Modern Indian History Syllabus: (2:21 PM)

● The decline of Mughals.

● Rise of regional powers.
● Successor states.
● Rebel states.
● Autonomous states.
● Rise of Marathas.
● Why Marathas failed to rise as an All India Power.
● Rise and Rule of East India Company.
● Indian National Movement.

Mughals: 3:03 PM

● Babur 2630 (1526-1530)

● Humanyun (1530-1540)
● Akbar 5605 (1556-1605)
● Jahangir (1605-1627)
● Shah Jahan 2858 (1628-1658)
● Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
● Bahadur Shah 0712 (1707-1712)
● Jahandar Shah 1213 (1712-1713)
● Farukh Siyar (1713-1719)
● Muhammad Shah Rangeela (1719-48)
● Ahmed Shah Bahadur (1748-54)
● Alamgir II (1754-1759)
● Shah Alam II (1760-1806)
● Akbar I (1806-1837)
● Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857)

First Battle of Panipat, 1526: (3:10 PM)

● Fought between Zahiruddin Babur (2630) and Ibrahim Lodhi (Lodhi Dynasty
was the last empire of Delhi Sultanate).
● Babur (2630) was in search of a kingdom for himself.
● And this battle was a culmination of a series of conflicts between Babur and
Lodhi.
● Was the first major battle where gunpowder and field artillery were used.
● This was why Babur (2630) won despite a smaller army.
● He had small bronze cannons.
● Therefore, Babur founded the Mughal empire in India after the first Battle of
Panipat, in 1526.

Second Battle of Panipat, 1556:

 ● Fought between Akbar (who was 13 years old, the army was led by Bairam
Khan, who was also the guardian of Akbar 5605) vs. Hem Chandra
Vikramaditya/ Hemu of Rewari (the most important minister and military
commander of Suri Dynasty 1540-55).
● Babur 2630, was succeeded Humanyun 3040, who was defeated by Sher
Shah Suri, an Afghan invader, who set up the rule of the Suri Dynasty in 1540.
● In 1555, Humayun defeated Suris but soon died in the year 1556.
● And now Hemu captured power.
● Therefore, the Second Battle of Panipat, 1556, was fought under Akbar 5605,
to re-establish Mughal Empire.

Mansabdari System: (3:28 PM)

● It was the military bureaucracy system of Mughals established by Akbar 5605.

● That is, the officials had dual functions- Military function and Civil
Administrative function.
● Mansab is equal to post or office.
● Mansabdar is equal to the holder or occupant of Mansab/post.
● Two types of Mansabdars on the basis of salary:
● Naqdi Mansabdars:
● Were paid salary in cash.
● Jagirdar Mansabdars:
● Were paid in form of allocating a jagir.
● Therefore, salary came from their land revenue of Jagir.
● Jagir is a land whose land revenue/LR, goes to Jagirdar.
● Jagirdar = holder of jagir.
● Jagir was of two kinds:
● Transferable/Tankhwah Jagir
● Non-transferable/Watan Jagir.
● Tankha Jagir:
● Could be taken away from Jagirdar Mansabdar by the emperor, therefore
transferable.
● And was not held permanently by Jagirdar Mansabdar.
● Watan Jagirs were given permanently by the emperor, and could not be taken
away. Therefore, they were hereditary.
● Watan = Hereditary.
● All LR from Tankha Jagir goes to Jagirdar Mansabdar.
● 10% of LR from Watan Jagir goes to Emperor as peshkash/tribute/nazarana.
● Criterion from becoming Mansabdar is equal to Lineage/family background.
● Every Mansabdar had dual rank:
● Personal Rank= Zat, example 1000, and
● Sawar= That is the number of horsemen a Mansabdar was required to
maintain.
● Net Rank = Zat + Sawar.
 ● Emoluments of Mansabdar= His personal salary as per Zat+Allowance for
maintenance of Army as per his Sawar.
● More important Nobles were made Jagirdar Mansabdars.
● And less important were Naqdi Mansabdars.
● Watan Jagirs were given to those who were very powerful Mansabdars.
● Corrupt Mansabdars would not maintain an army as per their Sawars.
● That is, they won’t spend ideally to be spent on maintaining the army.
● Jagirdar Mansabdars should collect only the predetermined LRs and not
more.
● And for this, a system of supervision existed.
● So, he does not oppress the peasants with over-extraction of LR.
● Supervision also for verifying that Mansabdar maintained the army as per
Sawar.
● Mughal Emperor depended on Mansabdars for Army.
● Therefore, in Mansabdari System, a give and take relationship existed, that is,
a patron-client relationship between the king and the Mandabdar.
● King gave Mansab and Jagir, and in return, Mansabdar gave his loyalty and
maintained the army for the king.
● Therefore, there existed personal loyalty to the king. And if tomorrow the king
does not give desired Mansab and Jagir, then the loyalty could degrade,
leading to disloyalty towards the king.
● Land of kingdom = Jagirs + Khalisa Land (Royal Land).

