Notes (1) Calculus

Programme: Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and Statistics
Course Notes
Course Code: CLS502S

Compiled by: Dr. David S. I. Iiyambo
ii
Contents
1 Functions 1
1.1 Introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Images and Pre-images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Domains and Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Arithmetic with Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.1 Graphs of Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 Graphs of Piecewise-defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Injective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.1 The Horizontal Line Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 Surjective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 Bijective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Composite of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.9 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9.1 Graphs of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2 Limits and Continuity 27
2.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.1 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
iii
CONTENTS iv
2.1.2 Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.3 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Improper Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.1 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.2 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3 Precise Definition of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1 Two-sided Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.2 One-sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.3 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.4 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.1 Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions . . . . . . . 53
3 Differentiation 57
3.1 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.1 Average Rage of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.2 Instantaneous Rage of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2 Tangent lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.1 Differentiability and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.2 Basic Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.3.3 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.7 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.8 Higher-order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

v CONTENTS
3.9 Derivatives of Inverses of Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.10 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.10.1 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4 Applications of Derivatives 93
A Summation Notations 95
CONTENTS vi
Chapter 1
Functions
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this Chapter, students should be able to:
define a function.
determine whether a given relation is a function or not.
find domains and ranges of functions.
identify functions which are injective, surjective and bijective.
find the composition of two or more functions and their domains.
compute the value of a composite function at a specified number.
determine whether a function is even, odd or neither.
find an inverse of a function.
Contents
1.1 Introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Arithmetic with Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Injective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Surjective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 Bijective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Composite of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1
1.1. INTRODUCTIONS 2
1.9 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1 Introductions
In many disciplines in life, correspondences/relations exist between two sets of objects.

These exist in forms of tables, graphs or equations. Let’s consider the following table:
Student Name Test 1 Marks

Ananias T 71%
Darius M 35%
Festus G 50%
Iiyambo D 0%
Mwalengwa N 95%
Paulus S 67%
Shoopala F 50%
Let’s suppose that this table shows the marks given to 7 students after writing a Calculus
Test 1. Note that:
you can have two different students in this class with the same mark (Festus G and
Shoopala F both are given 50%), But you can’t give one student two different marks
for the same test.
if you assume that a student who misses a test gets a 0% mark, then you can also
not have a student with no test mark, but you can have a mark that’s not given to
any of the students (e.g. none of the students got a 20%).
Correspondences/relations of this type are called functions.
We would call this process of giving marks to students a function from the set of seven
Calculus students to the set of real numbers between 0 and 100.
Intuitively, this is how functions behave. We now give a formal definition of a function
from one set to another set.
Definition 1.1: A Function
Let X and Y be two sets. Then
(i) A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule/mapping/relation that relates

3 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
every element x ∈ X to exactly one element y ∈ Y such that f (x) = y.
(ii) The set X is called the domain of f , denoted by Df , and the set Y is called
the codomain of f , denoted by Codf (possible outputs of f ).
Now, if a function f is explicitly defined by a formula/equation, then Df can
be taken as the set of all the real numbers (x−values) for which the function
f is defined as a real number. That is
Df = {x ∈ R|f (x) = y for some real number y}.
(iii) The set of all the values of f (x) (actual outputs of f ) in Y , as x varies through-
out Df , is called the range of f , denoted by Rf . i.e.
Rf = {f (x) ∈ R|x ∈ Df }.
This implies that, the range of f is a subset of the codomain of f : Rf ⊆ Codf
(iv) If f (x) = y for some x ∈ Df and y ∈ Rf , then y is called the image of x under
f , while x is called the pre-image of y under f .
Example 1.1. The following diagrams represent mappings from a set X to a set
Y . Determine whether each represents a function from X to Y all not. For those
that are functions, state the domain and range.
f g
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
d 4 d
5 e 5
X Y X Y
h k
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
d 4 d 4
e 5 e 5
X Y X Y
Solutions:
f : this is not a function because there is an element b in X, which is mapped into two
different elements of Y , 2 and 3.
g: this is also not a function because there is an element e in X which is not mapped into
any of the elements in Y .
h: this is a function from X to Y .
Dh = X = {a, b, c, d, e} and Rh = {1, 2, 3, 5}.
k: this is a function from X to Y .
Dk = X = {a, b, c, d, e} and Rk = Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Given any correspondence/relation (in the form of an equation), we must be able to

determine whether it represents a function or not. Consider the following example.
Example 1.2. Determine whether each of the following equations defines y as a

function of x.
a) 9x − y + 16 = 13
b) x = y 2
c) x = y 3
We need to make y the subject of the formula in the equations, and then determine
whether each x values gives only one y value.
Solutions:
a) 9x − y + 16 = 13 ⇔ y = 9x + 3. Since each x value gives only one y value, the equation

defines y as a function of x.
√
b) x = y 2 ⇔ y = ± x. Now, except for x = 0, every x−value will give two y−values,
positive and negative. Therefore, this equation does not define y as a function of x.
√
c) x = y 3 ⇔ y = 3
x. This equation defines y as a function of x, for the same reason as
in a).
We can also determine whether a given relation is a function or not by looking at its
graph. The method of determining whether a given graph is a graph of a function or not
is called the vertical line test, and it is given in the following theorem.
Theorem 1.1: The Vertical Line Test

A given graph is a graph of a function if and only if no vertical line intersects it at
more than one point.
For example, consider the following graphs.
(a) A graph of a function (b) Not a graph of a function
y y
y = x2 vertical line
x = y2
x x
vertical line
The graph in (a) is a graph of a function since our dashed vertical line (and any
other vertical line) intersects it at only one point.
The graph in (b) is not a graph of a function because our dashed line intersects it
twice.
1.1.1 Images and Pre-images
Definition 1.2: Images and Pre-images
If a ∈ Df then the image of a under f , f (a), is also referred to as the value of

f at a, and it is found by substituting with a for x in the function y = f (x),
and then solving for y.
If b ∈ Rf then the pre-image of b under f is found by substituting with b for

y in the function y = f (x) and then solving for x.
3
Example 1.3. 1. Let f (x) = be a function.
2x + 1
a) Find the image of 2 under f .
1
b) Find the pre-images of 1 and 5
under f .
2. Given three functions f (x) = 3, g(x) = 2x + 1, and k(x) = 3x2 − 4, evaluate

and simplify each of the following.
√
(i) g( 3) (ii) f (−2) (iii) k(a + h)
(iv) f (a2 − 1).
Solutions:
3
1. Let f (x) = be a function.
2x + 1
a) Remember, the image of 2 under f is the value of f (x) when x = 2. Therefore,
we substitute with 2 for x in f (x) to get,
3 3
f (2) = = .
2(2) + 1 5
b) Pre-image for 1 under f is the value of x when y = f (x) = 1. Thus, we substitute
with 1 for f (x), and then solve for x.
3
1= ⇒ 2x + 1 = 3 ◀ Cross-multiply
2x + 1
⇒ 2x = 2 ◀ Collect like terms
⇒x=1
2. Given three functions f (x) = 3, g(x) = 2x + 1, and k(x) = 3x2 − 4, we have;

√ √ √
(i) g( 3) = 2( 3) + 1 = 2 3 + 1 ≈ 4.46
(ii) f (−2) = 3.
f is of the type of functions that are called constant functions, because it has
the same value for all real numbers x.
(iii) We substitute with a + h where ever there is x in k(x).
k(a + h) = 3(a + h)2 − 4 ◀ Substitute with (a + h) for x
= 3(a + 2ah + h ) − 4 ◀ Expand (a + h)2
2 2
= 3a2 + 6ah + 3h2 − 4.
(iv) f (a2 − 1) = 3, for the same reason as in (ii).

1.1.2 Domains and Ranges
To indicate that f is a function from set X to set Y , we usually use the notation
f : X → Y.
In this notation, X is the domain and Y is the codomain.
Given any function, it’s very important to be able to determine it’s domain and sometimes,
it’s range as well.
Now, to determine the domain of a given function f (x), we need to find the set of all the
real numbers for which the functions f (x) is defined.
At this point, we only know of three cases when a function will not be defined:
When you have a quotient (fraction) of two algebraic expressions, in which case it
will be undefined when the denominator is zero. That is, an expression of the form
p(x)
will only be defined when q(x) ̸= 0.
q(x)
When you have an even root of an algebraic expression, in which case it will be
undefined when the expression under the even root is negative. That is, if n is
p
and even number, then an expression of the form n f (x) will only be defined when
f (x) ≥ 0.
When you have a logarithm, in which case it will be undefined when the argument
is less than or equal to zero. That is, an expression of the form logb g(x) will only
be defined when g(x) > 0.
These are the things that we need to look out for.
We will therefore demonstrate how to find the domain of a given function in the following
example.
Example 1.4. Determine the domains of the following functions.

3
a) f (x) =
2x + 1
√
b) f (x) = 2x − 4
x+5
c) f (x) = √
4
x2 − 9
d) f (x) = log5 (6x + 1)
Solutions:
3
a) For the function f (x) = , since we have a quotient of two expressions, it will
2x + 1
be defined for all the real numbers except those that will make 2x + 1 = 0.
Therefore,
Df = {x ∈ R|2x + 1 ̸= 0}

1
= x ∈ R|x ̸= −
2

1
=R\ − .
2
Remember, the domain is defined as a set, therefore it should be given as a set.

√
b) For the function f (x) = 2x − 4, we have a square root of an expression, which will
only be defined for those real number that will make 2x − 4 ≥ 0. Therefore, we
have,
Df = {x ∈ R|2x − 4 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R|2x ≥ 4}
= {x ∈ R|x ≥ 2}
= [2, ∞).
√
Note that this function is also defined when 2x − 4 = 0 because 0 = 0, a real
number.
x+5
c) The function f (x) = √ 4
is a quotient of two expressions, and has an even root
x2 − 9
in the denominator.
√
So, it will only be defined when 4 x2 − 9 ̸= 0 and x2 − 9 ≥ 0.
Combining these two conditions, we get that our function will only be defined when
x2 − 9 = (x − 3)(x + 3) > 0.
Solving this inequality we get:
Interval (−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, ∞)
Sign of (x − 3) − − +
Sign of (x + 3) − + +
Sign of (x − 3)(x + 3) + − +
So, x2 − 9 > 0 for x < −3 or x > 3, therefore,
Df = {x ∈ R|x < −3 or x > 3}

= (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, ∞).
√
4
Note that −3 and 3 are not part of the domain because x2 − 9 = 0 at those values.
1
d) f (x) = log5 (6x + 1) is only defined when 6x + 1 > 0 ⇒ x > − . Thus,
6

1 1
Df = x ∈ R|x > − = − ,∞ .
6 6
Example 1.5. Determine the range of each of the following functions.

x2
a) f (x) =
10 − x2
1
b) f (x) =
(x + 3)2
Solutions:
x2
a) Rewriting this function in the form y = f (x) we get y = . We now make x the
10 − x2
subject of the formula as follows.
x2
y= ⇒ y(10 − x2 ) = x2
10 − x2
⇒ 10y − yx2 = x2
⇒ 10y = x2 + yx2 = x2 (1 + y)
10y
⇒ = x2
1+y
r
10y
⇒ x=± .
1+y
10y
Now, x will only be defined when ≥ 0 and 1 + y ̸= 0. Solving these we get,
1+y
Interval (−∞, −1) (−1, 0) (0, ∞)
Sign of 10y − − +
Sign of 1 + y − + +
10y
Sign of 1+y + − +
Therefore x is defined for y < −1 or y ≥ 0, and the range is
Rf = {y ∈ R|y < −1 or y ≥ 0} = (−∞, −1) ∪ [0, ∞).
Again, since the range of a function is defined as a set, it should be given as a set.
1.2. ARITHMETIC WITH FUNCTIONS 10
1
b) We proceed as in a), by rewriting the function in the form y = f (x) to get y = .
(x + 3)2
We then make x the subject of the formula to get,
1
y= ⇒ y(x + 3)2 = 1
(x + 3)2
1
⇒ (x + 3)2 =
y
r
1
⇒ x+3=±
y
r
1
⇒ x = −3 ± .
y
1
Now, x will only be defined when ≥ 0 and y ̸= 0. Solving these we get that x will
y
be defined when y > 0. So, the range is
Rf = {y ∈ R|y > 0} = (0, ∞).
1.2 Arithmetic with Functions
Definition 1.3: Equality of Functions

Given two functions f : A → B and g : C → D, we say that they are equal if and
only if A = C and f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A(= C). This is written as f = g, or
sometimes as f ≡ g.
x2 − 9
For example, consider the functions f (x) = x + 3 and g(x) = . Note that the
x−3
function g can be rewritten as
x2 − 9 (x − 3)(x + 3)
g(x) = = = x + 3, x ̸= 3.
x−3 x−3
Now, f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ R\{3}, but Df ̸= Dg (Df = R, but Dg = R\{3}). Therefore
f ̸= g.
Theorem 1.2: Arithmetic with Functions

Let f and g be functions. Then if x ∈ Df ∩ Dg , we have the following;
a) (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).
b) (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).

c) (f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x).

f (x)
d) fg (x) = , such that g(x) ̸= 0.
g(x)
√
For instance, if f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x2 − 1, then
(f + g)(5) = f (5) + g(5)

√
= (52 + 1) + ( 52 − 1)
√
= 26 + 24 ≈ 30.90
1.3 Even and Odd Functions
Definition 1.4: Even and Odd Functions

(i) A function f is said to be even if f (−x) = f (x) for every x ∈ Df .
(ii) A function f is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for every x ∈ Df .
If a function f is such that f (−x) ̸= f (x) and f (−x) ̸= −f (x) for some x ∈ Df , then f
is said to be neither even nor odd.
Example 1.6. Determine whether the given functions are even, odd or neither.
a) f (x) = x3 − x7
b) g(x) = 1 + x2
c) h(x) = x4 + 2x
Solutions: We substitute with −x for x in each function and see whether we get the
original function or minus the original function.
a) f (x) = x3 − x7
f (−x) = (−x)3 − (−x)7

= −x3 − (−x7 )
= −(x3 − x7 )
= −f (x)
Therefore the function is odd.

1.3. EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS 12
b) g(x) = 1 + x2
g(−x) = 1 + (−x)2
= 1 + x2
= g(x)
Therefore the function is even.
c) h(x) = x4 + 2x
h(−x) = (−x)4 + 2(−x) = x4 − 2x

̸= h(x) and
̸= −h(x)
Therefore h is neither even nor odd.
1.3.1 Graphs of Even and Odd Functions
The graphs of even functions are symmetric with respect to the y−axis. That is, the
left-hand side of the y−axis is a mirror image of the right-hand side of the y−axis. For
instance:
y y
y = x2 y = |x|
x x
The graphs of odd functions are symmetric with respect to the origin. That is, a 180◦
rotation about the origin produces the same graph. For instance:
y = x3 y y = x3 − x
y
x
x
1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions
Some functions are defined by various formulae over different disjoint subsets of their
domains. A typical example of a piecewise-defined function is the absolute value function.
(
x, if x ≥ 0;
f (x) = |x| =
−x, if x < 0.
Note that for this function, if x ≥ 0 then we use the formula f (x) = x, while if x < 0,
then we use the formula f (x) = −x for computations and evaluations.
(
6x − 1, if x < 0;
Example 1.7. a) Given that f (x) = , evaluate
7x + 3, if x ≥ 0.
(i) f (−4) (ii) f (0) (iii) f (10)

 2
 x −9
, if x ̸= 3;
b) Given that h(x) = x−3 , evaluate
6, if x = 3.

