I. As a result of external factors such as water current, animals or physical damage, the spirogyra may break up into several pieces each containing a few to several cells. II. The nucleus of each cell divides into two followed by the cytoplasm III. As a result, each cell forms two new cells, still held together in the filament. At first the new cells are small; as they enlarge, the filament becomes longer. IV. This type of reproduction is also known as fragmentation or vegetative reproduction Note: in FRAGMENTATION, an organism may break into two or more pieces and each piece can then develop into a new independent organism. This process is also common in Flatworms, the Planaria, Tapeworm, and Starfish.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Sexual reproduction in spirogyra is by conjugation
1. Two spirogyra filament come to be side by side
2. A projection of lateral outgrowth is formed on the adjacent cells of each conjugate 3. The separating walls dissolves to form a conjugation tube 4. Cytoplasm of each cell shrinks away from the cell wall, and all the content of each cell round up to form a gamete 5. The one regarded as the male gamete migrates through the conjugation tube and fuses with the gamete of the other cell to form a zygote 6. The zygote develops a thick wall and becomes a zygospore. The zygospore drops to the bottom of the pond where it splits and germinates when conditions are favourable giving rise to a new filament.
A B
C D Spirogyra Spore Germination
E New spirogyra filament growing from zygote
REPRODUCTION IN EARTHWORM Reproduction in earthworm: Reproduction in earthworm is sexual Earthworms are hermaphrodites/bisexual (have both male and female gamete), but the mate with other earthworm as they do not fertilize their eggs with their own sperm. During mating two earthworm come to lie close together with their ventral surface touching, their head in opposite direction /inverted from each other /segment 9-15 of one worm opposite the clitellum segment 33-37 of the other worm. They are held together by chaetae/setae (bristles found on the body segments) and mucus they secrete Sperms are exchanged between the worms, the exchanged sperm is stored temporarily in sperm receptacles/ spermathecae Earthworms separate. The clitellum secretes a slime tube/albuminous fluid around the earthworm The earthworm moves backward out of this slime tube, as it passes through the slime tube it will pass over the female pore picking up eggs The tube continues to move down the earthworm and passes over the male pore and sperm of the other earthworm stored in the receptacle is poured over the eggs The eggs become fertilized The slime tube close off to form egg cocoon which comes off from the earthworm at its head, and is released into the soil The cocoon hatches into young earthworms when conditions are right .
NOTE: The cocoons are much smaller than a grain of rice and are yellow-coloured. Each cocoon can have 2-20 worm eggs. Eggs are fertilized inside the cocoon. Therefore fertilisation is external. The development of the embryo takes place also inside the cocoon. If conditions are not right for hatching, such as dryness, the cocoons can be dormant for years and hatch when conditions are right. The babies hatch in 2-3 weeks. The new baby worms are whitish, and one can practically see through them. The babies are only 1/2 inch long. They are on their own as soon as they are born. In about six weeks, they too will produce their own baby worms.
EARTHWORM COCOON
REPRODUCTION IN SNAIL Snails are considered to be hermaphrodites (They have both male and female reproductive organs). This is especially consistent among land snails and most marine snails. All snails will be considered sexually mature by the time they are one year old. This is because the life span of most land species does not last for more than five to seven years, allowing for a faster growth rate of the species. The reproductive organs of the snail are on the side of their body, close to the top allowing for easy mating When the snails mate, they exchange sperm hence fertilisation occurs internally. When the eggs are fertilised, they go through a process of growth, the young snail continues to develop inside the egg. It takes a snail egg two to four weeks to develop. The snail is known to carry up to 100 eggs. The snail lays batches of eggs at a time and buries them in the top soil in cool places. When the eggs hatch they come out as miniature version of the adult species.
Garden snails mating
snail laying eggs
STRUCTURE OF A SNAIL REPRODUCTION IN COCKROACH Cockroaches are active nocturnal insects. At night, they run about with their raised antennae which are frequently waved in the air to feel and smell the environment. When suddenly frightened, they can carry out short aerial flight to escape from possible enemy. They are dorso-ventrally flatten hence they can hide in crevices, making them difficult to catch. In the day time, they hide in holes, drawers, cupboards, cracks, boxes, bookshelves and dark places. Cockroaches are omnivorous scavengers, feeds on a wide range of food items such as bread, sugar, biscuits, dead insects, books, papers and clothing. When caught, they quickly release an offensive chemical odour to prevent predators from catching them. REPRODUCTION/ LIFE HISTORY OF COCKROACH Cockroaches are unisexual (either Male or female). When the male and female cockroach mate, the male introduces sperm into the genital opening of the female. The sperms are then stored in sperm pouch until the eggs are released from the two ovaries. As the eggs are released from the two ovaries, they are fertilized, by the stored sperm, fertilization is therefore internal. The fertilized eggs are arranged in groups of 16, inside purse-like, leathery, hard and brown egg-cases known as OOTHECA. The leather and hard egg-case prevents water loss and gives protection to the egg. The brown colour blends with the environment thus offering protective camouflage. The ridged surface of the egg-case is for firm attachment to substratum. The 16 fertilized eggs in each egg- case are arranged in two rows of 8. The female cockroach carries the egg-cases about for some time in her abdominal pouch of the seventh segment before depositing them in a suitable dark place. The egg-cases are then cemented against the place they are deposited. After about 30 to 90 days, the eggs hatch into nymphs that resemble the adult in all respects except that they are very small, wingless, colourless, and their reproductive organs are not developed. The nymphs feed, grow and become dark brown in colour and moult. Moulting occur about six or seven times before adult size is attained. It takes about 40 – 60 weeks for the nymphs to reach adult size.