Topic for the next class: Land Revenue system of Mughals, Decline of Mughals.

State: (1:12 PM)

● Diwan (Finance Minister of the Province or Suba):

● Suba: Khalisa Land
● Intermediary Zamindar (Keeps Commission).
● Primary Zamindar (pays land revenue to intermediary zamindars).
● Khudkashts: Pay Land Revenue + Abwabs to Primary Zamindars. Have
occupancy rights over land.
● Pahikashts (Landless Labourers).
● Personal lands of the zamindars = Milkiyats.
● Nankar Lands= Those lands of zamindar that have been declared revenue
free in return for zamindar providing service of revenue collection.
● Abwab = Tribute given by Ryot/actual cultivator/Khudkasht/Farmer to primary
zamindar.
● Peasants who cultivate their own lands = Farmers (therefore farmer=
middle-class peasant).

Patta System: (1:39 PM)

● Pattas were traditional documents, where LR to be paid was recorded.

 ● And zamindars should ideally not extract LR more than what was mentioned
in Pattas.
● Therefore, Patta System acted as a defense against the oppression of
ryots/peasants.
● Zamindars, apart from revenue collection also had police duties, therefore,
had their own lathiyals (armed men).
● Zamindar was a non-state actor, therefore kept commission in return for
providing his service of revenue collection.
● Khudkashts were peasants who enjoyed occupancy rights, i.e. they could not
be removed from the lands they cultivated.
● Whereas Pahikashts were landless, rightless agrarian laborers who cultivated
different lands in different seasons.
● Zamindars had watan rights/hereditary rights of revenue collection.
● Primary zamindars collected LR and submitted it to intermediary zamindars
who further submitted it to the state if it was collected from Khalisa lands, and
to the jagirdar if it was collected from jagir.
● Zamindars kept their commissions.
● Therefore, zamindars were not owners of lands from which they collected LR.
● (Permanent Settlement of 1793 made zamindar the legal land owner of lands
from which he earlier collected LR).

Ijaradari System: (1:53 PM)

● Here the right to collect revenue was auctioned to the highest bidder.
● Those who won the auction were called Ijaradars.
● They were usually men of money who were outsiders to the traditional rural
economy, i.e. merchants and money lenders.
● They would collect LR, but also may collect taxes on shopkeepers and
merchants, over and above, the investment they made for winning the
auction.
● He may pay revenue to jagirdar/state and later collect it from the area.
● If he fails to submit the agreed amount to jagirdar/state, then the right to
collect revenue could be reauctioned.
● Ijardari system was first introduced by Shah Jahan 2858 (1628-58).
● Pulse it grew during Aurangzeb 5807, plus spread rapidly during the 18th
Century.
● It was introduced in Punjab and Bengal by Jahandar Shah.
● And later it was introduced in Awadh and Hyderabad.
● Farukhsiyar 1319 introduced it even in Khalisa lands.
● Under the British, it was introduced in the form Farming System 1772 in
Bengal, where the right to collect land revenue. Auctioned to the highest
bidder to the revenue farmer.
● Revenue Farmer = Ijaradar (not a farmer).
 ● Revenue Farmer collected LR under the supervision of European DC (District
Collector).
● Ijaradari System was introduced when Zamindars failed to collect the
expected LR, e.g. due to a bad harvest, or when jagirdar wanted to maximize
LR collection.

Reasons for the decline of Mughals: (2:17 PM).

