
some of the major requirements in today’s manufacturing sector. In fracturing of a mixture of metallic and non-metallic powders in
order to achieve such characteristics, one needs to develop a custom a highly activated ball mill. Under the extreme state of hydrostatic
made composition of workhorse materials. In the upcoming sub- compression the brittle material undergoes fairly large amounts of
sections, we have tried to review the various techniques used for plastic strain before fracture. As the process continues, the materi-
the production of metal powders, ceramics and polymer/composite als are fractured and re-welded by the grinding ball mill, which
feedstock filaments for various AM techniques. leads to continual refinement of the internal structure of metal
powder [39,40]. This method can be used for the production of
2.1. Production of metal powders composite metallic powders. Prior to the use of in-house developed
metallic powders, these must be characterized using the following
SLS, LENS, EBM, DMLS, SLM, EMB, Prometal, etc., are those techniques:
AM techniques which utilize metal powders for the develop-
ment of functional and non-functional prototypes. Stainless steel, Laser particle size distribution (PSD) measurements
Co–Cr alloy, CP–Ti, Ti–6Al–4V, NiTi, Inconel, gold, silver, copper, X-ray computed tomography (XCT)
Al and their alloys are most widely used metal powders, nowa- X-ray diffraction (XRD)
days [21,22,23,24,25]. Since most of the commercially used AM Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
techniques are rigid in-terms of input processing variables (even Dispersive elemental analysis (EDS)
characteristics of metal powder to be used), hence it is very difficult X-ray photo-spectroscopy (XPS)
to customize the composition according to the end user applica-
tions of resulting components. Further the commercially available 2.2. Production of ceramic powders
metal powders are often supplied by the additive manufacturers,
which cost very high. Problems like: surface roughness, damage Chemistry and crystal phase purity is most desired properties
tolerance, inferior fatigue & tensile strength, sensitively affected of ceramic synthesis techniques along with controlled particle size
by subtle changes to the chemistry and microstructure are also distributions. Different technique suits different types of ceram-
highlighted in the literature [26]. Till date, numerous research ics. In addition to the technical advantages of various processes,
efforts have been made to developed in-house metal powders in advantageous production costs also influence process selection.
Fig. 4. Methods of powder production [37].
The production of nano-sized oxide powders are very important for 2.3. Production of polymer/composite feedstock filaments
the fabrication of high-performance ceramic parts through AM. The
conflicting requirements for a ceramic-processing method and high According to Stratasys Inc. USA white paper, there are about 11
demand for low cost techniques have motivated the researchers to types of FDM materials which are commercially available to sat-
come with innovative concepts. During the past, many groups have isfy most of the applications, [148]. These materials have unique
participated in this quest for flexible, simple, and cost-effective properties including chemical resistance, transparency, biocom-
processing, generating a multitude of new methods [41]. patibility, thermal resistance and strength, etc. Research at different
Some examples of commercial ceramic powder processes geographic regions is in progress for the development of new ther-
include solid phase synthesis of Si3 N4 and SiC, A12 O3 and ZrO2 , moplastic FDM material. Development of new FDM materials based
and gas synthesis of TiO2 and SiO2 [42]. Processing of ZrB2 has on metals and other filler materials like; aluminium oxide, alu-
relied upon comminution of starting powders using grinding media minium, iron, copper, silicon carbide, fibers and ceramics offers a
typically comprised of tungsten carbide, Si3 N4 , SiC, ZrO2 , or Al2 O3 challenging task because of the specific requirement of feed stock
[43]. Noviyanto et al. [44] utilized a new pulverization process filament, Novakova et al. [49]. Wu [50] stated that the work for
for the synthesis of SrTiO3 single crystals, TiO2 single crystals and the development of new metal and ceramic based material has
BaTiO3 ceramic in a gas stream containing air and ammonia at been in progress for rapid fabrication of functional component by
high temperature. Colombo in 2006 [45] outlined some of the FDM. A similar work was carried to develop metal/polymer com-
methods used for the production of cellular or porous ceramics. posite material for FDM (shown in Table 3) with an aim to direct
Messing et al. [46] highlighted that a variety of spray pyroly- rapid tooling using iron particle in a nylon type matrix in suitable
sis techniques have been developed to directly produce ceramic proportion, Masood and Song [51]. Variation of the amount of vari-
powders from solutions. In their work they have studied the ous constituents required for different volume of the part materials
effect of process parameters on the controlled morphology and for the 70/30% (nylon/iron) and 60/40% (nylon/iron) campsites are
composition of the ceramics. A model incorporating solute dif- shown in Fig. 5(a) and (b), respectively. These figures provide guide-
fusion in the droplet and solvent evaporation from the droplet lines for the relative amount of constituent materials required for
surface was explored to establish the critical parameters lead- a given volume of parts to be fabricated on the FDM system. How-
ing to the solid particle formation. Similarly, Pham et al. [47] ever, Bigg [52], Nikzad et al. [53] worked on the development of
processed ZrB2 using spark plasma sintering with the addition new metal, polymer composite consisting of an FDM-grade ABS
of B4 C in order to remove oxide impurities. Shangguan et al. containing 10% fine iron particles by volume was experimentally
[48] synthesized Ba0.991 Bi0.006 TiO3 @ZnO–B2 O3 –SiO2 (BBT@ZBSO) investigated and a mixture of 10% iron powder and 90% ABS pow-
nano particles and ceramics and examined the core–shell structure der by volume was prepared in screw extruder machine found
through energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The effects of ZBSO higher values of mechanical test. Fig. 6(a) shows metal/polymer
additive on the phase composition, microstructure, sintering tem- based FDM feedstock filament and Fig. 6(b) shows test sample pro-
perature and dielectric properties of the BBT ceramics were studied. duced on FDM3000 from new Iron/ABS composite (black color) and
Similar inspection techniques, as mentioned in above sub-section, unfilled ABS (white color).
may be adopted for the characterization of synthesized ceramics. Thrimurthulu et al. [54] presented an approach that determined
the optimal part deposition orientation for FDM process by consid-
ering two contradicting objectives, namely build time and average
part surface roughness, and were minimized by minimizing their
Table 3
Constituents of new iron/polymer composites.
Sample no. Iron particle size (␮m) By volume (%) By weight (%) Surfactant/plasticiser
Nylon Iron Nylon Iron
1 50–80 (coarse) 70 30 23.10 70.91 6