(i) h(5) (ii) h(0) (iii) h(3)
Solutions:
a) (i) Since −4 < 0, we must use the formula f (x) = 6x − 1. Therefore f (−4) =
6(−4) − 1 = −24 − 1 = −25.
(ii) Since 0 ≥ 0, we must use the formula f (x) = 7x + 3. So, f (0) = 7(0) + 3 = 3
(iii) In this case 10 > 0 and we must use the formula f (x) = 7x + 3. So, f (10) =
7(10) + 3 = 70 + 3 = 73.
x2 − 9
b) (i) 5 ̸= 3, so we use the formula h(x) = = x + 3. Therefore, h(5) = 5 + 3 = 8.
x−3
(ii) Again, 0 ̸= 3, so we have h(0) = 0 + 3 = 3.
(iii) Since 3 = 3, we use the formula h(x) = 6. Therefore, h(3) = 6.
1.4.1 Graphs of Piecewise-defined Functions
To sketch graphs of piecewise-defined functions,

1.4. PIECEWISE-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 14
we sketch each equation over the indicated subset of the domain only, on the same
set of axes.
Where there’s a strict inequality (i.e. < or >), we put a little hole “◦”, to indicate
that, that point is not included,
and where there’s an inclusive inequality (i.e. ≤ or ≥), we put a solid dot “•”, to
indicate that, that point is included.
(
x, if x ≥ 0;
For example, for the function f (x) = ,
−x, if x < 0.
we sketch the graph of the equation y = x for values of x ≥ 0 only, and then we sketch
the graph of the equation y = −x for values of x < 0 only, on the same set of axes, as
follows.
Graph of y = x for x ≥ 0 Graph of y = −x for x < 0 Graph of y = |x|

y y
y
y=x y = |x|
y = −x y=x
x x
x
Example 1.8. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(
6x − 1, if x < 0;
a) f (x) =
7x + 3, if x ≥ 0.

 −4,
 if x ≤ 0;
2
b) g(x) = x − 4, if 0 < x ≤ 1;

−x, if x > 1.

Solutions:
(
6x − 1, if x < 0;
a) Let f (x) = Then we have the following graph:
7x + 3, if x ≥ 0.
y = 7x + 3
y
(
6x − 1, if x < 0;
f (x) =
3 7x + 3, if x ≥ 0.
−1 x
y = 6x − 1

 −4,
 if x ≤ 0;
b) Let g(x) = x2 − 4, if 0 < x ≤ 1; Then we have the following graph:

−x, if x > 1.

y

 −4,
 if x ≤ 0;
g(x) = x2 − 4, if 0 < x ≤ 1;

−x, if x > 1.

1 x
−1
−3
y = x2 − 4 y = −x
y = −4 −4
1.5 Injective Functions
Definition 1.5: Injective Functions
A function f is said to be injective (one-to-one) if and only if for any x1 , x2 ∈ Df ,

if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 . That is, given any y ∈ Rf , there should only be
one x ∈ Df such that y = f (x).
1.5. INJECTIVE FUNCTIONS 16
From Definition above, you should be able to see why such functions are also called
one-to-one function.
That is, for every one element of the domain you have only one element of the range.
Definition 1.6: Alternative Definition of Injectivity

The Definition above is equivalent to saying that, f is injective if and only if for
any x1 , x2 ∈ Df , if x1 ̸= x2 then f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ).
Now, given any function f , you should know how to determine whether it is injective or
not.
You start by taking two arbitrary elements of Df (x1 , x2 ∈ Df ), and assume that
they have the same image, i.e. f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Then you determine, using correct algebraic manipulations, whether this implies
that x1 = x2 .
If this is the case, then you conclude that f is an injective function.
If there’s a chance that x1 ̸= x2 , then you conclude that f is not an injective

function.
Example 1.9. Determine whether the following functions are injective.
a) f (x) = 2x − 1
3x
b) f (x) =
x+7
c) f (x) = x2 + 4x + 1
Solutions:
a) Let x1 , x2 ∈ Df and assume that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇔ 2x1 − 1 = 2x2 − 1

⇔ 2x1 = 2x2 ◀ adding 1 on both sides
⇔ x1 = x2 ◀ dividing both sides by 2
This means that, for any x1 , x2 ∈ Df , if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) then x1 = x2 . Therefore

according to the Definition, f is an injective function.
b) Let x1 , x2 ∈ Df and assume that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇔ x3x 1

1 +7
= x3x 2
2 +7
⇔ 3x1 (x2 + 7) = 3x2 (x1 + 7) ◀ Cross-multiply

⇔ 3x1 x2 + 21x1 = 3x2 x1 + 21x2 ◀ Expand
⇔ 21x1 = 21x2 ◀ Subtracting 3x1 x2
⇔ x1 = x2 ◀ Dividing by 21
Therefore, f is an injective function.
c) Let x1 , x2 ∈ Df and assume that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇔ x21 + 4x1 + 1 = x22 + 4x2 + 1

⇔ x21 + 4x1 = x22 + 4x2
⇔ (x1 + 2)2 − 4 = (x2 + 2)2 − 4 ◀ Complete the squares
⇔ (x1 + 2)2 = (x2 + 2)2 ◀ Add 4
⇔ x1 + 2 = ±(x2 + 2) ◀ Take square root
⇔ x1 = −2 ± (x2 + 2) ◀ Subtrac 2
⇔ x1 = x2 or x1 = −4 − x2 .
Since x1 can be equal to x2 , and it can be equal to −4 − x2 , and x2 ̸= −4 − x2 ,

then from Definition 1.5, f is not an injective function. Note for example that
f (1) = f (−5) = 6, but 1 ̸= −5.
1.5.1 The Horizontal Line Test
While not all functions have easy graphs to sketch, for those that do, there is a way of
determining whether they are injective from their graphs. The method of determining
whether a given graph is a graph of an injective function or not is called the horizontal
line test. We give it in the following theorem.
Theorem 1.3: The Horizontal Line Test

A graph is a graph of an injective function if and only if no horizontal line intersects
it at more than one point.
1.6. SURJECTIVE FUNCTIONS 18
a) Not a graph of an injective function b) A graph of an injective function

y y = x3
y = x2 y
x
x
The graph in Figure a) is not a graph of an injective function because our dashed
horizontal line intersects it at two points.
On the other hand, the graph in Figure b) is a graph of an injective function because
our dashed horizontal line (and any other horizontal line) intersects it at only one
point.
1.6 Surjective Functions
Definition 1.7: Surjective Functions
A function f is said to be surjective (onto) if and only if for every y ∈ Codf there
is x ∈ Df such that y = f (x). i.e. f is surjective if and only if Rf = Codf .
For you to be able to determine whether a given function is surjective or not, you
need to be given what the codomain is, in most cases in the form of a notation like
f :X →Y.
In this notation, X is of course the domain, and Y is the codomain.
Therefore to determine whether a function is surjective or not, you just need to find
the range, and determine whether it is equal to the given codomain or not.
Example 1.10.
a) Determine whether the function f : R → R, defined by f (x) = x2 −1 is surjective

or not.
4
b) Determine whether the function g : R \ {0} → R+ , defined by g(x) = 2 is
x
surjective or not.
Solutions:
a) First we note that Codf = R. Now, finding the range, we have,
y = x2 − 1 ⇒ y + 1 = x2
p
⇒ x = ± y + 1.
From this, we see that x is only defined when y + 1 ≥ 0 ⇔ y ≥ −1. Therefore

Rf = [−1, ∞). Since [−1, ∞) ⫋ R, from the Definition, f is not a surjective
function.
b) Similarly, we note that Codg = R+ . Finding the range, we get,
4
y= ⇒ yx2 = 4
x2
4
⇒ x2 =
y
2
⇒ x = ±√ .
y
From this, we see that x is only defined when y ≥ 0 and y ̸= 0. This implies that
y > 0, and so, Rg = (0, ∞) = R+ . Therefore, by definition, g is surjective (since
Codg = Rg = R+ ).
1.7 Bijective Functions
Definition 1.8: Bijective Functions

A function which is both injective and surjective is said to be a bijective function.
A bijective function is also called a bijection.
Note that a function is only a bijection if it satisfies both the two conditions, that
is, if it is one-to-one AND onto.
Should it fail to satisfy either of the two conditions, then it is no longer a bijection.
Some authors call a bijection a one-to-one correspondence between the domain and
the codomain.
To avoid confusion with regard to the term “one-to-one”, we will only use it when
referring to an injective function in this course.
1.8. COMPOSITE OF FUNCTIONS 20
1.8 Composite of Functions
Composite functions, or sometimes called composition of functions, is a way of combining

functions. That is, using known functions to create a new single function.
Let’s consider two functions f and g, such that the domain of f is X and the range of f
is Y , while the domain of g is Y and the range of g is Z. i.e. The range of f is equal to
the domain of g as shown in the following diagram.
f g
x y z
X = Df Y = Rf = Dg Z = Rg
From the above diagram, we see that
f maps x into y so that y = f (x); then g maps y into z so that z = g(y) = g(f (x)).
in the end, you start with x and your “end product” is z, and you get this by
performing two mappings.
The way composite functions work is; instead of going from x to z using two functions f
and g, we find a single function, which we will denote by g ◦ f , that maps x straight into
z without going through the “y”-detour first, as we have in the following diagram.
g◦f
f g
x y z
X = Df Y = Rf = Dg Z = Rg = Rg◦f
Definition 1.9: Composite Functions
For the functions f and g, the composite function g ◦ f (also called the composition
of g and f , or read g of f ) is defined as
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
for all x ∈ Df such that f (x) ∈ Dg .
The definition above implies that,

given that some real number a is an element of Df , and f (a) ∈ Dg , to find the value
of g ◦ f at a ((g ◦ f )(a)), we first find f (a), and then we find the value of g at f (a).
So, the order of operation is backwards.
given the two functions f (x) and g(x), to find (g ◦ f )(x), we substitute with f (x)
for every x in g(x).
1
Example 1.11. a) Given that f (x) = and g(x) = 2x − 4, find
x
(i) (g ◦ f )(2)
(ii) (f ◦ g)(2)
b) Given that f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 3, find
(i) (f ◦ g)(x)
(ii) (g ◦ f )(x)
Solutions:
1
a) Let f (x) = and g(x) = 2x − 4.
x
(i) To find (g ◦ f )(2) = g(f (2)), we first find f (2). Substituting with 2 for x in f
1
we have f (2) = .
2
Therefore, (g ◦ f )(2) = g(f (2)) = g 12 = 2 21 − 4 = 1 − 4 = −3.

(ii) To find (f ◦ g)(2) = f (g(2)), we first find g(2). Substituting with 2 for x in g
we have g(2) = 2 · 2 − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0.
1
Therefore, (f ◦ g)(2) = f (g(2)) = f (0) = , which is undefined. The reason
0
for this undefined answer is that g(2) = 0 is not in Df .
Hence (f ◦ g)(2) is not defined.
b) Let f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 3.
(i) To find (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)), we put g(x) wherever there is x in f . So,
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) ◀ By Definition

= f (x + 3) ◀ Substitute with g(x) for x in f
= (x + 3)2
= x2 + 6x + 9 ◀ Expanding (x + 3)2
∴ (f ◦ g)(x) = x2 + 6x + 9.
1.9. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 22
(ii) To find (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)), we put f (x) wherever there is x in g. So,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) ◀ By Definition

= g(x2 ) ◀ Substitute with f (x) for x in g
2
=x +3
∴ (g ◦ f )(x) = x2 + 3.
Remark 1.1
1. From the previous example we see that, in general, f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f (i.e. compo-
sition of functions is not commutative in general).
2. In general, f ◦ g ̸= f · g.
1.9 Inverse Functions
Let’s consider a function f which maps x ∈ Df into y = f (x) ∈ Rf .
Now, suppose we want to find another function which reverses this process. i.e. A function
which maps y = f (x) ∈ Rf into x ∈ Df .
Such a function is called the inverse function of f and we will denote it by f −1 .
Df Rf
f
x y = f (x)
f −1
Rf −1 Df −1
Recall from the definition of a function that any one-to-one or many-to-one mapping is a
function.
Now, if we try to find the inverse of a many-to-one function, we would obtain a one-to-
many mapping, which will not be a function.
Therefore, for the inverse to be a function, the original function must be a one-to-one
function.
Definition 1.10: Inverse Functions

Let f : Df → Rf be a one-to-one function. Then its inverse function f −1 : Rf → Df
is defined as
f −1 (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y
for any x ∈ Df and y ∈ Rf .
Remark 1.2
Let f be a one-to-one function. Then
1. f −1 reverses whatever f does.
2. Df −1 = Rf and Rf −1 = Df .
1
3. f −1 (x) does not mean .
f (x)
Now, given two functions, there’s a way of determining whether they are inverses of each
other or not.
This is given by the following properties of inverse functions, and they follow directly
from the definition of the inverse function.
Theorem 1.4: Inverse Function Properties
Let f be a one-to-one function. Then,
(i) (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x, for every x ∈ Df , and
(ii) (f ◦ f −1 )(x) = x, for every x ∈ Rf .
3 3
Example 1.12. Given two functions f (x) = and g(x) = + 1, determine
x−1 x
whether they are inverses of each other.
Solutions: We need to determine whether (f ◦ g)(x) = x and (g ◦ f )(x) = x.