● Rule of Aurangzeb 5807:

● Continuous warfare:
● Mughal Empire reached its territorial peak during the rule of Aurangzeb.
● However, seeds of decline were also sown during his reign.
● Aurangzeb engaged in continuous warfare for roughly 40 years, which led to a
drain of resources for Mughal Empire due to the high costs of war.
● These wars also hurt the overland trade due to a decline in production and
law and order instability.
● These wars also increased the economic burden on Mansabdars, who were
required to maintain an army for the emperor.
● Therefore, wars contributed to economic decline.
● Aurangzeb wanted to capture the whole of Deccan, he annexed Bijapur in
1685, and Golconda in 1687 (The two autonomous Muslim kingdoms).
● However, he failed to defeat Marathas conclusively.
● And by 1705, Marathas began winning.
● After his death, they reversed most territorial gains of Aurangzeb in the first
half of the 18th Century.
● Hence in the end these wars proved to be futile.
● Therefore, Marathas became the main reason for the Military and Territorial
decline of the Mughals.
● Religiously divisive policies of Aurangzeb 5807:
● They alienated the masses.
● For example, the application of Jijya, i.e. an additional tax on non-Muslims.
● Not repairing temples.
● And reducing the allocation of lands to temples.
● Aurangzeb executed important leaders which contributed to alienation among
the masses.
● For example, Ninth Guru Teg Bahadur of Sikhs was executed in 1675.
● Sambhaji, the elder son of Shivaji 7480 (1674-1680), was executed after 3
weeks of torture in 1689.
● Both had also refused conversion to Islam.
● He also demolished some important temples of Hindus, which hurt the
feelings of the masses.

Institutional failures/Governance Failures:

 ● Impersonal loyalty could not develop in the Mansabdari System, which was
the core of the Mughal System.
● Therefore, what existed was personal loyalty to the king.
● That is a patron-client relationship. With the emperor as patron and
Mansabdars as clients.
● Post Aurangzeb 5807, there were weak Mughal Emperors, who failed to
maintain the balance of power and keep Mandabdars under control.
● And if the king was unable to satisfy Mansabdars with desired Mansabs and
Jagirs, disloyalty among Mansabdars took root.

Military Weakness: 3:29 PM

● Poor Military due to lack of technological and organizational reforms.

● Weak war commanders especially of the Aurangzeb 5807.
● Military corruption, for example, non-maintenance as per Sawar due to
disaffection and jagirdari crisis of 18th Century.

Factionalism/Group Politics:

● Post-Aurangzeb, there were continuous succession disputes and factionalism

increased.
● This also led to competition between different groups of Mansabdars: Irani,
Turani, and Hindustani groups as they now wanted their favorite as the next
emperor, and wanted influence over the existing emperor, so they could
extract better Mansabs and Jagirs.
● Irani Group: From Persia, Sia Muslims.
● Turani: Turks, Uzbekistan regions, i.e. shared lineage with Mughals.
● Hindustani: Of indigenous converts to Islam.
● Rajputs, Jats: Indian Hindus.
● The contenders to the throne also wanted the support of Mansabdars which
contributed to factionalism in the Mughal Court.
● The able Mansabdars acted selfishly and instead of strengthening the central
authority, focused on carving out their own principalities (i.e. own center of
power or own successor state).

Jagirdari Crisis of 18th Century: (3:56 PM)

● It implied a shortage of Jagirs vis-a-vis the number of Mansabdars.

● Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur in 1685 and Golconda in 1687.
● The nobles of these kingdoms were made of Mansabdars, and this came to
be known as the Deccani Group.
● However, he converted most lands of Golconda and Bijapur into Khalisa
Lands, as he wanted to fund his future warfare against Marathas.
● Therefore, the number of Mansabdars increased, but the land under Jagirdari
did not.
 ● Emperors post-Aurangzeb 5807, appointed more and more Mansabdars for
political reasons.
● That is to win the support of different groups of Mansabdars, either to come to
power or to stay in power.
● Therefore, further increasing the number of Mansabdars.
● There was also inequity among Mansabdars as 5% of Mansabdars controlled
61% of Jagirdari lands.
● Therefore, there was insecurity among smaller Mansabdars.
● In the 18th Century, there was inflation in luxurious goods due to high exports
from India by European companies.
● And now smaller Mansabdars found it hard to maintain a lifestyle adding to
insecurity;

Impact of Jagirdari Crisis, 18th Century:

● Many Mansabdars stayed Jagir less for years.