2 50–80 (coarse) 60 40 15.95 76.15 7.9
3 <30 (fine) 60 40 15.95 76.15 7.9
Fig. 5. Relative constituent elements as a function of volume of part material [51].
Fig. 6. Developed wire with specimens.
weighted sum. Nikzad et al. [55] investigated the thermal and tional components by FDM with higher mechanical, thermal and
mechanical properties of metal-particle filled ABS composites for wear resistant properties [57].
FDM application where a test sample made of Iron/ABS and Cop- There are many obstacles in the development of FDM feedstock
per/ABS were mixed by centrifugal grinder were extruded in screw wire like; composition having relative melt flow index, uniform dis-
extruder machine both filled and unfilled ABS wire were tested for tribution of filler in plastic and extrusion of continuous wire, etc.
its elongation. The use of RP technology for RT and RM has given Venkataraman [58] highlighted the main obstacle for application
rise to the development of application oriented composites [56]. of new materials with specific characteristics was often come from
The FDM is capable of yielding strong composite parts as bond use of intermediate precursors such as a filament and problems
forms between successive roads and layers due to partial and full were encountered during preparation of new feedstock filament
melting of composite feedstock filaments [149]. Work has been in due to use of precursor filament. Reddy et al. [59] developed prin-
progress in some universities and research institutions to develop ciple of polymer extrusion called extruder deposition process (EDP)
new metallic and ceramic materials for rapid fabrication of func- which deposited material on a computer-controlled positioning
system to build components. Effect of variable like; nozzle tem- into the hopper (shown in Fig. 7(c)) which flows by gravity from
perature, chamber temperature and road gap was studied as their the feed hopper down into the extruder barrel to fill the annular
influence on bond strength and surface finish. The various mate- space between the extruder screw and barrel (refer Fig. 7(d)). Bar-
rials such as: wax, paper, nylon, glass filled nylon, metal filled rel is stationary and screw is rotating so frictional forces will act
nylon, metal filled ABS and ceramics have been reported by var- on the material, barrel and screw surface. Die and barrel temper-
ious researchers [60]. Rutgers University in the United States has ature are adjusted from the panel and material melts as it flows
carried out considerable work in the development of fused deposi- forward. As the melting point of plastic exceeded, a thin film of com-
tion of ceramics (FDC) and metals. They have fabricated functional posite material as compounded will form on the barrel surface. In
components of a variety of ceramic and metallic materials such as the melt-conveying zone, the material is simply forced towards die
silicon nitrate, PZT, aluminum oxide, hydroxyapatite and stainless head (Fig. 7(e)). Since the die exerts a resistance to flow, a pressure
steel for a variety of structural, electro-ceramic and bio-ceramic is required to force the material through the die and is determined
applications [57]. by the shape of the die. The extruded filament exiting the die is
Researchers at Virginia Tech have developed a new high perfor- then carried away, through water tank by a take up roller (Fig. 7(f))
mance thermoplastic composite for FDM, involving thermotropic and wounded on the spool.
liquid crystalline polymers (TLCP) fibers and have used it in the
FDM system to fabricate prototype parts. The tensile modulus and
3. AM techniques
strength of this material were approximately four times those of
ABS [61]. The feedstock filament for FDM was prepared with the
Following is the brief introduction of some of the AM techniques
mixture of polypropylene and ceramic powder such as mullite
which are frequently used for biomedical applications:
(Al2 O3 , 2SiO2 ), fused silica (SiO2 ), titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) and alu-
mina (Al2 O3 ).
The various additives such as tackifier, elastomers, plasticizer 3.1. Selective laser sintering (SLS)
and wax are added to control the various properties such as flexi-
bility, stiffness, viscosity and strength of the filament [62]. The use In early 2000, researches have been carried out for fabrication
of poly lactic acid (PLA) and tri calcium phosphate (TCP) as resorbed of porous biomedical structures using a biological complex of suf-
composite was state of the art in tissue engineering and maxillo- ficient mechanical strength.
facial surgery. The general suitability of PLA for the processing In these types of foot-stepping researches, the basic criteria
with FDM was evaluated and material specific effects (for example for building a biologically compatible matrix for tissue engineer-
crystallization and shrinkage) were observed and the characteri- ing constructions has been established on the basis of: prevention
zation of the semi-crystalline biodegradable material by thermal, of cytotoxicity, maintenance of adhesion, fixation, proliferation,
mechanical and microscopic analysis was carried out. Components prevention of inflammatory reaction, immune response, sufficient