3
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g
x−1
3
= f +1 3
x = +1
3
3 x−1
= 3
( x + 1) − 1 3(x − 1)
= +1
3x 3
= = x. = (x − 1) + 1 = x.
3
So, since (f ◦ g)(x) = x and (g ◦ f )(x) = x, by the Inverse function properties, f and g
are inverses of each other.
Given the function f (x), we follow the following steps;
Procedures for Finding Inverse Functions
Step 1: Write the function in the form y = f (x).
Step 2: If possible, correctly make x the subject of the formula.
Step 3: Interchange x and y. The resulting equation is y = f −1 (x).
Example 1.13. Given that f (x) = 5x + 3 and g(x) = x2 + 1, x ≥ 0, find
a) f −1 b) g −1
c) (f ◦ g)−1 d) g −1 ◦ f −1
Solutions:
a) Let f (x) = 5x + 3. Following the three steps, we get;
y = 5x + 3 ◀ Step 1 ⇒ y − 3 = 5x
y−3
⇒ x= ◀ Step 2
5
x−3
Thus, y= ◀ Step 3
5
x−3
so that, f −1 (x) = .
5
b) Let g(x) = x2 + 1. Following the same procedure as in a), we get;
y = x2 + 1 ⇒ y − 1 = x2
p
⇒ x=± y−1
p
⇒ x = y − 1 ◀ Because x ≥ 0 (given)
√
Thus, y = x−1
√
So that, g −1 (x) = x − 1.
c) First we need to find f ◦ g as follows;
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (x2 + 1)
= 5(x2 + 1) + 3
= 5x2 + 8.
Having obtained f ◦ g, we now find (f ◦ g)−1 by following the same procedure as in

a) and b).
y = 5x2 + 8 ⇒ y − 8 = 5x2
y−8
⇒ = x2
5 r
y−8
⇒ x=±
5
r
y−8
⇒ x= ◀ Because x ≥ 0 (given)
5
r
x−8
⇒ y=
5
r
x−8
∴ (f ◦ g)−1 (x) = .
5
d) Using our results from a) and b), we find g −1 ◦ f −1 as follows;
(g −1 ◦ f −1 )(x) = g −1 (f −1 (x))

−1 x−3
= g
5
r
x−3
= −1
5
r
x−3−5
=
5
r
x−8
= .
5
Note that, our answers in c) and d) of the example above are the same. Hence we have
the following remark.
Remark 1.3
In general, if f and g are one-to-one functions, then
(f ◦ g)−1 = g −1 ◦ f −1 .
1.9.1 Graphs of Inverse Functions
The graph of the inverse function f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of the function
f in the line y = x.
For instance, the function f (x) = x2 , x ≥ 0 has an inverse function

√
f −1 (x) = x,
and their graphs are as shown in the following figure.
y
f (x) = x2 ; x≥0
y=x
√
f −1 (x) = x
x
Chapter 2
Limits and Continuity
Learning Outcomes
define a limit of a function at a point, intuitively.
evaluate limit of functions using different techniques of limit evaluation.
find one-sided limits, and determine whether a two-sided limit exists
evaluate limit of functions using Squeezing Theorem.
evaluate limit at infinity and infinite limits.
determine a horizontal , vertical and an obliques asymptote to a given function if there is

any.
use the precise (ε, δ) definition to verify limits.
define continuity of a function at a point, on an interval ( close and open intervals).
find values of constants for which a given function would be continuous at a point.
use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that a function has a root in a given interval.
Contents
2.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2 Improper Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Precise Definition of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
27
2.1. LIMITS 28
2.1 Limits
With limits, we are interested in what happens to the values of f (x) as x approaches
a specific real number a from both sides, left and right. Consider the function f (x) =
x2 − 4
. Note that, when x = 2, the function is not defined, because the denominator
x−2
becomes zero. If we rewrite the function f , we get that
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
f (x) = = = x + 2, (x ̸= 2).
x−2 x−2
Or even better, in a piece-wise form,

(
x + 2, if x ̸= 2;
f (x) =
undef ined, if x = 2.
Let’s now look at the following table, indicating what happens to f (x) as x gets closer
and closer to 2.
DNE in this table stands for “Does Not Exist”
From the table, it appears that, as x approaches 2 from both left and right (but not at
2), the values of the function f (x) get closer and closer to 4.
Hence, we say the following; “The limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 is equal to 4”, and we
x2 − 4
write lim = 4, or simply, lim f (x) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2
So, putting all these information together, we realize that, the question of evaluating the
limit of a given function comes down to answering the following questions;
Generally for a function f , as x approaches (gets closer and closer to) a real number
c (but x ̸= c), does the value of the function f (x) get closer to some real number L?
29 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Can we make the value of the function f (x) as close to L as we want by choosing
the value of x sufficiently close to c (but x ̸= c)?
Intuitively, we have the following definition.
Definition 2.1: Intuitive Definition of a Limit

Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing the real number c. The
function f may or may not be defined at c.
The notation lim f (x) = L is read “The limit of f (x) as x approaches c equals L”.
x→c
This means that we can make the values of f (x) as close to L as we like by choosing
x sufficiently close to c, but not equal to c.
2.1.1 One-Sided Limits
From the table above, we saw that f (x) gets closer and closer to 4 as x approaches 2 from
the left.
Therefore, we write
lim f (x) = 4,
x→2−
i.e. the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 from the left is equal to 4.
Similarly, f (x) gets closer and closer to 4 as x approaches 2 from the right, and we write
lim f (x) = 4.
x→2+
These two are called the one-sided limits of f . Therefore, we have the following definition.
Definition 2.2
function f may or may not be defined at c.
a) The notation lim− f (x) = L is read “The limit of f (x) as x approaches c from
x→c
the left (from values of x less that c) equals L”.
b) The notation lim+ f (x) = L is read “The limit of f (x) as x approaches c from
x→c
the right (from values of x grater that c) equals L”.
The one-sided limits are instrumental in determining whether the limit of a given function
exists or not, as the following theorem states.
2.1. LIMITS 30
Theorem 2.1: Existence of a Limit

function f may or may not be defined at c. Then
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L.

x→c x→c− x→c
2.1.2 Limit Laws
Theorem 2.2: Limit Laws

Let a and n be constants, and suppose that lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then,
x→c x→c
1. lim a = a
x→c
2. lim x = c
x→c
3. lim xn = cn .
x→c
4. lim[nf (x)] = n lim f (x)

x→c x→c
5. lim[f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)

x→c x→c x→c
h ih i
6. lim[f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x)
x→c x→c x→c
lim f (x)
f (x)
7. lim = x→c , (provided that lim g(x) ̸= 0)
x→c g(x) lim g(x) x→c
x→c
h in
8. lim[f (x)]n = lim f (x)
x→c x→c
Let’s apply the laws in Theorem 2.2 to evaluate the limits in the following example.
Example 2.1. Find the following limits, if they exist.
a) lim 5
x→1
b) lim 2x
x→1
c) lim 9x3
x→2
3x + 4
d) lim
x→2 5x + 7
Solutions:
a) We use number 1 of Theorem 2.2, with c = 1 and a = 5, and get that
lim 5 = 5.
x→1
b) For this limit, we use a combination of numbers 2 and 4 of Theorem 2.2, and get that
lim 2x = 2 lim x ◀ By # 4. of Theorem 2.2

x→1 x→1
= 2×1 ◀ By # 2. of Theorem 2.2
= 2.
c) Using number 3 and 4 of Theorem 2.2, we obtain that
lim 9x3 = 9 lim x3 ◀ By # 4. of Theorem 2.2

x→2 x→2
= 9 × 23 ◀ By # 3. of Theorem 2.2
= 72.
d) The main point here is number 7 of Theorem 2.2. So we have
3x + 4 lim (3x + 4)
lim = x→2 ◀ By # 7. of Theorem 2.2
x→2 5x + 7 lim (5x + 7)
x→2
10
= .
17
Note for instance that for the numerator we have

lim (3x + 4) = lim 3x + lim 4 = 3 lim x + 4 = 3 × 2 + 4 = 10.
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
The denominator is evaluated the same way to get 17.
Note that, for all the limits in the example above, the real number c is in the domain of
the function. So, what we did essentially was just substituting c directly into the function
to get the limit.
Thus, generally, we have that, for polynomials and rational functions where c is in the
domain of f , we find limits by direct substitution.
For other functions, where c is not in the domain of f , algebraic manipulations (factor-
ization, rationalization, etc.) might be needed before we substitute.
2.1. LIMITS 32

x2 + x − 6
a) lim
x→2 x−2
√
1+h−1
b) lim
h→0 h
Solutions:
a) First, we note that 2 is not in the domain of our function. So, we can’t substitute
directly because we will get an undefined value because of the zero we will get in
the denominator. So, we can’t use # 7. of Theorem 2.2.
We firstly need to find a way of getting rid of the x − 2 term in the denominator.
If we factorize the numerator, we find that x − 2 is a factor of the numerator, and
we can therefore cancel x − 2 out from the denominator. Thus,
x2 + x − 6 (x − 2)(x + 3)
lim = lim ◀ By factorising x2 + x − 6
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
= lim (x + 3) ◀ By cancelling out x − 2
x→2
= 5. ◀ By substituting with 2 for x
b) Note that we have a radical term in the numerator, it suggests rationalization. There-
fore, rationalizing the numerator, we obtain that,
√ √ √
1+h−1 ( 1 + h − 1)( 1 + h + 1) √
lim = lim √ ◀ By rationalising 1+h−1
h→0 h h→0 h( 1 + h + 1)
h
= lim √ ◀ By expanding the top
h→0 h( 1 + h + 1)
1
= lim √ ◀ By cancelling out h
h→0 1+h+1
1
= . ◀ By substituting with 0 for h
2
Let’s work through more examples

(
x, if x < 1;
a) lim f (x), where f (x) =
x→1 (x − 1)2 , if x ≥ 1.
|x+3|
b) lim
x→−3 x+3
Solutions:
a) Note that, our function f is defined by two different formulae on the two sides of 1.
Therefore, when evaluating the limit, we must use a different formula for when x is
approaching 1 from the left, from the one we use for when x is approaching 1 from
the right. For x approaching 1 from the left, it means that x is approaching 1 from
real numbers less than 1, and therefore we use the formula f (x) = x. While for x
approaching 1 from the right, it means that x is approaching 1 from real number
greater than 1, and so, we use the formula f (x) = (x − 1)2 . Thus, we have the
following,
lim f (x) = lim x = 1. and

x→1− x→1
lim f (x) = lim (x − 1)2 = 0.

x→1+ x→1
Now, since lim− f (x) ̸= lim+ f (x), we conclude, using Theorem 2.1, that lim f (x)
x→1 x→1 x→1
does not exist.
b) We first recognize that if x < −3, |x+3| = −(x+3), and if x ≥ −3, |x+3| = x+3. So,
we start by evaluating the one-sided limits for this function, and get the following.
|x + 3| −(x + 3)
lim − = lim − ◀ x → −3− means that x < −3
x→−3 x+3 x→−3 x+3
= lim − (−1) ◀ By cancelling oout x + 3
x→−3
= −1. ◀ By # 1. of Theorem 2.2
Furthermore,
|x + 3| x+3
lim + = lim + ◀ x → −3+ means that x > −3
x→−3 x+3 x→−3 x + 3
= lim + 1 ◀ By cancelling oout x + 3
x→−3
= 1. ◀ By # 1. of Theorem 2.2
|x + 3| |x + 3|
Now, since lim − ̸= lim + , we conclude, using Theorem 2.1, that
x→−3 x+3 x→−3 x+3
|x + 3|
lim does not exists.
x→−3 x + 3
2.1.3 The Squeeze Theorem
The Squeeze Theorem is sometimes referred to as the Sandwich Theorem.

2.1. LIMITS 34
Theorem 2.3: The Squeeze Theorem
Let f, g and h be functions defined on the interval [a, b] and suppose that for all
x ∈ [a, b], we have f (x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x) . If lim f (x) = lim g(x) = L, for some
x→c x→c
a ≤ c ≤ b then lim h(x) = L.
x→c
1

Example 2.4. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate lim x2 · sin x
.
x→0
Solutions: To use the Squeeze Theorem, we need to think of the appropriate functions
f and g, such that f (x) ≤ x2 · sin( x1 ) ≤ g(x) and lim f (x) = lim g(x).
x→0 x→0
Now, note that for all x ̸= 0, −1 ≤ sin( x1 ) ≤ 1.
If we then multiply through this inequality by x2 , we get

2 2 1
−x ≤ x · sin ≤ x2 .
x
Now, since lim (−x2 ) = lim x2 = 0, by the Squeeze Theorem,

x→0 x→0

2 1
lim x · sin = 0.
x→0 x
sin θ
Example 2.5. Show that lim =1
θ→0 θ
π
Solutions: Let 0 < θ < , and let’s consider the following diagram.
2
From the diagram, we see that
Area of Triangle OM A < Area of Sector OM A < Area of Triangle OQA.

1 1
Now, Area of Triangle OM A = (1)(M P ) = sin θ, since M P = sin θ,
2 2
1 1
Area of Sector OM A = (1)2 θ = θ, and
2 2
1 1
Area of triangle OQA = (1)AQ = (1) tan θ.
2 2
Therefore,
1 θ 1
2
sin θ < 12 θ < 12 tan θ ⇒ 1 < < ◀ By dividing through by 1
2
sin θ
sin θ cos θ
sin θ
⇒ 1> > cos θ ◀ By taking reciprocals
θ
sin θ
⇒ cos θ < < 1.
θ
π π sin(−θ)
Now, if − < θ < 0, then 0 < −θ < , and hence we have cos(−θ) < < 1.
2 2 −θ
Since sine is odd and cosine is even, we obtain the same inequality
sin θ
cos θ < < 1.
θ
Now, Since lim cos θ = 1, and lim 1 = 1, by the Squeeze Theorem 2.3,
θ→0 θ→0
sin θ
lim = 1.
θ→0 θ
1 − cos θ
Example 2.6. Show that lim = 0.
θ→0 θ
Solutions: Firstly, we note that

1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
= · ◀ By multiplying and dividing by 1 + cos θ
θ θ 1 + cos θ
2
1 − cos θ
= ◀ Difference of squares on top
θ(1 + cos θ)
sin2 θ
= ◀ 1 − cos2 θ = sin2 θ
θ(1 + cos θ)
sin θ sin θ
= · .
θ 1 + cos θ
2.1. LIMITS 36
Therefore,

1 − cos θ sin θ sin θ
lim = lim ·
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ 1 + cos θ

sin θ sin θ
= lim lim
θ→0 θ θ→0 1 + cos θ
= 1×0
= 0.
Using the limits in the previous two examples, we can evaluate more, as illustrated in the
following example.
Example 2.7. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.

sin 5x
a) lim
x→0 2x
2x + 1 − cos x
b) lim
x→0 3x
Solutions:
a) We note that
sin 5x 5 sin 5x 5 sin 5x
= · = · .
2x 5 2x 2 5x
So, using the example above, with θ = 5x, we get
sin 5x 5 sin 5x 5 5
lim = lim = ·1= .
x→0 2x 2 x→0 5x 2 2
b) In this case, we rewrite the function as follows;

2x + 1 − cos x 2x 1 − cos x 2 1 1 − cos x
= + = + · .
3x 3x 3x 3 3 x
So, applying the second example above to the second term, with θ = x, we get
2x + 1 − cos x 2 1 1 − cos x 2 1 2
lim = lim + lim = + ·0= .
x→0 3x x→0 3 3 x→0 x 3 3 3
2.2 Improper Limits
2.2.1 Infinite Limits

1 1
Let’s consider the function f (x) = 2 . We want to evaluate lim 2 . The graph of f looks
x x→0 x
as follows.
From the graph, we see that, f (x) becomes arbitrarily large (positive) as x approaches 0.
Therefore, we write
1
lim 2 = +∞.
x→0 x
Definition 2.3: Infinite Limits

Let f be a function defined on both sides of c, except possibly at c itself. Then
lim f (x) = ±∞ means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (positive
x→c
or negative) by taking x sufficiently close to c (but not equal to c).
From Definition 2.3 above, if lim± f (x) = ±∞, then the line x = c is called a vertical
x→c
asymptote for the graph of f .
Example 2.8. Find the following limits.