● Insecurity among Mansabdars due to the frequent transfer of Jagirs to other
Mansabdars, i.e. insecurity of tenure of holding jagir.
● Therefore now, there was increased oppression of peasants and primary
zamindars as Mansabdar Jagirdars wanted to extract as much LR as possible
from jagir.
● There was now a greater spread of the Ijardari system, as Mansabdars tried
maximizing their earnings from jagir.
● Due to insecurity of tenure, there was no incentive to invest in the productivity
of jagir/land, and hence agrarian productivity came down.
● Therefore, the income of peasants decreased.
● Peasant Revolts of the 18th Century were therefore the product of the
Jagirdari crisis.
● They were led by Zamindars, for example, the Jat kingdom, set up by
Churaman Jat, a Zamindar, was a product of peasant revolt.
● Therefore, Jagirdari crisis hurt the political stability of the empire.
● Group politics increased as Mansabdars competed fiercely for jagirs, and
therefore competed for influence over the emperor.
● Jagirdari crisis led to military corruption by Mansabdars.
● Therefore, contributing to the military weakness.
● Mughal state was a military state, and when the military weakened, the state
weakened.

Topic for the next class: Explanation of Jagirdari Crisis, Proof of Decline of
Mughals.

Proof of decline of Mughals: (1:08 PM)

 ● Jahandar Shah 1213 came to power after executing the father of Farukhsiyar
1319, who came to power by defeating Jahandar Shah 1213 with the help of
the Sayyid Brothers of the Hindustani Group.
● But then Farukhsiyar 1319 wanted to free himself of control of the Sayyid
Brothers.
● Therefore wanted to get rid of them.
● Sayyid Brothers allied with Marathas to defeat and execute Farukhsiyar 1319
and placed Muhammad Shah 1948 in power as a puppet.
● Nizam-ul-Mulk 244048, became governor of Hyderabad in 1724. And in
1740, left Delhi to stay in Hyderabad permanently, 1748: Died.
● Nizam 244048 of Turani Group allied with Irani Group to defeat Sayyid
Brothers and restore the status of Muhammad Shah 1948, from 1722-24, he
served as Wazir.
● And in 1724, defeated Mubaris Khan the Mughal Governor of Hyderabad to
become governor himself.
● Therefore succession disputes and factionalism increased the power of
Mansabdars, and also weakened the stability of Central authority.
● Emperors after Aurangzeb 5807 are called Later Mughals.
● They were weak rulers with weak personalities.
● And not interested in administration.
● For example, Muhammad Shah came to be known as Rangeela.
● As he spent most of his time in leisure detached from political and
administrative concerns.
● Beginning in 1705, Marathas began defeating Mughals.
● In 1719 they were successful in placing Muhammad Shah 1948 as puppet
emperor.
● And extracted some gains.
● In 1737, Peshwa Bajirao 2040 plundered Delhi and kept Muhammad Shah
1948 captive temporarily.
● Then in 1738, Marathas defeated a large Mughal Army led by Nizam 244048.
● And signed the Treaty of Bhopal 1739 (January) where they extracted Subha
of Malwa+ Sovereignty over all territory between River Chambal and
Narmada.

Invasion by Nadir Shah: (1738-40): 1:35 PM

● Captured Delhi in 1739.

● Reasons for invasion:
● In Afghanistan, Nadir Shah’s opponents were given protection by Mughals in
Mughal-controlled areas of Afghanistan.
● His messenger was held captive in Delhi.
● Nadir Shah wanted to plunder Indian wealth.

Why did Nadir Shah win? 1:39 PM

 ● Mughals were militarily weak. And Nadir Shah’s invasion came soon after the
Mughal defeat by Marathas.
● Sadat Ali Khan 2240 (Nawab of Awad 1722-1740) switched sides to fight
along Nadir Shah, when he was not made Mir Bakshi (War
paymaster/commander) and being important Mansab was given to Nizam
244048.
● Therefore factionalism played a role.
● The better military leadership of Nadir Shah.

Impact of Mughal Defeat: (1:45 PM)

● Decisive was the Battle of Karnal in 1739, after which Muhammad Shah 1948
was taken prisoner, and Nadir Shah became emperor for 2 months.
● Sadat Ali Khan 2240 committed suicide when he was insulted post-victory by
Nadir Shah.
● Huge loss of prestige from Mughals.
● Muhammad Shah 1948 was insulted and did not stand up for his dignity.
● Therefore, lost respect among Mansabdars.
● Nadir Shah massacred 2 lakh civilians of Delhi.
● Therefore people realized that the Mughals can not protect them.
● And therefore there was a loss of prestige among the people.
● It was a huge military defeat, therefore Mughals lost military prestige.
● Huge economic loss and thereafter Mughals could not maintain a strong army.
● Nadir Shah took away Peacock Throne in which Kohinoor was embedded.
● A huge loot of horses, elephants, and artisans. Wealth worth Rs. 100 Crore.
● Therefore Mansabdar was also drained of wealth as they had to contribute to
the loot.
● It was not a coincidence that Nizam 244048 left Delhi permanently for
Hyderabad in 1740.