of PLA/TCP have sufficient mechanical properties for their potential mechanical strength, bio-resorption through metabolic routes, etc.
use as a scaffold was obtained [63]. A new polymer nano-composite [75,76]. Xie et al. [77] developed 316L parts through SLS performing
material which is a mixture of polycaprolactum (PCL), montmoril- of EVA-coated metal powders, debinding and sintering in hydrogen
lonite (MMT) and hydroxyapatite (HA) as a filler can be used as atmosphere (refer Fig. 8). The effects of processing parameters on
an alternative material for FDM. PCL is bioresorbable, more stable pore characteristics and mechanical properties were analyzed. The
in ambient condition, less expensive and easily available as com- results indicated that the porosity of green body, mainly depends
pared to PLA [64]. For FDM applications biomaterials such as PCL on the laser energy density, while the pore features and mechan-
[65,66,67], HA [68], PP-␤-TCP [69], POT/PBT, PCL-␤-TCP [67], ␤- ical properties of sintered specimens are largely dominated by
TCP [70] are reported by many researchers. Various medical grade sintering temperature. Cheng et al. [78], produced Ti–6Al–4V mate-
materials are also available, which can be used to fabricate RP mod- rials through SLS with variable porosity that structurally mimicked
els on the basis of their use in different medical applications [71]. human trabecular bone. Their results indicated that a higher poros-
Marwah et al. [72] used biomass (oil palm) for the development of ity constructed mimicking trabecular bone structure was capable
FDM filament. Prototypes produced using advanced or composite of stimulating osteoblast differentiation when compared to 2D and
filament possesses enhanced mechanical properties as compared low porosity constructs.
to commercial material. These prototypes can be used as rapid Ghita et al. investigated laser sintering of virgin and used
tooling applications like; dentistry tools, inserts and automotive polyether ketone (PEK) powder, performed with a high temper-
parts to appreciable service life. Nowadays, wide varieties of mate- ature polymer laser sintering machine. Physico-chemical results
rials are available for FDM process which extends its application of their study revealed that, used PEK has a viable processing
range of aerospace companies, medical device makers, and limited- window for laser sintering in combination of optimized specific
production automakers. It has been reported that carbon fiber parameters. It has been outlined that incorporation of 30% used
reinforced thermoplastic composites were possessing improved PEK powder led to 17% reduction in tensile strength [79]. Wang
mechanical properties including: tensile strength, Young’s modu- et al. performed an experimental study and simulation of laser sin-
lus, toughness, yield strength, and ductility and flexural, Ning et al. tered WC-Co hard metal powders. The influence of various process
[73]. parameters (such as: laser power, scans spacing and speed, pow-
Masood and Song [51] detailed the development of the feed- der mixture ratio, grain sizes and shapes) was inspected for their
stock filament from the composite material using a single screw effect on mechanical quality of fabricated parts [80]. Shishkovsky
extruder (schematic given in Fig. 7(a)). Loading of abrasive/filler et al. investigated the technical aspects of producing porous bio-
particles in parent plastic (nylon/ABS) can be decided based on the compatible medical implants of NiTi and Ti alloy through SLS.
requirements and technical specifications of the FDM setup. The The finally fabricated parts were subjected to mechanical proper-
selected composite mixture powder is first mixed in appropriate ties, microstructure, corrosion behavior and comparative results
proportions of plastic, abrasive/filler and surfactant/plasticizer and of NiTi and Ti alloy were presented. The extensive experimenta-
homogeneous mixture is prepared by compounding procedure and tion carried out in their research work helped in determining their
is dried under vacuum in an oven (see Fig. 7(b)). The maximum suitability for use as functional implants [81]. Eosoly et al. manu-
volume of the mixer is 55 cm3 per mix approximately and one to factured HAp/poly- ∈ -caprolactone tissue engineered scaffolds and
three hours mixing time, Sa’ude et al. [74]. The mixture is then fed highlighted the influence of SLS processing parameters on the qual-
Fig. 7. Equipments/tools required for development of FDM filament.
Fig. 8. Fabrication of SS-316L through SLS.
ity of fabricated parts. The analysis showed that the dimensional connected pores diameters of 30–180 ␮m and porosity of 45–48%.
accuracy and mechanical behavior of scaffolds with a designed rel- The storage modulus of the composite scaffolds was found to be
ative density of 33% are strongly dependent on the manufacturing decreased with an increase in HAp content [83]. Shuai et al. fab-
direction and scan spacing [82]. Similarly, Salmoria et al. prepared ricated PLGA/n-HAp composite porous scaffolds with controlled
functional graded scaffold with HAp reinforced HDPE having inter- pore architectures and by exposing bioactive ceramics to scaffold
Fig. 9. Schematic of DMLS.
surface via SLS. In their work, they have studied the effect of n-