Life Stages in the history of cockroach
Assignment: State 3 differences between a male cockroach and a female cockroach
REPRODUCTION IN HOUSEFLY Reproduction in housefly is by sexual reproduction. Houseflies are unisexual (either male or female). The adult male and female mate and within two to three days, fertilized eggs are laid. The female housefly lays eggs in five or six batches of 100-150 eggs each. Laying of the eggs takes place in the day light. The female housefly pushes her abdomen and deposits her eggs in some kind of warm and moist decaying organic matter to prevent them from desiccation. The eggs are creamy white, long and spindle shaped with length of about 1mm. Within 24hours, the eggs hatch, depending on favourable temperature into tiny white larvae (maggots). Larva: The larva has small head bearing hooked mandible which enable it to move and for tearing of its food. The head can be withdrawn into the body. Eyes and legs are absent. The body consist of twelve distinct legless segments. The first three segments form the thorax. There are small pads on the segments bristle or setae which also aid locomotion. The first three thoracic segments bears a pair of anterior spiracles while another pair or posterior spiracles are present on segment twelve this is used for gaseous exchange. The Larva (maggot) moults two times, stops feeding and then migrates at night to a dry place in order to pupate, burrowing a few mm into loose dry soil. To pupate, the larva contracts its length and becomes barrel- shaped. The larval stage lasts for five to fourteen days. Pupa: It is shorter in length than the larva and barrel-shaped. It becomes harder and brownish in colour. The anterior and posterior spiracles are still present. The Pupal stage is the resting stage where internal reorganization of body organs takes place. Imago: The imago emerges in about four to five days in warm weather. The imago pushes open a special vesicle at the front of its head. This special vesicle pushes off the cap of the pupal case. The imago then crawls out of the decaying matter. Blood is pumped into the folded wings to expand them, they harden within a few hours and the imago can then fly. After a few days (about 2weeks), it finds a partner mates and lay eggs. The process of the female laying eggs starts again. When threatened by cold temperatures or lack of food and moisture, the housefly's body can temporarily shut itself down in a process similar to hibernation, called diapause. This process, which comes on gradually and can last for months, can take place at any point in a housefly's life cycle. A new adult housefly has, at most, three months to reproduce before it dies. With so many predators, a housefly's average lifespan is even shorter: 21 days. Luckily for the housefly, the phrase "breeding like flies” isn’t just a figure of speech. Each female can lay up to 900 eggs during her brief life.
METAMORPHOSIS IN INSECTS Metamorphosis in insects depends on the way they develop during their life cycle: Two types exist; 1. Incomplete metamorphosis 2. Complete metamorphosis In incomplete metamorphosis, insects develop through three stages; EGG NYMPH ADULT (IMAGO) The nymph is like the adult, except that it is smaller, has no wings and cannot reproduce. It undergoes moulting until it becomes an adult. Complete metamorphsis involves four stages of development; EGG LARVA PUPA ADULT (IMAGO) Examples of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis are butterfly, Bees, wasp, beetles, mosquitoes, ants, tsetse flies etc. Examples of insects with incomplete metamorphosis are grasshoppers, aphids, termites
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INCOMPLETE AND COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS No larva stage Larva stage which is quite different from adult is present Development of wings is external during the Development of wings is internal during the larval juvenile stage stage And only appears externally at Pupal stage. There is no Pupal (resting) stage. There is a Pupal (resting) stage. Nymph similar to the adult is present No nymph stage is present Nymphs and adults live in the same habitat Larva, pupa and adult live in different habitat and and compete for space. do not compete for space Nymphs and adults feed on the same food Larva, pupa and adults feed on different food items leading to competitions for food and items preventing competitions for food and space. space. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction Sexual Reproduction
One parent involved Two parents involved
No gametes formed Gametes/sex cells formed Meiosis not involves Meiosis involved No fertilization/fusion of gametes/No zygote formed Fertilization/fusion of gamete/zygote formed Offsprings identical/No genetic variation Offspring vary genetically Rapid/faster mode of reproduction Slower mode of reproduction More individuals are produced Fewer individuals are produced