1
a) lim+
x→3 x−3
4
b) lim
x→7 (x − 7)2
x−3
c) lim
x→2 x2 − 4
Solutions:
2.2. IMPROPER LIMITS 38
a) For this function, note that, as x approaches 3 from real numbers greater than 3, x − 3
gets smaller and smaller, but still positive. Therefore, we get 1 divided by a very
small, positive number, we obtain
1
lim+ = +∞.
x→3 x−3
b) For this function, as x approaches 7 from both sides, (x − 7)2 becomes very small, but
positive, since the square of any non-zero real number is always positive. Therefore,
4
lim = +∞.
x→7 (x − 7)2
c) If we look closely at this function, we realize that, as x approaches 2 from the left,
x − 3 is approaching −1, and x2 − 4 gets very small and negative.
So, we get
x−3
lim− = +∞.
x→2 x2 − 4
On the other hand, as x approaches 2 from the right, x − 3 still approaches −1, and
x2 − 4 gets very small and positive.
Thus,
x−3
lim+ = −∞.
x→2 x2 − 4
x−3
Now, since the one sided limits are not equal, lim does not exist.
x→2 x2 − 4
2.2.2 Limits at Infinity
In this section we let x become arbitrarily large (positive or negative) and investigate
what happens to f (x). That is, we let x → ±∞.
1
Let’s consider the functions f (x) = . The graph of f looks as follows.
x
As x becomes larger and larger (on the positive side), the values of f (x) get closer and
closer to zero from above. While as x becomes larger and larger (on the negative side),
the values of f (x) get closer to zero from below. Therefore, we write,
lim f (x) = 0+ and lim f (x) = 0− .

x→∞ x→−∞
The superscript signs mean that f (x) approaches 0 from above if it is a “+”, and from
below if it is “−”.
Definition 2.4: Limits at Infinity
Let f be a function defined on an interval (c, ∞) (or (−∞, c)), for some real number
c. Then lim f (x) = L (or lim f (x) = L) means that the values of f (x) can be
x→∞ x→−∞
made as close to L as we like by making x arbitrarily large in the positive direction
(or in the negative direction), where L is a real number.
In Definition 2.4 above, if either lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L, then the line y = L is
x→∞ x→−∞
called the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f .
To evaluate limits at infinity for rational functions, we divide throughout the function by
the highest power of x in the denominator, and then determine what happens to the new
simplified function, as x goes to infinity. The result of doing this are three possibilities:
If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then the
limit is equal to 0.
If the degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same, then the limit is
given by the quotient of the leading coefficient of the numerator and the leading
coefficient of the denominator of f .
2.2. IMPROPER LIMITS 40
If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then
the limit is ±∞.
Example 2.9. Find the following limits if they exists.

5x2 + 8x − 3
a) lim
x→∞ 3x2 + 2
11x + 2
b) lim
x→−∞3x3 − 1
√
x2 + 1
c) lim
x→∞ 9x + 2
Solutions:
a) We divide by the highest power of x in the denominator, which is x2 , and get

5x2 + 8x − 3 5 + x8 − x32
lim = lim ◀ After dividing through by x2
x→∞ 3x2 + 2 x→∞ 3 + x22
5
= . ◀ Since x8 , − x32 , 2
x2
→ 0 as x → ∞
3
b) The highest power in the denominator is x3 . So,
11
11x + 2 + x23
x2
lim = lim ◀ After dividing through by x3
x→−∞ 3x3 − 1 x→−∞ 3 − 13
x
0
= = 0. ◀ Since x112 , x23 , − x13 → 0 as x → −∞
3

2 2 1 2
c) First, we realize that x + 1 = x 1 + 2 and 9x + 2 = x 9 + . We use this to
x x
get the following.
√
q
2
x +1 x2 (1 + x12 )
1

2 2
lim = lim ◀ Since x + 1 = x 1 + 2
x→∞ 9x + 2 x→∞ 9x + 2 x
q
|x| 1 + x12 √

2

= lim 2
◀ Since x = |x| and 9x + 2 = x 9 +
x→∞
qx(9 + x2 ) x
1
x 1 + x2
= lim 2 ◀ Since x > 0, and |x| = x when x ≥ 0
qx(9 + x )
x→∞
1 + x12
= lim ◀ After dividing through by x
x→∞ 9 + 2
x
1
= . ◀ Since x12 , x2 → 0 as x → ∞
9
2.3 Precise Definition of a Limit
2.3.1 Two-sided Limit
Recall from the intuitive definition of a limit that lim f (x) = L means that we can make
x→a
the values of f (x) as close to L as we like by taking x sufficiently close to a (by taking x
arbitrarily close to a), but not equal to a.
Now, for illustration, let’s consider the statement

1
lim (3x − 1) = 5.5.
x→4 2
Intuitively, this means that we can make the values of f (x) = 12 (3x − 1) as close to 5.5 as
we like by choosing x sufficiently close to 4.
For instance, if we want f (x) to be within 0.15 of 5.5, then we just take an x−value that’s
within 0.1 of 4. That is
If 4 − 0.1 < x < 4 + 0.1, then 5.5 − 0.15 < f (x) < 5.5 + 0.15.
If 4 − 0.01 < x < 4 + 0.01, then 5.5 − 0.015 < f (x) < 5.5 + 0.015.
If 4 − 0.001 < x < 4 + 0.001, then 5.5 − 0.0015 < f (x) < 5.5 + 0.0015.
If 4 − 0.0001 < x < 4 + 0.0001, then 5.5 − 0.00015 < f (x) < 5.5 + 0.00015.
Generally, we have that: If 4 − δ < x < 4 + δ, then 5.5 − ε < f (x) < 5.5 + ε, which can be
written as: If 0 < |x − 4| < δ, then |f (x) − 5.5| < ε. To this end, we have the following
definition of a limit:
Definition 2.5: Precise Definition of a Limit
Let a function f be defined on an open interval containing a real number a, except
possibly at a itself, and let L be a real number. Then the statement lim f (x) = L
x→a
means that for every real number ε > 0, there exists a real number δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
Note that in Definition 2.5 above, 0 < |x − a| < δ is equivalent to a − δ < x < a + δ and
x ̸= a, and |f (x) − L| < ε is equivalent to L − ε < f (x) < L + ε.
Now, if you are asked to show that lim f (x) = L, then you need to show that the above
x→a
definition is satisfied. That is, take an arbitrary ϵ > 0, and then find a δ > 0, which is
dependent on ε, such that 0 < |x − a| < δ implies |f (x) − L| < ε. The following two steps
might help.
2.3. PRECISE DEFINITION OF A LIMIT 42
Steps for proving that lim f (x) = L

x→a
1. Find δ. Let ε be an arbitrary positive number. Use the inequality |f (x)−L| <
ε to find a condition of the form |x − a| < δ, where δ depends only on the
value of ε.
2. Write a proof. For any ε > 0, assume 0 < |x − a| < δ, and use the
relationship between ε and δ you found in Step 1 to prove that |f (x) − L| < ε.
Let’s illustrate this with the following example.
Example 2.10. Prove each of the following.
a) lim (3x − 5) = 7
x→4
b) lim (2x + 1) = −5
x→−3
a) lim x2 + 6x = −9
x→−3
Solutions:
a) Note that for this case, a = 4 and L = 7. So, we let ε > 0. We then want to find a
number δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − 4| < δ, then |(3x − 5) − 7| < ε. Now
|(3x − 5) − 7| < ε ⇔ |3x − 12| < ε

⇔ |3(x − 4)| < ε
⇔ 3|x − 4| < ε
ε
⇔ |x − 4| < .
3
ε ε
Now, if we choose δ = , then we get that, whenever 0 < |x − 4| < δ = , we have
3 3
ε
|(3x − 5) − 7| = 3|x − 4| < 3 · = ε.
3
Hence, lim (3x − 5) = 7.
x→4
b) Note that for this case, a = −3 and L = −5. So, we let ε > 0. We then want to find a
number δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − (−3)| = |x + 3| < δ, then |(2x + 1) − (−5)| < ε.
Now
|(2x + 1) − (−5)| < ε ⇔ |2x + 6| < ε

⇔ |2(x + 3)| < ε
⇔ 2|x + 3| < ε
ε
⇔ |x + 3| < .
2
ε ε
Now, if we choose δ = , then we get that, whenever 0 < |x + 3| < δ = , we have
2 2
ε
|(2x + 1) − (−5)| = 2|x + 3| < 2 · = ε.
2
Hence, lim (2x + 1) = −5.
x→−3
c) Let ε > 0. We would like to find δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − (−3)| < δ ⇒ |(x2 + 6x) − (−9)| < ε.
Now,
|(x2 + 6x) − (−9)| < ε ⇔ |x2 + 6x + 9| < ε

⇔ |(x + 3)2 | < ε
√
⇔ |x + 3| < ε.
√ √
Therefore, we can take δ = ε so that whenever 0 < |x − (−3)| < δ = ε, we have
√
|(x2 + 6x) − (−9)| = |x2 + 6x + 9| = |(x + 3)2 | = |x + 3|2 < ( ε)2 = ε.
Hence, lim x2 + 6x = −9.

x→−3
Note that the positive number δ in the Definition is not unique, because if a specific δ
can be found, then any smaller positive number δ1 will satisfy the requirement as well.
2.3.2 One-sided Limits
We will now modify the precise definition for a two-sided limit to obtain the precise
definitions for the one-sided (left- and right-sided) limits.
Definition 2.6
1. Let f be a function defined for all x near a with x > a. We say that the limit
of f (x) as x approaches a from the right is L, and write lim+ f (x) = L, if for
x→a
any ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that if a < x < a + δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
2. Let f be a function defined for all x near a with x < a. We say that the limit
of f (x) as x approaches a from the left is L, and write lim− f (x) = L, if for
x→a
any ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that if a − δ < x < a, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
√
Example 2.11. Prove that lim+ x = 0.
x→0
Solutions: Let ε > 0. Note that here a = 0 and L = 0. So we want to find a number
√ √
δ > 0 such that if 0 < x < δ, then | x − 0| < ε ( x < ε). We note that
√ √
| x − 0| < ε ⇔ x<ε
⇔ x < ε2 .
Thus, if we choose δ = ε2 , then we have that if 0 < x < δ, then

√ √ √
| x − 0| = x < ε2 = ε.
√
Hence, by definition, lim+ x = 0.
x→0
2.3.3 Infinite Limits
Recall that if lim f (x) = ∞, then, intuitively, this means that we can make the values
x→a
of f (x) as large as we want by choosing x sufficiently close to a, but not exactly a itself.
More precisely, we have the following definition.
Definition 2.7
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a number a, except
possibly at a itself.
1. The statement lim f (x) = ∞ means that for every M+ > 0, there exists δ > 0
x→a
such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) > M+ .
2. The statement lim f (x) = −∞ means that for every M− < 0, there exists
x→a
δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) < M− .
Note that the number δ > 0 in the definition above in generally dependent on M . For
instance, in 1., the larger M+ is, the smaller δ will be.
Example 2.12. Prove each of the following limits

1
a) lim = ∞.
x→1 (x − 1)2
1
b) lim − = −∞
x→−1 (x + 1)3
Solutions:
1
a) We let M+ > 0. We want to find δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x−1| < δ, then > M+ .
(x − 1)2
Now,
1 2 1
> M+ ⇔ (x − 1) <
(x − 1)2 M+
1 1
⇔ −√ <x−1< √
M+ M+
1
⇔ |x − 1| < √ .
M+
So, if we choose δ = √1 , then whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ = √1 , we have
M+ M+
1 p
2
> ( M+ )2 = M+ .
(x − 1)
1
Hence, by Definition, lim = ∞.
x→1 (x − 1)2
1
b) We let M− < 0. We want to find δ > 0 such that if −δ < x + 1 < 0, then <
(x + 1)3
M− . Now,
1 1
3
< M− ⇔ (x + 1)3 >
(x + 1) M−
1
⇔ x+1> √ 3
.
M−
So, if we choose δ = − √
3
1
> 0, then whenever √
3
1
= −δ < x + 1 < 0, we have
M− M−
1 p
< ( 3
M− )3 = M− .
(x + 1)3
1
Hence, by Definition, lim − = −∞.
x→−1 (x + 1)3
2.3.4 Limits at Infinity
Recall that, intuitively, the statement lim f (x) = L means that we can make the values
x→±∞
of f (x) as close to L as we want by choosing x sufficiently large (positive/negative). More
precisely, we have the following two definitions.
Definition 2.8
Let f be a function defined on an infinite interval (c, ∞) for a real number c, and
let L be a real number. Then the statement lim f (x) = L means that for every
x→∞
ε > 0, there exists a number N+ > 0 such that if x > N+ , then |f (x) − L| < ε.
Similarly, if x is going to negative infinity, we have the following precise definition.
Definition 2.9
Let f be a function defined on an infinite interval (−∞, c) for a real number c, and
let L be a real number. Then the statement lim f (x) = L means that for every
x→−∞
ε > 0, there exists a number N− < 0 such that if x < N− , then |f (x) − L| < ε.
x 1
Example 2.13. Prove that lim = .
x→∞ 2x − 3 2
x 1
Solutions: We let ε > 0. We want to find N+ > 0 such that if x > N+ , then 2x−3
− 2
<
ε. Now,
x 1 2x − (2x − 3)
− <ε ⇔ <ε
2x − 3 2 4x − 6
3
⇔ <ε
4x − 6
3
⇔ |4x − 6| >
ε
3 3
⇔ 4x − 6 > or 4x − 6 < −
ε ε
3 + 6ε 6ε − 3
⇔ 4x > or 4x <
ε ε
3 + 6ε 6ε − 3
⇔ x> or x < .
4ε 4ε
3+6ε 3+6ε
Therefore, if we choose N+ = 4ε
, then whenever x > N+ = 4ε
, we have
x 1 3 3
− = <
2x − 3 2 4x − 6 4( 3+6ε
4ε
) −6
3 3ε
= 3+6ε =
ε
−6 3 + 6ε − 6ε
3ε
= = ε.
3
x 1
Hence, by Definition, lim = .
x→∞ 2x − 3 2
2.4 Continuity
The concept of continuity has been coming up quite often in this course. At the time,
we just described a continuous graph as one that has no holes and no breaks in it. Let’s
consider the graphs in the following diagrams.
2.4. CONTINUITY 48
If we use this description, then only the graph in a) is continuous. The graphs in b) and
c) have holes in them at x = c, and the ones in d) and e) have breaks at x = c. Therefore,
the graphs in b), c), d) and e) are not continuous at x = c.
Now, putting all these information together with what we know about limits, we deduce
the following definition of a continuous function at a given point c.
Definition 2.10: Continuity at a Point
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = c if and only if lim f (x) =

x→c
f (c)
The definition above imply that, for a function to be continuous at a point x = c, the
following must all hold at the same time.
Theorem 2.4: Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at a point x = c if and only if it meets the following

three conditions:
(i) f (c) must exist,
(ii) lim f (x) must exists, (i.e lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x)), and
x→c x→c x→c
(iii) lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c
Therefore, to determine whether a given function is continuous at a point x = c, we need

to determine if these three points above are all satisfied. Let’s work through the following
example.
(
1 − x, if x ≤ 2;
Example 2.14. Consider the function g(x) = 2 5
x − 2 x, if x > 2.
Use the definition of continuity to determine whether g(x) is continuous at x = 2.
Solutions: We will try to determine whether the function g satisfies all the three points
mentioned above.
(i) The function g is defined by the formula g(x) = 1 − x for x ≤ 2. So, this is the
formula we use when x = 2 Therefore we have that g(2) = 1 − 2 = −1.
(ii) We evaluate the one-sided limit to get the following;
lim g(x) = lim (1 − x) = −1, and

x→2− x→2

2 5
lim g(x) = lim x − x = −1.
x→2+ x→2 2
Since the one-sided limits are equal, lim g(x) = −1.