HAp content on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of electron beam melting process, [144].
resulting scaffold through SEM analysis and tensile testing, respec-
tively. It has been found that the introduction of n-HAp particles scanning speed ratio was greater than 0.5 and the hatch spacing
in PLGA has improved the mechanical properties of the polymer was less than the laser diameter, with a 30 lm thick powder layer.
porous scaffolds [84]. The compressive strength was in the range 35–120 MPa at 75–55%
Xie et al. prepared porous SS-316L by SLS pre-forming of porosity. Field emission scanning electron micrographs showed
ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer coated metal SS-316L powders. that finer networks of titanium oxide were formed over the whole
The results indicated that the porosity of green part was dependent surface of the porous body. Further, in-vivo study showed that new
on the laser energy density and after sintering, at 1100–1300 ◦ C, bone penetrated into the pores and directly bonded to the walls
mechanical properties of the parts was significantly improved. It within 12 weeks after implantation into the femur of Japanese
was highlighted that the pore structural parameters and mechan- white rabbits. Majumdar et al. deposited Co layers on Ti–6Al–4V
ical properties can be matched with those of trabecular bone at substrate surface through a modified DMLS process called direct
optimized SLS processing parameters and sintering temperature laser cladding. The modified DMLS process led to formation of
[77]. Recently, it has been found that n-HAp particles reinforced defect free microstructure with the presence of Ti2 –Co and Ti–Co
composite bio-devices made with SLS are crystalline, bioactive and Co2 –Ti at the interface which improved the bio-compatibility
activity and osteoconduction, which are very beneficial for bone of the fabricated parts, Majumdara et al. [89]. Traini et al. [90]
in-growth [85]. Further, SLS is more common for making polymeric prepared functionally graded titanium parts by DMLS procedure
based bio-devices as very little research has been carried out on the using a Ti–6Al–4V alloy powder. The morphological and chemical
use of SLS for metallic implants and equipments. analyses were performed by SEM and energy dispersive X-ray spec-
troscopy. It was found that The Young’s modulus of the inner core
3.2. Direct laser metal forming/sintering (DLMF/DLMS) material was 104 ± 7.7 GPa, while that of the outer porous material
was 77 ± 3.5 GPa. The fracture face showed a dimpled appearance
Shibli et al. performed a histological study in order to eval- typical of ductile fracture.
uate bone to implant contact around immediately loaded DLMF
transitional implants retrieved from human posterior maxilla. For 3.3. Electron beam melting (EBM)
their study, twelve totally edentulous patients were considered for
comparing immediately loaded and unloaded implants (manufac- EBM (refer Fig. 10) found numerous applications in aerospace,
tured with DMLS as shown in Fig. 9), placed between conventional automotive and medical/orthopaedic implant industries.
implants. After a period of 8 weeks, the conventional implants During the EBM processing, each slice is divided into two
and the surrounding tissue were removed and prepared for histo- regions, i.e. contours and squares. Initially the boundaries of the
morphometric analysis and it was found that immediately loaded parts (act as counters) are fabricated which acts as an interface
implants were having a higher bone to implant contact [86]. between the part and the surrounding metallic powder. After this
A custom Condylar plate of Ti–6Al–4V alloy obtained by the the required part was built within these contours, normally referred
DMLS process was tested for its mechanical strength and accu- as squares. The process is performed under vacuum condition to
racy of geometry through tensile strength & micro hardness test eliminate impurities and yields high strength properties of the fin-
®
and ANSYS software respectively. It has been found that DMLS ished part. The final built incorporates porosity lattice structure
technology has a wide scope for fabricating craniofacial and max- and scaffold to help in bone growth. Once the build is finished, the
illofacial implants due to their high strength and hardness. Further parts remain inside the built chamber for cooling. The part after
image processing software attested the accuracy of fit of the pros- its fabrication is transferred to a special blast chamber with a pow-
thesis to use in human mandibles [87]. Pattanayak et al. [88] studied der recovery system (PRS) where all the excess powder is removed.
SLM processing conditions (such as: laser power, scanning speed Further, processes such as milling, turning, polishing and grinding
and hatching pattern) to obtain a dense product of Ti powder (parti- can be used for surface treatment of EBM parts [91].
cle size less than 45 lm). The results of the showed that a fully dense Heinl et al. fabricated novel cellular Ti–6Al–4V structures for
plate thinner than 1.8 mm was obtained when the laser power to orthopaedic applications with EBM. Microcomputer tomography
Due to high thermal gradients and cooling rates in LENS, a very