More proofs of the decline of Mughals: 2:02 PM

● The first Afghan invasion of 1748 failed (Sikh).

● However, the fear of future invasions remained.
● Therefore in 1752, Mughals came under Maratha's protection.
● Marathas by this time were the top power in India.
● 2nd Afghan invasion 1756-61 led to the Third Battle of Panipat 1761.
● The 3rd Afghan invasion of 1799 by Zaman Shah failed. Maharaja Ranjeet
Singh 0139.
● Alamgir II (5459), was a puppet of Marathas, who had interfered in
succession.
● Therefore by mid 18th Century, significant decline, and the Mughal emperor
was limited to a small area around Delhi and Agra.
● And there existed strong regional powers like the Successor states of
Bengal, Hyderabad, and Awad, the Rebel states, Marathas, Jats, Afghan
 kingdoms of Farukkabad, and Rohilkhand, and already autonomous Rajputs,
Mysore, and Travancore.
● Questions:
● Mughal Empire was a figment of imagination by mid 18th century.
Elaborate (10 marks/150 words).
● By mid 18th Century, clarify how India was beset with spectre of a
fragmented polity. (10 marks/150 words).

Successor States: (2:25 PM)

● Murshid Quli Khan (1717-27) Nawab of Bengal Subah.

● Governor = Nazim = Nawab = Subahdar
● Subah = Province. For example, Bengal Subah = Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar.
● Sadat Ali Khan (2240) Nawab of Awadh, 1722-40.
● Chin-Quli Khan, 1724-48, Nazim of Hyderabad.
● Within Mughal Empire, certain powerful nobles, as autonomous power centers
by carving out successor states within Mughal Empire.
● That is, they ruled autonomously, but never formally broke ties with Mughal
Empire.
● This was because of personal ambitions in daily politics. That is a desire for
greater influence outside their principalities by holding important positions like
Wazir, Mir Bakshi, etc.
● Wanted legitimacy of the Mughal empire. As in the hearts and minds of
people, the Mughal emperor had a brand value.
● For better trade with the rest of the Mughal empire.
● Potential for military help from the rest of the Mughal empire.
● These nobles after getting appointed as governors consolidated power by
ending the system of checks and balances.
● Therefore results in a concentration of power.
● For example, they ensured that their relatives and loyalists are appointed to
important positions like Diwan, Deputy Subahdar, War Commander, etc.
● They gathered support from economically powerful sections like intermediary
zamindars, ijardars/revenue farmers, moneylenders, bankers, merchants, and
noble mansabdars.
● By the following:
● By not harassing them. Not applying arbitrary taxes.
● By providing law and order stability, which was good for trade.
● Also by providing security of property.
● Distributing Mansabs to men of money, was a new feature as traditionally men
of money were not Mansabdars.
● But they were from Aristocracy.
● For example,
● In Bengal, intermediary zamindars, merchants, and bankers became more
powerful.
 ● By 1727 (MQK 1727), 15 intermediary zamindars controlled 50% of Land
Revenue.
● There was a rise in power in the House of Jagat Seth, who was described as
the richest banker in the world.
● In Hyderabad, Nizam 244048, appointed many men of money as
Mansabdars.
● And converted many Tankha jagirs into Watan jagirs.
● And this altered the core features of the Mansabdari System.
● They established strong and effective revenue administration to increase their
financial strength.
● For example, even before becoming Nawab of Bengal, MQK 1727, was
known for his efficient revenue administration as Diwan.
● After ending the system of Checks and Balances they began ruling
autonomously.
● Distributed Mansabs and Jagirs without permission of the Mughal emperor.
● Exercised autonomy in important matters like war and peace, signing treaties
with neighbors, and domestic policies.
● Gradually reduced financial reporting of revenue collected, to Delhi. (i.e.
Books of accounts were not sent to Delhi).
● Did not send revenue regularly to Delhi, and later reduced the amount of
revenue sent. Ultimately they stopped sending revenue. For example, MQK
1727, sent revenue regularly to Delhi and was the only successor state to do
so.
● But Aliwradi Khan 4056 stopped sending money to Delhi. And there was a
virtual break with Mughal Empire.
● Finally, these nobles established their dynastic rule, and hence Mughal
emperor lost power to appoint Subahdars for successor states (Legally he
had power but not in practice).
● Refer to Handout on the Successor States.
● Symbolically, successor states accepted Mughal authority, for example, the
emperor’s name continued to be taken in Friday prayers/Qutba, and Coins
were minted in his name.