x→2
(iii) Comparing, we see that lim g(x) = −1 = g(2).

x→2
2.4. CONTINUITY 50
Since all the three point are satisfied, by definition, g(x) is continuous at x = 2.
Theorem 2.5
(i) A polynomial function f is continuous at every real number c.
(ii) A rational function r = fg (f, g are polynomial functions) is continuous at

every real number, except at the numbers c such that g(c) = 0.
Example 2.15. For what value of a is the function


x2 − 1 if x < 3
g(x) =
2ax if x ≥ 3
continuous at every x ∈ R?
Solutions: Firstly, we observe that for x < 3 and x > 3, g is defined by polynomials,
which are continuous everywhere. So, the only point where we need to check is at x = 3.
Now, we have that g(3) = 6a. Furthermore,
lim g(x) = lim (x2 − 1) = 8, and

x→3− x→3−
lim g(x) = lim 2ax = 6a.
x→3+ x→3+
Now, for lim g(x) to exist, we require that

x→3
4
lim+ g(x) = lim− g(x) ⇒ 6a = 8 ⇒ a = .
x→3 x→3 3
Also note that for this value of a, lim g(x) = g(3) = 8, thus f is continuous at x = 3.
x→3
If a function f is not continuous at x = c, then we say that f is discontinuous, or has a

discontinuity at c. There are three types of discontinuities.
Definition 2.11: Types of Discontinuities
1. Removable discontinuity: when lim f (x) exits, but either f (c) does not exist,
x→c
or f (c) ̸= lim f (x).
x→c
Removable because the discontinuity can be removed by redefining the value
of the function at c, f (c) and equate it to the value of the limit as x → c.
2. Jump discontinuity: when lim− f (x) ̸= lim+ f (x).

x→c x→c
3. Infinite discontinuity: when lim f (x) = ±∞.

x→c
In what follows, we will look at an example of each of these three types of discontinuities.
 2
 x −x−2
, if x ̸= 2;
Removable Discontinuity Consider the function f (x) = x−2
1, if x = 2.

In this case, we have that

y
2
x −x−2 3
lim f (x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3. 2
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2
1
Since f (2) = 1 ̸= 3, we conclude that f is not continuous at
−1 1 2 x
x = 2, and it has a removable discontinuity.
|x|
Jump Discontinuity Consider the function f (x) = .
x
Firstly, we observe that f is not defined at x = 0.
Furthermore, we have the following

y

|x| −x
lim f (x) = lim− = lim−
x→0− x→0 x x→0 x 1
= lim− (−1) = −1, and

x→0 x
−1
|x| x
lim f (x) = lim+ = lim+
x→0+ x→0 x x→0 x
= lim+ 1 = 1
x→0
That is, lim− f (x) ̸= lim+ f (x). Thus, f has a jump discon-
x→0 x→0
tinuity at x = 0.

 1 , if x ̸= 0;
Infinite Discontinuity Consider the function f (x) = x2
 1, if x = 0.
We note that
y

1
lim f (x) = lim = +∞,
x→0 x→0 x2
although f (0) = 1. 1
Thus, the function f has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0. x
2.4. CONTINUITY 52
Theorem 2.6: Properties of Continuous Functions

Let f and g be continuous functions at x = c. Then the following functions are also
continuous at x = c.
a) f + g
b) f − g
c) f · g
d) λf for any real number λ

f
e) , provided that g(c) ̸= 0
g
The proofs of these properties follow directly from the limit laws. Thus, they are left for
you as exercises.
We are now ready to learn what it means to say that a given function is defined on a
given interval.
Definition 2.12: Continuity on an Interval
1. A function f is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it is contin-

uous at every real number c ∈ (a, b).
2. A function f is said to be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous

on an open interval (a, b), and in addition, we have
lim f (x) = f (a) and lim f (x) = f (b).

x→a+ x→b−
If for a real number a, we have lim+ f (x) = f (a), then we say that f is right-continuous
x→a
at x = a. On the other hand, if for a real number b, we have lim− f (x) = f (b), then we
x→b
say that f is left-continuous at x = b. Hence, the statement is the definition above can
be rephrased to say that;
A function f is said to be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on

an open interval (a, b), and it is right-continuous at a, and left-continuous at b.
√
The function f (x) = 9 − x2 is continuous on the closed interval [−3, 3] because of the
following reasons.
√ √
For every real number c ∈ (−3, 3), we have that lim± 9 − x2 = 9 − c2 = f (c).
x→c
That is, f is continuous on (−3, 3).
√ √
lim + 9 − x2 = 0 = f (−3) and lim− 9 − x2 = 0 = f (3). That is, f is right-
x→−3 x→3
continuous at −3, and left-continuous at 3.
2.4.1 Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions
Continuous functions have many useful properties. One of them is called the Intermediate
Value Property. A function is said to have this property if, whenever it takes on two
values, it also takes on all the values in between them. More formally, we have the
following theorem.
Theorem 2.7: The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
Assume that f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and ω is any
number between f (a) and f (b). Then there exists at least one number c ∈ (a, b)
such that f (c) = ω.
That is, as x varies from a to b, a continuous function f takes on every value between
f (a) and f (b). Graphically, the Intermediate value Theorem says that any horizontal line
y = ω crossing the y−axis between f (a) and f (b) will cross the curve y = f (x) at least
once over the interval [a, b], as illustrated in figures.
Observe that on the graph on the right-hand side, we even have more than one c in the
interval (a, b) such that f (c1 ), f (c2 ) and f (c3 ) are all equal to ω.
When the IVT Fails In what follows, we will be illustrating the type of cases when
the Intermediate Value Theorem fails.
2.4. CONTINUITY 54
The existence of the number c ∈ (a, b) in the IVT

that satisfy the conclusion of the theorem can not be
guaranteed if f is not continuous on [a, b].
In the Figure on the right, f has a point of disconti-
nuity between a and b.
Thus, for the number ω between f (a) and f (b), there
is not number c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = ω.
Hence, continuity of the function in the IVT is a necessary condition, and it is important
that it is satisfied.
Root Finding
Recall that a solution of the equation f (x) = 0 is called a root of the equation, or a zero
of the function f .
Now, the IVT tells us that if f is continuous, then any interval on which f changes sign
must contain a zero of the function f .
Corollary 2.1
If a function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], and that f (a) and f (b) have
opposite signs (one positive and the other negative), then there exists at least one
c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 (i.e. there exists at least one root of the equation
f (x) = 0 between a and b).
Example 2.16. Show that the polynomial function p(x) = 2x3 − 5x2 − 10x + 5 has
a zero somewhere in the interval [−1, 2].
Solutions: To show that p has a zero on the interval [−1, 2], we need to show that p(x)
changes signs between −1 and 2. To this end, we calculate the following;
p(−1) = 2(−1)3 − 5(−1)2 − 10(−1) + 5 = 8, and

p(2) = 2(8) − 5(4) − 10(2) + 5 = −19.
So, p(x) changes signs between −1 and 2. Now, since p is continuous everywhere (it being
a polynomial), and in particular on the closed interval [−1, 2], and 0 is between p(−1) = 8
and p(2) = −19, by the IVT, there exists a number c ∈ (−1, 2) such that p(c) = 0. That
is, there exists a zero, c, of p in (−1, 2).
Example 2.17. Determine whether the graphs of the functions f (x) = x4 − 5x2
and g(x) = 2x3 − 4x + 6 intersect between x = 3 and x = 4.
Solutions: We recall that the graphs of functions f and g intersect at the points where
f (x) = g(x) ⇔ f (x) − g(x) = 0. If we let h(x) = f (x) − g(x) = x4 − 2x3 − 5x2 + 4x − 6,
then the graphs of f and g intersect at the points where h(x) = 0. That is, they intersect
at the zeros of the function h.
So, we just need to show that h has a zero between 3 and 4, by showing that h(x) changes
signs between x = 3 and x = 4. To this end, we have that
h(3) = 81 − 2(27) − 5(9) + 4(3) − 6 = −12, and

h(4) = 256 − 2(64) − 5(16) + 4(4) − 6 = 58.
So, h(x) changes signs between 3 and 4.
Now, since h is continuous everywhere (it being a polynomial), and in particular on the
closed interval [3, 4], and 0 is between h(3) = −12 and h(4) = 58, by the IVT, there exists
a number c ∈ (3, 4) such that h(c) = 0 ⇔ f (c) − g(c) = 0 ⇔ f (c) = g(c).
That is, there exists a point, c ∈ (3, 4) where the graphs of f and g intersect.
Exercises 2.1. Is there a number that is exactly 1 more than its cube?
2.4. CONTINUITY 56
Chapter 3
Differentiation
Learning Outcomes
compute average rate and instantaneous rate of change of a function at a point.
determine the equation of a tangent and a normal line to a given curve at a given point.
find the derivative of a function from first principle (using the definition).
find derivatives of different types of functions using the differentiation rules.
apply the Chain Rule to find derivative of a composite function.
find higher order derivatives of a function.
use implicit differentiation to find derivatives of functions that are defined implicitly.
Find derivative of inverse functions using implicit differentiation.
Contents
3.1 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Tangent lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . 74
3.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.7 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.8 Higher-order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.9 Derivatives of Inverses of Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . 84
57
3.1. RATES OF CHANGE 58
3.10 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.1 Rates of Change
Rate of change refers to the change of an object along a given path, measured as a function
of time (independent variable). For instance, speed is an example of rate of change.
3.1.1 Average Rage of Change
If f is a function defined over a closed interval [a, x], then the change in x from a to x is
x − a, and the change in the values of the function is f (x) − f (a).
The average rate of change of f with respect to the independent variable x over the
interval [a, x] is then given by
f (x) − f (a)
Average Rate of Change = . (3.1)
x−a
Graphically, we have the following,
Note that the Average Rate of Change of the function f from point A to point B is just
the slope (gradient) of the secant line AB.
Example 3.1. Find the average rate of change of the function f (x) = x2 + 2x, over
the interval [−3, 3].
59 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
Solutions: The rate of change of f over the interval [−3, 3] is given by the change in the
function values divided by the change in the x values.
Now, f (3) = 32 + 2 × 3 = 15, and f (−3) = (−3)2 + 2(−3) = 3. So,
f (3) − f (−3) 15 − 3 12
Average Rate of Change = = = = 2.
3 − (−3) 3+3 6
3.1.2 Instantaneous Rage of Change
Note that the average rate of change over a given closed interval tells us nothing about
the rate of change of the function at a specific instant a in the given closed interval.
We will try to approximate this by starting to move point B towards point A. i.e. we
move x closer and closer to a, as illustrated in the diagram above. Now, as x approaches
a, the secant line changes as shown in the above figure, and the average rate of change is
given by the slope of the new secant line.
If we move x arbitrarily close to a, i.e. if we take the limit of the average rate of change as
x approaches a, we will get the rate of change at the instant a, called the Instantaneous
Rate of Change. That is,
f (x) − f (a)
Instantaneous Rate of Change = lim . (3.2)
x→a x−a
We can rewrite formula (3.2) as follows. Denote the change in x, x − a, by h. i.e.

h = x − a. Then x = a + h, and as x approaches a, h approaches zero. Therefore, formula
3.2. TANGENT LINES 60
(3.2) becomes
f (a + h) − f (a)
Instantaneous Rate of Change = lim . (3.3)
h→0 h
Note that formulae (3.2) and (3.3) are equivalent. The use of either of them will give
equally correct answers.
Example 3.2. Find the instantaneous rate of change at x = a for the function
f (x) = x2 + 2x.
Solutions: Using formula (3.3) for the Instantaneous Rate of Change (IRC), we get that
f (a + h) − f (a)
IRC = lim
h→0 h
(a + h) + 2(a + h) − (a2 + 2a)
2
= lim
h→0 h
a2 + 2ah + h2 + 2a + 2h − a2 − 2a
= lim
h→0 h
h(2a + h + 2)
= lim = lim (2a + h + 2)
h→0 h h→0
= 2a + 2.
If we assign a specific real number to a in the above example, say a = 2, then the
Instantaneous Rate of Change will be 2 × 2 + 2 = 6.
3.2 Tangent lines
Another way of looking at the instantaneous rate of change of a function f at a given

point x = a is by evaluating the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point
where x = a.
Before we go into that, we give a brief description of what a tangent line to the graph of
f at x = a is.
A tangent line to the graph of f at a point where x = a is a straight line that is touching
the graph of f only at the point where x = a. We are deliberately using the word touch
and not intersect because a straight line intersecting the graph of f at the point where
x = a is not a tangent line to the graph of f . The difference is illustrated in the following
figure.
We pick a second point, B, on the graph of f , and draw the secant line from A to B. We
then keep moving this second point closer and closer the A.
As we do this, the secant line also keep getting closer and closer to the tangent line to
the graph of f at A. Hence, the slope of the secant line will also approach the slope of
the tangent line.
f (a + h) − f (a)
The slope of the secant line AB, msec , is given by msec = .
h
Since the slope of the secant line approaches the slope of the tangent line as B approaches
A (h approaches zero), it then follows that the slope of the tangent line, mt , is given by
the limit of msec as h approaches zero. That is,
f (a + h) − f (a)
mt = lim . (3.4)
h→0 h
Note that formula (3.4) is similar to formula (3.3).