fine coating microstructure with 1700–2000 HV was produced. This
technology allowed having simultaneous control over the compo-
sition and micron level features of coatings. Krishna et al. in 2009
[101] fabricated porous NiTi alloy with 12–36% porosity using LENS
technology and studied the effects of processing parameters of
LENS on density and other properties of NiTi samples. The den-
sity of the samples was found to increase drastically by increasing
the specific energy input to 50 J/mm3 and further increase in spe-
cific energy input had negligible effect on density. With 12–36%
porosity, NiTi sample exhibited low elastic modulus (between 2
and 18 GPa) as well as high compressive strength and recoverable
strain. It was highlighted that porous NiTi alloy samples have the
potential to accelerate the healing process and improve biological
fixation when implanted in-vivo.
Balla et al. in 2009 [102] made Ti–TiO2 based novel structures
with functional gradation using LENS technology. The functionally
graded structures having variable concentrations of TiO2 ceramic
Fig. 11. Schematic of LENS, [145].
were found to be non-toxic and biocompatible and improved the
hardness, surface wet-ability and formation of chemisorbed lubri-
cating films. These unitized structures with open porosity at one
analysis carried out in their research work has demonstrated the face, low friction surface on other face can eliminate the need
capability of EBM to fabricate 3D structures with an interconnected for multiple parts with different compositions for load-bearing
porosity, suitable for tissue in-growth and vascularization. Sur- implants such as total hip prostheses.
face of the resulting implants has been modified with HCl and
NaOH solutions which induced apatite formation during in-vitro
bioactivity tests in simulated body fluid [92]. Liu et al. in 2016 3.6. Fused deposition modelling (FDM)
[93] manufactured ␤-type Ti–24Nb–4Zr–8Sn porous components
with maximum 70% porosity and subjected these specimens to FDM technology is one of the most widely used AM technique
aging treatment. EBM made components exhibited about two times which was established in the late 1980’s and several series of
strength-to-modulus ratio as compared with porous Ti–6Al–4V machines such as FDM Titan, FDM Dimension, FDM Vantage, FDM
components having the same level of porosity. Maxum, FDM 3000 and FDM Prodigy Plus have been developed,
Bakar et al. [103]. Kumar et al. [104] illustrated the working of
FDM process, dispenses two materials-one material to build the
3.4. Stereolithography (SLA)
part and the other material for a disposable support structure. The
material is supplied from a roll of plastic filament on a spool. To
The model is initially designed through CAD (in case of
produce a part the filament is fed into a temperature-controlled
ordinary model) software and CT/MRI scan data (in case of bio-
extrusion head and heated to a semi-liquid state. The head extrudes
manufacturing) is converted into slices of known dimensions i.e.
and directs the material with precision in ultra thin layers onto a
.STL format and finally transferred to SLA apparatus for building.
fixtureless base. The nozzle has a programmed mechanism which
The laser beam moves in sequential cross-sectional increments of
allows the flow of the melted material to be turned on and off.
1 mm (max.), corresponding to slice intervals [94].
The result of the solidified material laminating to the preceding
The laser beam is computer controlled and directed to trace the
layer is a plastic 3D model built up one strand at a time. The sys-
layer, the polymer solidifies and the excess areas are left as a liquid.
tem operates in X, Y and Z axes, drawing the model one layer at
After completion of the one layer, the build platform is lowered by
a time. The filament is extruded in a thin ribbon form confirms
a distance equal to the layer thickness (normally ranges between
the bond of filaments at each layer, Liou [105]. The extruded fila-
0.003–0.002 in.), and a subsequent layer is formed on top of the
ment which is deposited onto the platform is recognized as a ‘road’,
previously completed layers. This process goes on repeating the
Grimm [106], Bellini et al. [107]. A road will be quickly solidified
above said procedure until the last layer of the model/prototypes is
after being stacked by another layer of road on the platform. The
traced by the laser. Most of SLA parts need to be cured in a UV oven
road that deposited earlier, which will be stacked by the latter road,
for improving mechanical properties of the prototypes. The 80% of
is called a substrate. Support structures are automatically gener-
polymerization takes place inside SLA while remaining 20% com-
ated for overhanging geometries and are later removed by breaking
pletes in UV oven. Depending upon the requirements, one may also
them away from the object, Upcraft and Fletcher [108]. The FDM
go for post treatments such as: polishing, sanding, painting and fin-
process starts with importing a .STL file of a model into the pre-
ishing [95]. Earlier, it was used in maxillofacial and oral surgery by
processing software. This computer software slices the 3D model
Brix and Lambrecht in 1985 and 1987 [96]. In 1991, human anatomy
into thin layers. Process parameters like; tip size, material type and
models produced with SLA was first used in a maxillofacial surgery
machining speed are automatically added and the control file for
clinic in Viena [97]. In 2000, biodegradable structures were pro-
the machine is generated, Greul et al. [109]. This model is oriented
duced by SLA technique [98]. Maji et al. in 2008 [99] at CMERI used
and mathematically sliced into horizontal layers varying from 0.127
SLA process for the development of master pattern for IC process.
to 0.331 mm thickness. Fig. 12 represents the schematic of FDM.
Two separate nozzles are used for model material and support
3.5. Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) material. For example in Stratasys uPrint-SE system, support mate-
rial (SR30-XL) is water soluble while model material (P430-XL) for
Balla et al. in 2007 [100] carried out extensive research work the same system is insoluble. The finished part can easily separate
for coating Yttria-stabilized Zirconia coatings on SS alloy by using out by exposing the part prototyped by FDM (containing the model
LENS technique (as shown in Fig. 11). and support material) to water.
the material down a chamber and out through a nozzle tip. This
process was used by Wang et al. [111] to directly fabricate PCL
scaffolds with controlled pore size of 250 ␮m. Ang et al. [112] devel-
oped a Rapid Prototyping by using the same principle as the 3D
bioplotting system to produce chitosan-hydroxyapatite scaffolds.
The literature review reveals that no work has been carried out
for the development of feather/wool reinforced PMC filament for
the fabrication of customized scaffold/articular cartilage through
FDM process. Zeng et al. [113] designed a methodology to develop
ear scaffold (refer Fig. 13) of polyurethane with good dimensional
accuracy and shape, good flexibility, bio-compatibility and elastic
modulus. This method can provide an efficient way for macrotia
reconstruction and avoids the difficulties of carving cartilage and
alleviate chest pain in traditional operation.
Gronet et al. [114] used anatomic models as templates to sim-
plify the formation of custom implants. In their research work, two
patients (first suffered from the posterior fossa defect and second
from large cranial defect) were considered for restoration with FDM
technology. Anatomic models of these patients revealing the mar-
gins (refer Fig. 14), were fabricated using FDM. Zeltinger et al. [115]
investigated the influence of pore size and porosity on cell adhe-
sion and proliferation by Disc shaped Poly(l-lactic acid) (l-PLA)
scaffolds measuring 10 mm (diameter) by 2 mm (height) were pro-
Fig. 12. Schematic of FDM. duced through both 3DP and salt & leaching methods. Lam et al.
[116] developed a blend of starch-based powder containing corn
Table 4 starch (50%), dextran (30%) and gelatine (20%), bounded by printing
Standard FDM materials [60].
distilled water.
S. no. Description Grade Cylindrical scaffolds were produced measuring 12.5 mm (diam-
1 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS plus
eter) by 12.5 mm (height) and infiltrated with different amounts of
2 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS-M30 a copolymer solution consisting of 75% l-PLA and 25% polycaprolac-
3 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS-M30i tone in dichloromethane to improve their mechanical properties.
4 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABSi Drescher et al. [117] used a low cost 3D printer and generated
5 Polycarbonate acrylonitrile butadiene styrene PC-ABS
porous biopolymer scaffolds with interconnected pores to analyze
6 Polycarbonate PC
7 Polycarbonate PC-ISO the feasibility, geometrical accuracy and quality.
8 Polyphenylsulfone PPSF/PPSU The results have shown that highly porous scaffolds with dif-
9 FDM thermoplastic material ULTEM 9085 ferent pore geometries and sizes can be achieved with a low-cost
printer. Although the focus of this article is on the fabrication tech-
niques and biomaterials used in FDM, the degradation kinetics and
Though, fabrication of biomedical implant is a tailor-made pro- byproducts of the materials are in fact a very significant problem
cess which means size, geometry and attributes of joints or implant in 3D scaffolds due to mass transport limitations within thick scaf-
varies with person to person. Medical implant fabrication starts folds. This is a moving boundary diffusion-reaction problem that
with MRI or CT scan of the patient and then scanned data is con- even without bio-degradable biomaterials can result in hypoxia and
verted into 3D geometry using MIMICS or 3D-doctor software acidosis within the scaffolds. So there is a possibility that the use of
package, and finally fired into the FDM machine. Table 4 shows organic fibers such as feather and wool results in more stability
standard materials for FDM applications. of the scaffold in the human body. The upcoming section high-
The main limitation of FDM is its inferiority in-terms of the lights some of the applications of organic fiber reinforced natural
mechanical properties of the resulting prototypes. This led to the polymers.
development of various types of alternative materials in order to
improve the application domain of this technology. However, this 3.8. FDM based natural composites for biomedical applications
task is not so easy and demands lots of time and efforts.
In last one decade, researchers have realized that unless nat-
3.7. Fabrication of medical implant/scaffold with FDM ural resources are protected and his life has a threat. Further,
conservation of forests and optimal utilization of agricultural and
Woodfield et al. [110] used a FDM technique for producing Poly poultry waste has become important topics worldwide. Research
(Ethylene Glycol)-Terephthalate-Poly (Butylene Terephthalate) on biodegradable polymeric composites, can contribute for green
(PEGT/PBT) block co-polymer scaffolds with a 100% interconnect- and safe environment to some extent. In the biomedical and bio-
ing pore network for engineering of articular cartilage. It was found engineered field, the use of natural fiber, mixed with biodegradable
that through variation in co-polymer composition, porosity and and bioresorbable polymers can produce joints and bone fixtures
pore geometry, the scaffolds developed were produced with a range to alleviate pain for patients. According to [150], biomaterial can be
of mechanical properties close to articular cartilage. The scaffolds defined as a material used in implants or medical devices, intended
seeded with bovine chondrocytes supported a homogeneous cell to interact with biological systems. Use of natural fibers (such
distribution and subsequent cartilage-like tissue formation. Drexel as; leaves from flax, jute, hemp, pineapple and sisal) may help
University developed a variation of FDM called Precision Extrud- in improvement of biological characteristics for developing natu-
ing Deposition (PED) for fabrication of bone tissue scaffolds. In this ral composites. An animal fiber generally is comprised of proteins
process, material in pellet or granule form was fed into a cham- such as collagen and keratin. It can be divided into animal hair and
ber where it was liquefied. Pressure from a rotating screw forces silk. Animal hair fiber is defined as the fiber, which is taken from
Fig. 13. Ear framework (a), reconstructed ear after operation (b) and reconstructed ear after 12 months, [113].
Fig. 14. Posterior fossa defect (a) and large cranial defect (b), [114].
animals and hairy mammals. Examples of animal hair are sheep’s