3.2. TANGENT LINES 62
Example 3.3. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function
√
f (x) = x at the point (1, 1).
Solutions: The first thing that we need to do is find the slope of the tangent line. Using
formula (3.4) above, we get that
f (1 + h) − f (1)
mt = lim
h→0
√ h √ √
1+h− 1 1+h−1
= lim = lim
√ h h
h→0 h→0
√
( 1 + h − 1)( 1 + h + 1)
= lim √
h→0 h( 1 + h + 1)
h 1
= lim √ = lim √
h→0 h( 1 + h + 1) h→0 1+h+1
1
= .
2
Now, since we have the slope of the line and a point on the line, we can use the point-slope
form of the equation of a straight line (y − y1 = m(x − x1 )) to find the equation of the
tangent line.
1 1
So, y − 1 = (x − 1) ⇒ y = (x + 1) is the equation of the tangent line to the graph of
2 √ 2
the function f (x) = x at the point (1, 1).
Example 3.4. Find the point on the graph of the function f (x) = 3x2 − x + 1 at
which the tangent line is horizontal.
Solutions: A line is horizontal if it’s slope is equal to 0. So, we need to find the
x−coordinate of the point at which the slope of the tangent line is equal to 0. To this
end, we have that
f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h)2 − (x + h) + 1 − (3x2 − x + 1)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3x2 + 6xh + 3h2 − x − h + 1 − 3x2 + x − 1
= lim
h→0 h
2
6xh + 3h − h h(6x + 3h − 1)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (6x + 3h − 1) = 6x − 1.
h→0
Now, for the tangent line to be horizontal, we require that

1
mt = 6x − 1 = 0 ⇔ x = .
6
Thus, the point at which the tangent line is horizontal is P ( 16 , 11

12
).
Example 3.5. Find the equation of the normal line to the graph of the function
3
f (x) = at the point P (3, 1).
x
Solutions: A normal line is a straight line that is perpendicular to the tangent line.
Furthermore, if line l1 is perpendicular to line l2 , then
ml1 × ml2 = −1
where ml1 and ml2 denote the slopes of lines l1 and l2 respectively.
Thus, we start by finding the slope of the tangent line mt to the graph of f when x = 3.
To this end, we have that
3
f (3 + h) − f (3) 3+h
−1
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3 − (3 + h)
= lim
h→0 h(3 + h)
−3 1
= lim =− .
h→0 9 + 3h 3
Now, since the normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, we have that
1
mt mn = −1 ⇒ mn = −
mt
1
⇒ mn = − 1
−3
3.
We therefore get the equation of the normal line as
y − 1 = 3(x − 3) ⇒ y = 3x − 8.
3.3 The Derivative
We not look at the definition of one of the most important concepts in Calculus, the
derivative. The derivative is defined as follows:
3.3. THE DERIVATIVE 64
Definition 3.1: The Derivative

a) The derivative of a function f is a function f ′ whose value at x is given by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim , (3.5)
h→0 h
provided the limit exists.
b) If the limit in formula (3.5) exists, then we say the function f is differentiable
at x, or f has a derivative at x.
The terminology “differentiate f (x)”, or “find the derivative of f (x)” mean to find f ′ (x).
The following is an alternative definition of a derivative of f at x = a.
Definition 3.2: Alternative Definition of a Derivative

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim . (3.6)
x→a x−a
Finding the derivative of a function using formula (3.5) or (3.6) is referred to as finding
the derivative of that particular function from first principle.
dy d(f (x))
Other commonly used notations for a derivative, are y ′ , , . In these notes, we
dx dx
will be using these notations interchangeably.
We have two ways of interpreting (applying) the derivative of a function y = f (x)

when x = a;
(i) f ′ (a) is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at the point where
x = a.
(ii) f ′ (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x when x = a.
Example 3.6. Differentiate each of the following functions from first principle.
a) f (x) = 2x + 3.
√
b) f (x) = 2x + 3
24x
c) f (x) =
6x + 5
Solutions:
a) Since f (x) = 2x + 3, we have that

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
2(x + h) + 3 − (2x + 3)
= lim
h→0 h
2x + 2h + 3 − 2x − 3
= lim
h→0 h
2h
= lim = lim 2 = 2.
h→0 h h→0
√
b) Given that f (x) = 2x + 3, we have
p √
′ 2(x + h) + 3 − 2x + 3
f (x) = lim
h→0
√ h √ √ √
2x + 2h + 3 − 2x + 3 2x + 2h + 3 + 2x + 3
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h 2x + 2h + 3 + 2x + 3
2x + 2h + 3 − 2x − 3
= lim √ √
h→0 h 2x + 2h + 3 + 2x + 3
2h
= lim √ √
h→0 h 2x + 2h + 3 + 2x + 3
2
= lim √ √
h→0 2x + 2h + 3 + 2x + 3
1
=√ .
2x + 3
24x
c) Given that f (x) = , we calculate that
6x + 5
24(x+h) 24x
′ 6(x+h)+5
− 6x+5
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
(24x + 24h)(6x + 5) − 24x(6x + 6h + 5)
= lim
h→0 h(6x + 6h + 5)(6x + 5)
144x + 144xh + 120x + 120h − 144x2 − 144xh − 120x
2
= lim
h→0 h(6x + 6h + 5)(6x + 5)
120h
= lim
h→0 h(6x + 6h + 5)(6x + 5)
120
= lim
h→0 (6x + 6h + 5)(6x + 5)
120
= .
(6x + 5)2
Example 3.7. Determine whether the function g(x) = |x − 7| is differentiable at

x = 7.
g(7 + h) − g(7)
Solutions: We need to determine whether the limit g ′ (7) = lim exists or
h→0 h
not. To do this, we need to look at the one-sided limits, as h approaches 0 from the left,
and as h approaches 0 from the right. So, for the left-sided limit, we have the following.
g(7 + h) − g(7) |7 + h − 7| − |7 − 7|
lim− = lim−
h→0 h h→0 h
|h| −h
= lim− = lim− , since h < 0
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim− (−1) = −1.
h→0
While for the right-sided limit, we obtain that
g(7 + h) − g(7) |7 + h − 7| − |7 − 7|
lim+ = lim+
h→0 h h→0 h
|h| h
= lim+ = lim+ , since h > 0
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim+ (1) = 1.
h→0
g(7 + h) − g(7) g(7 + h) − g(7)

Now, since lim− ̸= lim+ , we have that the derivative of
h→0 h h→0 h
g(7 + h) − g(7)
g at x = 7, given by g ′ (7) = lim , does not exist, and therefore g is not
h→0 h
differentiable at x = 7.
Definition 3.3: Differentiability on an Interval
a) A function f is said to be differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if f ′ (x) exists

for every x ∈ (a, b).
b) A function f is said to be differentiable on a closed interval [a, b] if f is differ-

entiable on an open interval (a, b), and if the limits
f (a + h) − f (a) f (b + h) − f (b)
lim+ and lim− (3.7)
h→0 h h→0 h
exist.
The one-sided limits (3.7) are sometimes referred to as the right-hand side derivative and
left-hand side derivative of f at a and b respectively.
1
Example 3.8. Determine whether the function f (x) = is differentiable on the
x
interval [0, 2].
Solutions: We let c ∈ (0, 2). Then
f (c + h) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim
h→0 h
1 1
− c−c−h
= lim c+h c = lim
h→0 h h→0 ch(c + h)
−1 1
= lim =− 2
h→0 c(c + h) c
That is, f is differentiable on an open interval (0, 2).
Now we need to determine differentiability of f at the end-points of the interval. At 2,

we have that
1
f (2 + h) − f (2) 2+h
− 12
lim− = lim
h→0 h h→0− h
2−2−h −1
= lim− = lim−
h→0 2h(2 + h) h→0 2(2 + h)
1
= −
4
So, the left-hand side derivative of f at x = 2 exists.
At 0, we need to find
f (0 + h) − f (0)
lim+ .
h→0 h
But since f (0) does not exist, we conclude that the right-hand side derivative of f at
1
x = 0 does not exist, and hence, f (x) = is not differentiable on the interval [0, 2].
x
3.3.1 Differentiability and Continuity
Theorem 3.1
If a function f is differentiable at a real number x = a, then f is continuous at
x = a.
Proof. Note that if x ̸= a, then we can write f (x) as
f (x) − f (a)
f (x) = (x − a) + f (a).
x−a
Now, let’s assume that f is differentiable at x = a. Then this means that f ′ (a) =
f (x)−f (a)
lim x−a
exists, so that
x→a

f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) = lim (x − a) + f (a)
x→a x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim · lim (x − a) + lim f (a)
x→a x−a x→a x→a
′
= f (a) · 0 + f (a) = f (a).
By Definition, this means that f is continuous at x = a.
Note however that the converse of the theorem above is generally not true. That is, not
every function that is continuous at x = a is differentiable at x = a. For instance, the
function g(x) = |x − 7| is continuous at x = 7 because
lim g(x) = lim |x − 7| = 0 = g(7),

x→7 x→7
but we saw in an example earlier that g is not differentiable at x = 7.
3.3.2 Basic Differentiation Rules
Finding the derivative of a function from first principle is only easy for some simple
functions. For more complicated functions, we have the following differentiation rules,
that we follow when finding derivatives.
Theorem 3.2: Basic Differentiation Rules

Let f, g be differentiable functions, and c, m, n ∈ R such that n ̸= 0. Then
1. If f (x) = c, then f ′ (x) = 0.
2. If f (x) = mx + c, then f ′ (x) = m.
3. Power Rule: If f (x) = xn , then f ′ (x) = nxn−1 .
4. (cf )′ (x) = cf ′ (x).
5. (f ± g)′ (x) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x)
6. Product Rule: (f g)′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x).

′ f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
7. Quotient Rule: If g(x) ̸= 0 then fg (x) = .
(g(x))2
′ −g ′ (x)
8. Reciprocal Rule: If g(x) ̸= 0 then g1 (x) = .
(g(x))2
Let’s apply these rules to find derivatives in the following example.
Example 3.9. Find the derivatives of the following functions.
a) f (x) = x4 − 8x2 + 3
16
b) f (x) = x2 +
x
c) f (x) = (x − 4)(x − 2)
12x2 − 1
d) f (x) =
x3
√
e) f (x) = x x
√
x
f ) f (x) =
2x − 1
Solutions:
a) Firstly, we realize that f is a sum of three functions, namely, x4 , −8x2 , and 3. Now,
for x4 , we use the power rule, with n = 4. For −8x2 , we use a combination of the
power rule and the fact that we have a constant, −8, multiplied by x2 . The third
function is just a constant function, whose derivative is 0. Adding the derivatives
together we get that
f ′ (x) = 4x4−1 − 8(2x2−1 ) + 0 = 4x3 − 16x.
16
b) In this case, we have a sum of two functions, namely x2 and . For the first one, we
x
use the power rule, and for the second function we have a constant 16, multiplied
by the reciprocal of x. So, we use the reciprocal rule, and we get that,

′ −1 16
f (x) = 2x + 16 2
= 2x − 2 .
x x
c) There are two ways to find the derivative of this function. Either we expand first, and
then differentiate, or we differentiate it as a product of two functions. The purpose
of this example is to demonstrate the use of the product rule. Therefore, that’s
what we will use. So, we have
f ′ (x) = (x − 2)(x − 4)′ + (x − 4)(x − 2)′

= (x − 2) · 1 + (x − 4) · 1
= x − 2 + x − 4 = 2x − 6.
d) We have a quotient of two functions, Therefore, we use the quotient rule as follows;
′
x3 (12x2 − 1) − (12x2 − 1)(x3 )′
f ′ (x) =
(x3 )2
(x3 )(24x) − (12x2 − 1)(3x2 )
=
x6
2
−12x + 3
= .
x4
1
e) This function is a product of two functions, and we can rewrite it as f (x) = x · x 2 .
So, using the product rule and the power rule for the second one, we get that,
1
1 ′
f ′ (x) = x 2 · (x)′ + x · x 2
1 1 1
= x 2 + x · x− 2
2
√ x
= x+ √
2 x
√ 1√
= x+ x
2
3√
= x.
2
f ) This is a quotient of two function, and as we did for the previous example, we can
1
x2
rewrite the square root and have the function as f (x) = . We then use the
2x − 1
quotient rule to get,
1 ′ 1
(2x − 1) x 2 − x 2 (2x − 1)′
f ′ (x) =
(2x − 1)2
1 1
(2x − 1)( 12 x− 2 ) − 2x 2
=
(2x − 1)2
2x−1 √
√ −2 x
2 x
=
(2x − 1)2
−2x − 1
= √ .
2 x(2x − 1)2
3.3.3 The Chain Rule
The Chain rule is a technique used to differentiate composite functions. Most functions
we will encounter can be regarded as composite functions.
Theorem 3.3: Chain Rule

Let h = f ◦ g be a composition of two differentiable functions, y = f (u) and
u = g(x), of x. Then h is a differentiable function of x, whose derivative at x is
given by
h′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x). (3.8)
That is,
dy dy du
= · . (3.9)
dx du dx
Example 3.10. Differentiate the following functions.
a) h(x) = (3x − 2)3

r
x−2
b) h(x) =
x+1
Solutions:
a) If we let f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 3x − 2, then h(x) = f (g(x)). Now, to apply the
Chain rule, we need to find f ′ (g(x)) and g ′ (x). We get that f ′ (g(x)) = 3(g(x))2 =
3(3x − 2)2 , and g ′ (x) = 3. Chain rule says that the derivative of h is just the product
of these two. So, we obtain
h′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x) = 3(3x − 2)2 · 3 = 9(3x − 2)2 .
√ x−2
b) We proceed as in a) above and let f (x) = x and g(x) = . Then h(x) = f (g(x)).
x+1
1 q 3
Now, we know that f ′ (g(x)) = p = q1x−2 = 21 x+1
x−2
, and g ′ (x) = .
2 g(x) 2 x+1 (x + 1)2
Multiplying these two we get that
r
′ ′ ′ 1 x+1 3
h (x) = f (g(x)) · g (x) = · .
2 x − 2 (x + 1)2
3.4. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 72
3.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Theorem 3.4: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
1. If f (x) = sin x, then f ′ (x) = cos x.
2. If f (x) = cos x, then f ′ (x) = − sin x.
3. If f (x) = tan x, then f ′ (x) = sec2 x.
4. If f (x) = cot x, then f ′ (x) = − csc2 x.
5. If f (x) = sec x, then f ′ (x) = sec x tan x.
6. If f (x) = csc x, then f ′ (x) = − csc x cot x.
Proof. 1. Let f (x) = sin x. Then
f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sin x

f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
sin x cos h + sin h cos x − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
(sin x cos h − sin x) + sin h cos x
= lim
h→0 h
1 − cos h sin h
= lim (− sin x) + lim (cos x)
h→0 h h→0 h
1 − cos h sin h
= (− sin x) lim + (cos x) lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= (− sin x) · 0 + (cos x) · 1
= cos x.
sin x
3. Let f (x) = tan x. Then f (x) = . Using the quotient rule to differentiate f , we
cos x
get,
′
′ sin x
f (x) =
cos x
(cos x)(sin x)′ − (sin x)(cos x)′
=
cos2 x
(cos x)(cos x) − (sin x)(− sin x)
=
cos2 x
2
cos2 x + sin x 1
= 2
=
cos x cos2 x
2
= sec x.
1
5. Let f (x) = sec x. Then f (x) = . Using the reciprocal rule to differentiate f , we
cos x
get,
′
−(cos x)′

′ 1
f (x) = =
cos x cos2 x
−(− sin x) sin x
= 2
=
cos x (cos x)(cos x)
1 sin x
= ·
cos x cos x
= sec x tan x.
The proofs for Cos, Cot and Cosec are left for you as exercises.
a) f (x) = x − 3 sin x
x
b) f (x) = cos x
c) f (θ) = θ csc θ − cot θ
d) g(x) = tan2 2x − sec3 2x
e) f (x) = sin(x2 + cos x)
f ) h(x) = sec(x3 )
Solutions:
a) Since the derivative of x is 1 and that of sin x is cos x, we have that

d(f (x))
= 1 − 3 cos x.
dx
b) We use the quotient rule to find the derivative of this function. So,
d(f (x)) (cos x) dx
dx
− x d(cos
dx
x)
=
dx cos2 x
cos x + x sin x
=
cos2 x
= sec x(1 + x tan x).
c) We use the product rule to differentiate the first term, and obtain that
d(f (θ)) dθ d(csc θ) d(cot θ)
= (csc θ) + θ −
dθ dθ dθ dθ
2
= csc θ − θ csc θ cot θ + csc θ
= csc θ(1 − θ cot θ + csc θ).
3.5. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 74
d) We apply the chain rule, to get that
g ′ (x) = 2 tan 2x(sec2 2x)(2) − 3 sec2 2x(sec 2x tan 2x)(2)

= 4 tan 2x sec2 2x − 6 tan 2x sec3 2x
= 2 tan 2x sec2 2x(2 − 3 sec 2x).
3.5 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Func-

tions
The following theorem will help in proving the derivative of exponential functions. Un-
fortunately, its proof is beyond the scope of this course. We will therefore just state it
without proof.
Theorem 3.5
ex − 1
lim = 1. (3.10)
x→0 x
We then have the following derivatives for exponential and logarithmic functions
Theorem 3.6
1. If f (x) = ex , then f ′ (x) = ex .
2. If a > 0 and f (x) = ax , then f ′ (x) = ax ln a.