wool, cashmere, alpaca hair, horse hair. Sheep’s Wool is mainly
composed of a-keratins, a protein which mainly forms the horny
layer of the epidermis and of epidermal appendages such as hair.
Wool is a multi-component fiber, which consists of about 170 dif-
ferent protein molecules and these protein molecules constitute
the morphological components of wool, Zahn et al. [118]. The diam-
eter of wool fiber is in the range of 20–40 lm and the cross-section
is elliptical, Simpson and Crawshaw [119].
The wool fiber is typically divided into three morphological
components, including cuticle, cortex and cell membrane. The
microfibrils in the cortex represent approximately 50–60% by mass
of the cortex material, the bonding between the microfibrils and
their embedding matrix within the cortex and the presence of the
organized helices within the microfibrils dominate the mechanical
and water absorption properties of wool fibers, Feughelman [120].
Chicken feathers (schematic shown in Fig. 15) are approximately Fig. 15. Different parts of chicken feather.
91% protein (keratin), 1% lipids, and 8% water. Their fiber diameters
were found to be in the range of 5–50 lm, Kock [121]. feathers and also has a great deal in common with reptilian ker-
The keratin particles had a heterogeneous nucleating action atins from claws, Bitter [124]. A recent study showed that the PLA,
on polypropylene crystallization that increased the overall crys- Chitosan and keratin composites, support osteoblast attachment
tallization rate. The nucleation density increased as a function of and proliferation during short-term culture indicating that these
the keratin amount in the composites. The crystallinity, the crystal composites might be promising materials for medical application,
dimension and the long period of the polypropylene were found to Tanase and Spiridon [125]. The use of such reinforcement materials
be dependent on the crystallization condition and the composite for development of filament material that could be used to fabricate
composition, Canetti et al. [122]. scaffolds or articular cartilage seems to be very promising.
Materials derived from poultry feathers can also be used
advantageously as the reinforcing materials in polymer matrix 3.9. Hybrid digital AM
composites. Such applications can potentially consume the huge
quantity of feathers produced annually as a by-product of various The term digital manufacturing is known for a manufacturing
poultry units worldwide. Chicken feathers are approximately 91% system wherein the system controls are fully or semi controlled
protein (keratin), 1% lipids, and 8% water, Schmidt [123]. The amino with the help of sensors, actuators, internet, high performance
acid sequence of a chicken feather is very similar to that of other computers and also simulation softwares. Such manufacturing
systems are having interoperability, enriched modelling, system