1
3. If f (x) = ln x with x > 0, then f ′ (x) = .
x
1
4. If f (x) = loga x such that x, a > 0, then f ′ (x) = , provided that a ̸= 1.
x ln a
Proof. 1. Let f (x) = ex . Then
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
x+h
e − ex ex eh − ex
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x h
e (e − 1) eh − 1
= lim = ex · lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= ex · 1 = ex .
2. Let f (x) = ax . Note that, using the properties of logarithms, we can rewrite this as
f (x) = ax = ex ln a . Thus, using the derivative in 1. and the chain rule, we get that
f ′ (x) = ex ln a ln a = ax ln a.
du
Here we have used the fact that u = x ln a is a function of x such that = ln a
dx
dy dy du
and if we let y = ex ln a = eu , then by the chain rule = · , and hence, the
dx du dx
result follows.
3. To prove the derivative of ln x, we first need to recall how the Euler’s number (e)
was defined. That is
m
1 1
e = lim (1 + n) n = lim 1 + . (3.11)
n→0 m→∞ m
To this end, let f (x) = ln x. Then
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
ln x+h

ln(x + h) − ln x x
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
1
1 h h h
= lim ln 1 + = lim ln 1 + .
h→0 h x h→0 x
h
Now, let k = x
⇔ h = kx, so that as h → 0, k → 0. Thus
1
′ h h 1
f (x) = lim ln 1 + = lim ln(1 + k) kx
h→0 x k→0
1 1 1 1
= lim ln(1 + k) k = lim ln(1 + k) k
k→0 x x k→0
1 1

= ln lim (1 + k) k
x k→0
1 1
= · ln e = .
x x
4. Let f (x) = loga x. Using the change of base formula for logarithms, we can write
ln x 1
f (x) = loga x = = · ln x.
ln a ln a
1
Since is a constant, we can use the derivative of ln x in 3. above to get
ln a
1 1 1
f ′ (x) = · = .
ln a x x ln a
3.5. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 76

2
a) f (x) = 3ex + 10x3 ln x
b) f (x) = 4x − 5 log3 x
5ex
c) f (x) =
e2x + 1
d) f (x) = ln |x|
Solutions:
2
a) Let f (x) = 3ex + 10x3 ln x. Using the chain rule for the first term, and the product
rule for the second term, we get
2 1
f ′ (x) = 3ex (2x) + 30x2 ln x + 10x3 ·
x
x2 2 2
= 6xe + 30x ln x + 10x .
b) Let f (x) = 4x − 5 log3 x. Then

5
f ′ (x) = 4x ln 4 − .
x ln 3
5ex
c) Let f (x) = . Applying the quotient rule, we obtain
e2x + 1
5ex (e2x + 1) − 5ex (2e2x )
f ′ (x) =
(e2x + 1)2
5e3x + 5ex − 10e3x
=
(e2x + 1)2
5ex (1 − e2x )
= .
(e2x + 1)2
d) Let f (x) = ln |x|. Then, using the definition of absolute value, we can write
(
ln x, if x > 0;
f (x) = ln |x| =
ln(−x), if x < 0.
We then differentiate this to obtain
1

 ,
 if x > 0;
f ′ (x) = x
1 1

 (−1) = , if x < 0.
(−x) x
1
Thus, for any x ̸= 0, (ln |x|)′ = .
x
3.6 Implicit Differentiation
Let’s consider the equation y = 3x2 + 2.
This equation is of the form y = f (x), where y is defined explicitly as a function of x. So

far, we have been calculating derivatives of functions of this form.
However, relationships between variables are often expressed implicitly. For instance, the
equation above can be rewritten as
6x2 − 2y = −4 ⇔ 6x2 − 2y + 4 = 0. (3.12)
In this case, we say that y is an implicit function of x., or y is determined implicitly by

x. It has an implicit form F (x, y) = 0.
In some cases, we may be able to solve such equation for y as an explicit function of x,
like in the case above. However, there are also cases when it’s difficult, and sometimes
impossible, to solve such an equation for y as an explicit function of x. For instance, it’s
impossible to solve for y as an explicit function of x in the equation y 2 − x2 − sin xy = 0.
When we cannot put an equation F (x, y) = 0 in the form y = f (x) to differentiate it

dy
the usual way, we may still be able to find dx using a procedure/method called implicit
differentiation. This involves differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to
x, keeping in mind that y is a function of x, and then solving the resulting equation for
dy
dx
(y ′ ). For instance, for equation (3.12), we have
dy dy
6x2 − 2y = −4 ⇔ 12x − 2 =0⇔ = 6x.
dx dx
We emphasise the assumption that y is a function of x. This means that where you have
functions of y (e.g. y 3 , cos y etc.) we treat them as composite functions, and therefore
we use the chain rule.
Generally, to differentiate implicitly, the following three step procedure may help.
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a

differentiable function of x.
dy ′
2. Collect the terms with (y ) on one side of the equation.
dx
dy
3. Make the subject of the formula.
dx
3.6. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 78
Example 3.13. Given that the following equations determine y as a function of x,

dy
find dx .
a) x2 + y 2 = 25
b) y 2 − x2 − sin xy = 0
c) y 4 + 3y − 4x3 = 5x + 1
d) y sin x = x3 + cos y
Solutions:
dy
a) Note that we need to use the chain rule to differentiate y 2 to get 2y · dx
. So,
dy
x2 + y 2 = 25 ⇔ 2x + 2y ·=0
dx
dy 2x x
⇔ =− =− .
dx 2y y
b) The y 2 term is treated the same way as in a) above. For cos xy, we will use the chain
rule, and within the chain rule, we will use the product rule to find the derivative
of xy because this is a product of two functions of x, namely x and y.

2 2 dy dy
y − x − sin xy = 0 ⇔ 2y − 2x − cos xy · y + x =0
dx dx
dy dy
⇔ 2y − 2x − y cos xy − x cos xy = 0
dx dx
dy dy
⇔ 2y − x cos xy = 2x + y cos xy
dx dx
dy
⇔ (2y − x cos xy) = 2x + y cos xy
dx
dy 2x + y cos xy
⇔ = .
dx 2y − x cos xy
c) Following the method of a) and b) above, we get
dy dy
y 4 + 3y − 4x3 = 5x + 1 ⇔ 4y 3 + 3 − 12x2 = 5
dx dx
dy
⇔ (4y 3 + 3) = 12x2 + 5
dx
dy 12x2 + 5
⇔ = .
dx 4y 3 + 3
d) Similarly, again treating y as a function of x, we get

dy dy
y sin x = x3 + cos y ⇔ sin x + y cos x = 3x2 − sin y
dx dx
dy dy
⇔ sin x + sin y = 3x2 − y cos x
dx dx
dy
⇔ (sin x + sin y) = 3x2 − y cos x
dx
dy 3x2 − y cos x
⇔ = .
dx sin x + sin y
Example 3.14. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the following
equation at the point (−2, 1).
x2 + xy + 2y 3 = 4.
Solutions: Recall that the slope of a tangent line to a graph at a given point is given by
dy
the derivative evaluated at that point. Therefore, we need to find the derivative dx , and
evaluate it at the point (−2, 1). Using implicit differentiation, we get
dy dy
x2 + xy + 2y 3 = 4 ⇔ 2x + y + x + 6y 2 =0
dx dx
dy
⇔ (x + 6y 2 ) = −2x − y
dx
dy −2x − y
⇔ = .
dx x + 6y 2
Now, to find the slope of the tangent line, we calculate

dy −2(−2) − 1 3
= 2
= .
dx (−2,1) −2 + 6(1 ) 4
We then use the slope, and the point given to find the equation of the tangent line as
3 3 5
y − 1 = (x + 2) ⇔ y = x + .
4 4 2
3.7 Logarithmic Differentiation

dy
Given y = f (x), we may sometimes calculate by using a process called logarithmic
dx
differentiation. This method is mainly useful if f (x) consists of complicated products,
quotients or powers.
3.7. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION 80
For example, if we want to differentiate the function y = xx , then we can either write
x
it as y = xx = eln x = ex ln x , and apply the chain rule to differentiate, or we can use
logarithmic differentiation as follows;
ln y = ln xx = x ln x,
so that implicit differentiation gives

1 dy dy
= ln x + 1 ⇔ = y(ln x + 1) = xx (ln x + 1).
y dx dx
The following guidelines may help;
Given y = f (x),
1. Take natural logarithm on both sides, and simplify.
ln y = ln f (x).
2. Differentiate implicitly.
d d 1 dy d
(ln y) = (ln f (x)) ⇔ = (ln f (x)).
dx dx y dx dx
3. Multiply through by y = f (x).
dy d
= f (x) (ln f (x)).
dx dx
dy
Example 3.15. Use logarithmic differentiation to find .
dx
a) y = (sin x)ln x
(5x − 4)3
b) y = √
2x + 1
√
x2 5 2x + 3
c) y =
(1 + x2 )6
sin x tan3 x
d) y = √
x
Solutions:
a) Taking natural logarithm on both sides, we get
y = (sin x)ln x ⇔ ln y = ln (sin x)ln x = ln x · ln(sin x)

1 dy 1 1
⇔ = ln(sin x) + ln x cos x
y dx x sin x

dy ln(sin x) (ln x)(cos x)
⇔ =y +
dx x sin x

dy ln x ln(sin x)
⇔ = (sin x) + (ln x)(cot x) .
dx x
b) Proceeding as in a) above, we get

(5x − 4)3 (5x − 4)3 1
y= √ ⇔ ln y = ln √ = 3 ln(5x − 4) − ln(2x + 1)
2x + 1 2x + 1 2
1 dy 15 1 25x + 19
⇔ = − =
y dx 5x − 4 2x + 1 (5x − 4)(2x + 1)
dy 25x + 19
⇔ =y·
dx (5x − 4)(2x + 1)
dy (5x − 4)3 25x + 19
⇔ = √ ·
dx 2x + 1 (5x − 4)(2x + 1)
dy (5x − 4)2 (25x + 19)
⇔ = 3 .
dx (2x + 1) 2
Observe that a direct calculation, using the Quotient and Power rules, would be
much longer.
Examples c) and d) are left for you as exercises.
Note that under the guidelines above, 1. is only valid if f (x) > 0, since ln f (x) is undefined
when f (x) < 0. In cases when f (x) < 0, we replace 1. with ln |y| = ln |f (x)|.
If we then differentiate implicitly, we again arrive at guideline 2. Therefore, negative

values of f (x) do not change the outcome, and we are not so much concerned whether
f (x) is positive or negative.
The method should however not be used to find f ′ (a) if f (a) = 0, since ln 0 is not defined.
You may find the following properties of logarithms useful when performing logarithmic
differentiation.
Let α > 0, β > 0 and θ be any rational number. Then
ln(αβ) = ln α + ln β
ln( αβ ) = ln α − ln β
3.8. HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES 82
ln(αθ ) = θ ln α
3.8 Higher-order Derivatives
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. This means that its derivative y ′ = f ′ (x) exists.
Now, if y ′ = f ′ (x) is itself differentiable, then we can talk about finding its derivative,
which we call the second-order derivative (or just the second derivative) of f , and denote
it by y ′′ = f ′′ (x). Other alternative notations for a second derivative are
d2 y d2
y ′′ = f ′′ (x) = = (f (x)) = Dx2 y = Dx2 f (x).
dx2 dx2
For instance, if f (x) = x4 , then
d
f ′ (x) =
(f (x)) = 4x3 , and
dx
d2

′′ d d d
f (x) = 2 (f (x)) = (f (x)) = (4x3 ) = 12x2 .
dx dx dx dx
In a similar way, we can consider calculating the third-, fourth-, and, in general, the
nth −order derivatives of f . The nth −order derivatives of y = f (x) is denoted by
dn y dn
y (n) = f (n) (x) = = (f (x)) = Dxn y = Dxn f (x),
dxn dxn
for any natural number n.
Example 3.16. For each of the following functions, find y ′ , y ′′ and y ′′′ .
6
a) y =
(x − 1)2
sin x
b) y =
x
c) y = x sin ax, where a ∈ R.
Solutions:
6
a) Let y = . Then, using the Reciprocal rule, we get
(x − 1)2
−12(x − 1) −12
y′ = 4
= ,
(x − 1) (x − 1)3
′′36(x − 1)2 36
y = = , and
(x − 1)6 (x − 1)4
−144(x − 1)3 −144

y ′′′ = 8
= .
(x − 1) (x − 1)5
sin x
b) Let y = . Then, using the Quotient rule, and for y ′′ and y ′′′ , the Product rule,
x
we get
x cos x − sin x
y′ = ,
x2
x2 (cos x − x sin x − cos x) − 2x(x cos x − sin x)

y ′′ =
x4
2
(2 − x ) sin x − 2x cos x
= , and
x3
′′′x3 [−2x sin x + (2 − x2 ) cos x − (2 cos x − 2x sin x)] − 3x2 [(2 − x3 ) sin x − 2x cos x]
y =
x6
2 3
(6 − x)x cos x + 3(x − 2) sin x
= .
x4
c) Let y = x sin ax, where a ∈ R. Then, using the product rule, we get
y ′ = sin ax + ax cos ax,
y ′′ = a cos ax + a cos ax − a2 x sin ax

= 2a cos ax − a2 x sin ax, and
y ′′′ = −2a2 sin ax − (a2 sin ax + a3 x cos ax)

= −3a2 sin ax − a3 x cos ax.
3.9. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSES OF DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS 84
We can also find higher-order derivatives using implicit differentiation, as demonstrated

in the following example.
Example 3.17. Given the equation xy + y 2 = 2x, find y ′′ .
Solutions: We differentiate twice on both sides of the equation with respect to x, and
we get
2−y
y + xy ′ + 2yy ′ = 2 ⇔ y ′ = . (3.13)
x + 2y
Differentiating the second time, we get
y ′ + y ′ + xy ′′ + 2(y ′ )2 + 2yy ′′ = 0 (3.14)
If we then make y ′′ the subject of the formula, and use (3.13) to substitute for y ′ , we get
2−y
′′ 2y ′ + 2(y ′ )2 2 − y 1 + x+2y
y = − = −2
x + 2y x + 2y x + 2y
(2 − y)(x + y + 2)
= −2
(x + 2y)3
2x − xy + 2y − y 2 + 4 − 2y 8
= −2 3
=− .
(x + 2y) (x + 2y)3
Note that in the last line, we used the given equation to simplify the numerator in the
last line.
3.9 Derivatives of Inverses of Differentiable Functions
Consider the function f (x) = 4x + 3. Note that f is invertible, and its inverse is given by
f −1 (x) = 14 x − 43 . If we calculate the derivatives of f and f −1 , we find that
d
f ′ (x) =(4x + 3) = 4,
dx
−1 ′ d 1 3 1
(f ) (x) = x− = .
dx 4 4 4
We observe that the derivatives of f and f −1 are reciprocals of one another.
This is not a special case. Graphically, we observe that if we reflect a non-horizontal or

non-vertical line in the line y = x, the line’s slope will be inverted. That is, if the line has
slope m ̸= 0, then the reflected line will have a slope m1 . In general, we recall that if f is
an invertible function, then
f ◦ f −1 (x) = f f −1 (x) = x.

If we differentiate this with respect to x, then we get

′ ′ 1
f ′ f −1 (x) · f −1 (x) = 1 ⇔ f −1 (x) =

.
f ′ (f −1 (x))
Theorem 3.7: The Derivative Rule for Inverses

Let f be an invertible differentiable function. Then f −1 is also differentiable with
its derivative given by
′ 1
f −1 (x) = ′ −1 . (3.15)
f (f (x))
Example 3.18. Consider the function f (x) = x2 , x ≥ 0. Its inverse is given by

√
f −1 (x) = x. The derivative of f is f ′ (x) = 2x, and the derivative of f −1 , using
′ 1
the power rule, is (f −1 ) (x) = √ .
2 x
Now, if we apply the Theorem above, we will get the derivative of f −1 as
′ 1 1
f −1 (x) = =
f ′ (f −1 (x)) 2 (f −1 (x))
1 1
= √ = √ ,
2 ( x) 2 x
which is exactly what we got using the power rule.
Example 3.19. Given the equation f (x) = x3 −3x2 −1, x ≥ 2 such that f (3) = −1,
′
find the value of (f −1 ) (−1).
′ 1
Solutions: We note, from the theorem above, that (f −1 ) (−1) = . Now,
f′ (f −1 (−1))
since f (3) = −1, we have that
f −1 (−1) = 3.
Furthermore, we can calculate that
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x.
Thus,
′ 1 1
f −1 (−1) = =
f′ (f −1 (−1)) f ′ (3)
1 1
= = .
3(32 ) − 6(3) 9
3.10. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 86
3.10 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Recall that trigonometric functions are periodic. This, among others, implies that trigono-
metric functions are not one-to-one, and thus, they are not invertible. However, we can
restrict their domains in such a way that the restricted functions are one-to-one, and
hence, invertible.
Recall from the general properties of inverse functions that y = f −1 (x) ⇔ x = f (y).
Moreover, (f ◦ f −1 )(x) = x, x ∈ Df −1 and (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x, x ∈ Df .
Thus, for Inverse trigonometric functions, we have the following.
Sine Recall that the domain of the sine function is R, while the range is [−1, 1]. To get
an invertible function, we restrict the domain to the interval [− π2 , π2 ], so that the resulting
function is one-to-one. We therefore have the following definition.
Definition 3.4: Arcsin

The inverse function of sine, denoted by sin−1 or arcsin, is defined by
h π πi
−1
y = sin x ⇔ x = sin y, for x ∈ [−1, 1] and y ∈ − , .
2 2
Furthermore,
sin(sin−1 x) = x x ∈ [−1, 1],

h π πi
sin−1 (sin x) = x x ∈ − , .
2 2
Cosine Recall that the domain of the cosine function is R, while the range is [−1, 1].
To get an invertible function, we restrict the domain to the interval [0, π], so that the
resulting function is one-to-one. We therefore have the following definition.
Definition 3.5: Arccos

The inverse function of cosine, denoted by cos−1 or arccos, is defined by
y = cos−1 x ⇔ x = cos y, for x ∈ [−1, 1] and y ∈ [0, π].
Furthermore,
cos(cos−1 x) = x x ∈ [−1, 1],

cos−1 (cos x) = x x ∈ [0, π].
Recall that the graph of an inverse f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of the function
f in the line y = x.
Tangent To get an invertible function, we restrict the domain of tan to the interval
(− π2 , π2 ), so that the resulting function is one-to-one. We therefore have the following
definition.
Definition 3.6: Arctan
The inverse function of tangent, denoted by tan−1 or arctan, is defined by
π π
−1
y = tan x ⇔ x = tan y, for x ∈ R and y ∈ − , .
2 2
Furthermore,
tan(tan−1 x) = x x ∈ R,
π π
tan−1 (tan x) = x x ∈ − , .
2 2
Secant To get an invertible function, we restrict the domain of sec to the interval
[0, π2 ) ∪ ( π2 , π], so that the resulting function is one-to-one. We therefore have the following
definition.
Definition 3.7: Arcsec
The inverse function of secant, denoted by sec−1 , is defined by
h π π i
y = sec−1 x ⇔ x = sec y, for |x| ≥ 1 and y ∈ 0, ∪ ,π .
2 2
Furthermore,
sec(sec−1 x) = x |x| ≥ 1,
h π π i
−1
sec (sec x) = x x ∈ 0, ∪ ,π .
2 2
Note that it can be shown that sec−1 x = cos−1 ( x1 ) ∀|x| ≥ 1.
Cosecant To get an invertible function, we restrict the domain of cosec to the interval
[− π2 , 0)∪(0, π2 ], so that the resulting function is one-to-one. We therefore have the following
definition.
Definition 3.8: Arccosec

The inverse function of cosecant, denoted by csc−1 , is defined by
h π πi
−1
y = csc x ⇔ x = csc y, for |x| ≥ 1 and y ∈ − , 0 ∪ 0, .
2 2
Furthermore,
csc(csc−1 x) = x |x| ≥ 1,
h π πi
csc−1 (csc x) = x x ∈ − , 0 ∪ 0, .
2 2
Note that it can be shown that csc−1 x = sin−1 ( x1 ) ∀|x| ≥ 1.
Cotangent To get an invertible function, we restrict the domain of cot to the inter-
val (0, π), so that the resulting function is one-to-one. We therefore have the following
definition.
Definition 3.9: Arccot
The inverse function of cotangent, denoted by cot−1 , is defined by
y = cot−1 x ⇔ x = cot y, for x ∈ R and y ∈ (0, π) .
Furthermore,
cot(cot−1 x) = x x ∈ R,
cot−1 (cot x) = x x ∈ (0, π).
Note that it can be shown that cot−1 x = tan−1 ( x1 ), x ̸= 0.
3.10.1 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Derivative of Arcsin Let y = sin−1 x, so that sin y = x. Differentiating sin y = x

implicitly with respect to x, we get
dy dy 1
cos y · =1 ⇔ =
dx dx cos y
dy 1
⇔ =p
dx 1 − sin2 y
dy 1
⇔ =√ .
dx 1 − x2
Figure 3.1: Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions.

Derivative of Arccos Let y = cos−1 x, so that cos y = x. Differentiating cos y = x

dy dy 1
− sin y · =1 ⇔ =
dx dx − sin y
dy 1
⇔ = −p
dx 1 − cos2 y
dy 1
⇔ = −√ .
dx 1 − x2
Derivative of Arctan Let y = tan−1 x, so that tan y = x. Differentiating tan y = x

dy dy 1
sec2 y · =1 ⇔ =
dx dx sec2 y
dy 1
⇔ =
dx 1 + tan2 y
dy 1
⇔ = .
dx 1 + x2
Derivative of Arcsec Let y = sec−1 x, |x| > 1, so that sec y = x. Differentiating

sec y = x implicitly with respect to x, we get
dy dy 1
sec y tan y · =1 ⇔ =
dx dx sec y tan y
dy 1
⇔ = p
dx sec y(± sec2 y − 1)
dy 1
⇔ =± √ .
dx x x2 − 1
Now, we need to take care of the ± sign. Looking at Figure 3.1(d), we see that the slope
of the graph of y = sec−1 x is always positive.
Thus,  1
dy  + x√x2 −1 , if x > 1;

=
dx 
− x√x12 −1 , if x < −1.

Using the absolute value sign, we can write a single expression that eliminates the “±”
confusion and get
dy 1
= √ .
dx |x| x2 − 1
The derivatives of the remaining two inverse trigonometric functions are found in the
same manner. We summarise these in the following theorem.
Theorem 3.8: Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

Assume that u is a function of x. Then
d(sin−1 u) du/dx
1. =√ , |u| < 1
dx 1 − u2
d(cos−1 u) du/dx
2. = −√ , |u| < 1
dx 1 − u2
d(tan−1 u) du/dx
3. =
dx 1 + u2
d(cot−1 u) du/dx
4. =−
dx 1 + u2
d(sec−1 u) du/dx
5. = √ , |u| > 1
dx |u| u2 − 1
d(csc−1 u) −du/dx
6. = √ , |u| > 1
dx |u| u2 − 1
Example 3.20. Find the derivative of each of the following functions. Use implicit
differentiation where needed.
√
a) f (x) = sin−1 ( x)
b) f (x) = sec−1 (5x4 )

−1 (x3 )
c) f (x) = 3sin
d) ln(x + y) = tan−1 (xy)
Solutions:
√ √
a) Let f (x) = sin−1 x. Then using u = x, we get
1 1
f ′ (x) = p √ 2· √
1 − ( x) 2 x
1
= √ .
2 x − x2
b) Let f (x) = sec−1 (5x4 ). Then using u = 5x4 , we get

1
f ′ (x) = p · 20x3
|5x4 | 4 2
(5x ) − 1
20x3
= √ , since 5x4 > 1 > 0
4
5x 25x − 18
4
= √ .
x 25x8 − 1
−1 (x3 )
c) Let f (x) = 3sin . Then we get
−1 (x3 ) 1
f ′ (x) = 3sin ln 3 · p · 3x2
3
1 − (x ) 2
2
−1 3 3x ln 3
= 3sin (x ) √ .
1 − x6
d) Let ln(x + y) = tan−1 (xy). If we differentiate implicitly with respect to x, we get the
following,

1 dy 1 dy
· 1+ = · y+x
x+y dx 1 + (xy)2 dx
dy dy
1 dx y x dx
⇔ + = +
x+y x+y 1 + x2 y 2 1 + x2 y 2

1 x dy y 1
⇔ − 2 2
= 2 2
−
x+y 1+x y dx 1+x y x+y
2 2 2
xy + y − 1 − x2 y 2
2

1 + x y − x − xy dy
⇔ =
(x + y)(1 + x2 y 2 ) dx (x + y)(1 + x2 y 2 )
dy xy + y 2 − 1 − x2 y 2
⇔ = .
dx 1 + x2 y 2 − x2 − xy
Example 3.21. Find an equation for the tangent line to the graph of y = cot−1 x
at the point −1, 3π

4
.
Solutions: The slope of the tangent line is given by
dy 1 1 1
=− =− = − ,
dx x=−1 1 + x2 x=−1 1 + (−1)2 2
3π 1
so that the tangent line has an equation y − = − (x + 1).
4 2
Chapter 4
Applications of Derivatives
93
94
Appendix A
Summation Notations
P
We use the symbol (an enlarged Greek capital letter S called sigma) to represent a
sum.
Definition A.1
If m and n are integers where m ≤ n, and if f is a function defined at the integers
n
P
m, m + 1, m + 2, . . . , n, then the symbol f (i) represents the sum of the values
i=m
of f at those integers. i.e.
n
X
f (i) = f (m) + f (m + 1) + f (m + 2) + · · · + f (n − 1) + f (n).
i=m
5
i2 represents the sum of the squares of the first 5 positive
P
For instance, the symbol
i=1
natural numbers. i.e.
5
X
i2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 = 55.
i=1
n
P
The i appearing in the symbol f (i) in the definition above is called the index of
i=m
summation, m is called the lower limit, and n is called the upper limit.
For instance
4
X
yi = y1 + y2 + y3 + y4
i=1
n
X
ak b k = a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3 + · · · + an b n .
k=1
95

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Programme: Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and Statistics

Course Code: CLS502S

1.1.1 Images and Pre-images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1.2 Domains and Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 Arithmetic with Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.3 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.3.1 Graphs of Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.4.1 Graphs of Piecewise-defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.5 Injective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.5.1 The Horizontal Line Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.6 Surjective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.7 Bijective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.8 Composite of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.9 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.9.1 Graphs of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2 Limits and Continuity 27

2.1.1 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.1.2 Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.1.3 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.2 Improper Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.2.1 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.2.2 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.3 Precise Definition of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.3.1 Two-sided Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.3.2 One-sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.3.3 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3.4 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.4.1 Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions . . . . . . . 53

3.1 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.1.1 Average Rage of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.1.2 Instantaneous Rage of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.2 Tangent lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3.3 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.3.1 Differentiability and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.3.2 Basic Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

3.3.3 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.5 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3.7 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3.8 Higher-order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3.9 Derivatives of Inverses of Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.10 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.10.1 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

 determine whether a given relation is a function or not.

 find domains and ranges of functions.

 identify functions which are injective, surjective and bijective.

 find the composition of two or more functions and their domains.

 compute the value of a composite function at a specified number.

 determine whether a function is even, odd or neither.

 find an inverse of a function.

1.9 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

In many disciplines in life, correspondences/relations exist between two sets of objects.

Student Name Test 1 Marks

Correspondences/relations of this type are called functions.

(i) A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule/mapping/relation that relates

every element x ∈ X to exactly one element y ∈ Y such that f (x) = y.

Df = {x ∈ R|f (x) = y for some real number y}.

determine whether a given relation is a function or not.

find domains and ranges of functions.

identify functions which are injective, surjective and bijective.

find the composition of two or more functions and their domains.

compute the value of a composite function at a specified number.

determine whether a function is even, odd or neither.

find an inverse of a function.

If a ∈ Df then the image of a under f , f (a), is also referred to as the value of

If b ∈ Rf then the pre-image of b under f is found by substituting with b for

If this is the case, then you conclude that f is an injective function.

If there’s a chance that x1 ̸= x2 , then you conclude that f is not an injective