automy, real-time insights, modularity, etc. Through the platform
of hybrid digital AM, one can club additive and subtractive man-
ufacturing processes into one single unit and this unit can be
controlled through computer insights (such as CNC programs).
Moreover one may also think of clubbing two or more types of
AM systems in order to produce multimaterials systems for high
performance applications. Last but not least, part fabrication (with
AM) and its post treatment can be carried out under one head. The
hybrid AM merges the boundary line between component devel-
opment and system integration. The co-integration of roll-to-roll
manufacturing technology with AM techniques will lead to entirely
new products and markets, Joshi et al. [126].
Joshi et al. [127] highlighted the sope of hybrid AM technolo-
gies for printed electronic sector as an advanced device integration
platforms and new markets. Design-driven manufacturing and
capabilities of AM systems are being exploited for a variety of
innovative applications ranging from unique or specialized func-
tional components to more advanced large-scale applications such Fig. 16. Framework of a RepRap based Lego-built three-dimensional (3D) printing-
as medical and dental, building construction, aerospace and auto- milling machine, [131].
motive manufacturing, 3D electronic devices, consumer products
and Microsystems, added by Joshi et al. [127]. Kerbrat et al. [128]
highlighted a new hybrid modular design methodology for collab- Process fundamentals for ensuring quality of bonding is max-
orating additive and subtractive technologies in order to meet the imised and that this is monitored through suitable techniques such
design for manufacturing agenda of globe. This method has been as peel testing. Similarly, Karunakaran et al. [134] presented a
developed as a new DFM system in CAD software. It is one of the first hybrid layered manufacturing process which combined the best
attempts to expand the DFM concept to a multi-process situation, features of additive and substractive manufacturing approaches.
combining additive processes (such as SLS or powder projection) In this process the near-net shape of the object is first built using
to more traditional subtractive ones in a hybrid modular vision. weld-deposition; the near-net shape is then finish machined sub-
Two industrial examples taken from the field of tooling have been sequently. Time and cost saving of this process can be attributed
treated to illustrate the possibilities of this new methodology, and to reduction in CNC programming effort and elimination of rough
the way it can be used in an industrial manner. machining.
Liou et al. [129] outlined a digital hybrid AM system which Although various researchers have invented different types of
uses a laser deposition system (Rofin-Sinar 025-for material depo- hybrid AM system yet there is still a way long distance to travel
sition) and a CNC milling (Fadal VMC-3016L-for material removal). from laboratory experimentations to production lines. For this,
The laser deposition system and CNC milling machine worked in- joint venture of academicians and industries is required for com-
shifts in a five-axis motion mode, which reducted the build time mercialization of such hybrid technologies in order to meet with
of the part and necessitates a time-consuming post processing. industrial requirements. However, some of the top industries such
®
Bonnard et al. [130] proposed to use STEP-NC concept, containing as: SIEMENSTM and OPTOMEC already in hybrid AM market but
high-level information, in order to integrate the AM with multiple the capabilities of their products in-terms of quality characteristics
machining processes such as milling, turning, etc., through a sin- are yet to document.
gle interface. Such STEP-NC digital chain will work in accordance
with the norm work group committee ISO TC 184/SC 1. Kostakis
and Papachristou [131] have examined the feasibility of a RepRap 4. Technology road map from the materials perspective
based Lego-built three-dimensional (3D) printing-milling machine
(framework model is given in Fig. 16). In their work they have fisrt Materials issue of available AM technologies is one of main
examined the modularity of the process development and hard- limitations which restrict on-going researches to explore different
ware components for tangible products and then demonstrated areas of applications. Generally, AM techniques are designed and
the hybrid 3D printingmilling machine for its potential of digital developed to process particular category of materials and beyond
fabrication. which one need to either modify the hardware of the system or
Li et al. [132] presented a novel hybrid AM technology combin- to develop a compatible workhorse material. The development of
ing digital light projection SLA with 3D micro-dispensing alongside new materials will represent next great innovations in this field
conventional surface mount packaging. It has been believed by the and is believed to provide researchers a pathway to tackle radi-
inventors that this technology will overcome the inherent limita- cally different processing conditions. For example, FDM is a plastic
tions of individual AM processes and integrates seamlessly with based technology, which usually unfits for those products which are
conventional packaging processes to enable the deposition of mul- required to possess high strength, electrical conductivity, magnetic
tiple materials. This will facilitate the creation of bespoke endues conductivity, constructional components, fire hazardous systems,
products with complex 3D geometry and multi-layer embedded human implants and many more. However, various research activ-
electronic systems. In their work, a demonstration of a polymer ities, till date, were focused for the enhancement of workhorse
pyramid with embedded triple-layer 555 LED blinking circuitry materials through the collaboration of plastics, metals and ceram-
(refer Fig. 17) was successfully fabricated to prove the technical ics. But very less has focused to develop commercial standards
viability. for testing of such materials and their resulting parts. Moreover,
Friel and Harrisa [133] manufactured componenets with consistencies in-terms of mechanical, physical and metallurgi-
ultrasonic-AM, a hybrid form of manufacture. The unique nature cal properties are yet to establish for these alternative materials
of the process permits extremely novel functionality to be realised based components. In order to tackle such critical issues, followings
such as multi-material structures with embedded componentry. roadmaps should be taken care of:
Fig. 17. First layer circuitry (a), second layer circuitry (b), third layer circuitry (c) and finished samples (d), [151].
Explore the actual field of problem. als. However, very less has highlighted the use of chicken feather
Build problem relevant knowledge. based organic fibers. In literature, these feathers are established as
By establishing research facilities. protein enriched sources and their use for the fabrication of FDM
Training of personnel. based customized scaffolds may result in better in-vivo/in-vitro
Involvement of individuals from industries. properties.
Adoption of industrial standards.
Material research and development. References
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Material issues in additive manufacturing: A review

Article in Journal of Manufacturing Processes · January 2017

Sunpreet Singh Seeram Ramakrishna

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

Material issues in additive manufacturing: A review

In today’s scenario, modern industries are liable to implementing

Name Manufacturer(s) Material provider(s)

CT scan or MRI or Design Concepts

Direct laser metal Stereo

Selective laser sintering Laser engineered net shaping

Fig. 2. Classiﬁcation of various types of AM techniques in medicine.

Fig. 3. Materials category for AM technologies [143].

Implant material Abbreviation/notation Application

Ti and Ti alloys CP–Ti Bone ﬁxation

Fig. 4. Methods of powder production [37].

Nylon Iron Nylon Iron

1 50–80 (coarse) 70 30 23.10 70.91 6

Fig. 5. Relative constituent elements as a function of volume of part material [51].

Fig. 6. Developed wire with specimens.

Fig. 7. Equipments/tools required for development of FDM ﬁlament.

Fig. 8. Fabrication of SS-316L through SLS.

Fig. 9. Schematic of DMLS.

Due to high thermal gradients and cooling rates in LENS, a very

animals and hairy mammals. Examples of animal hair are sheep’s

systems are having interoperability, enriched modelling, system

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