Rebel States: (3:41 PM)

Rise of Marathas:

● The Maratha Kingdom was founded by Shivaji 7480 (1674-80), in 1674, he

declared himself Chattrapati.
● In the second half of the 17th Cengttruy by fought against the kingdom of
Bijapur and Aurangzeb 5807.
● In 1674, coronation of Shivaji as Chattrapati, therefore he declared himself
an independent king, i.e. not under the Mughal empire.

Periods in Maratha Polity: (3:48 PM)

 ● 1680-1719, a period of turmoil, after the death of Shivaji 7480.
● 1719-61: Period of Stability and Growth.
● 1761+: Period of Decline with the temporary revival in the 1770s.
● Tarabai started ruling in the name of infant son Shivaji 2.
● Sambhaji’s son was Shahu.
● Shahu was released from prison in 1707 after Aurangzeb 5807.
● Rajaram died in 1699.
● Shahu 1949 was released from prison in 1707 after Aurangzeb died.
● Bahadur Shah 0712 released Shahu 1949 as:
● Followed less aggressive policies than Aurangzeb.
● Benefit of potential internal turmoil among Marathas.

Why Shahu won the Civil war? 3:58 PM

● Context:
● 1680 onwards, there was turmoil due to the death of Shivaji and continuous
warfare by Aurangzeb 5807, and the Civil war after the release of Shahu
1949 in 1707.
● During the civil war, Deshmukh and Maratha Sardars frequently shifted sides
between Tarabai, Shahu, and Mughals.
● The important role of 6th Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath 1320, (1713-20), who
was a very able leader and helped Shahu 1949, gather the support of
powerful sections.
● Support of strong Brahmin banking families.
● Support of new independent Maratha Sardars.
● Therefore by 1719 stability was achieved and now a period of growth.
● Raghunath Rao 7374 was overthrown by Nana Fadnis.
● Baji Rao II 9618 was the last Peshwa.
● Vishwas Rao died in the 3rd Battle of Panipat in 1761.
● Madav Rao II committed suicide due to overcontrol of Fadnis.

Topic for the next class: Military Rise of Marathas

Maratha Empire: (1:03 PM)

● Marathas allied with Sayyid Brothers to remove Farukhsiyaar and place

Muhammad Shah as a puppet ruler.
● And in return they got:
● Independent status in Maharashtra (Swarajya)
● Chauth of Malwa and Gujarat.
● Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of 6 Mughal Provinces in Deccan (KHABBB=
Khandesh, Hyderabad, Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur).
● Chauth = ¼ of Revenue
● Sardeshmukhi = 1/10th of Revenue.
● Nizam 244048 got rid of Sayyid Brothers and restored the status of
Muhammad Shah in 1948, in 1720, and then became governor of Hyderabad
in 1724.
● Bajirao extracted the right to 60% of revenue from its Mughal governor.
● 1728: Bajirao 2024 defeated Hyderabad and extracted/regained Chauth and
Sareshmukhi of Deccan.
● Marathas defeated joint attacked
● 1729: Marathas captured Malwa and therefore reached Rajasthan.
● 1736: Defeated Portugues and Ethiopian Muslims on the Konkan coast
(signifies Naval strength).
● In 1737: Bajirao 2040 plundered Delhi and kept Muhammad Shah in 1948
captive.
● 1738: Marathas defeated a large Mughal army led by Nizam 244048 and
signed the Treaty of Bhopal in January 1739 where they got:
● Sovereignty over Suba of Malwa (Captured in 1729, but Sovereign powers in
1739).
● Sovereignty over all territory between river Chambal and Narmada.
● 1745-51: Raghuji Bhosle of Nagpur regularly attacked Bengal Suba and
forced Aliwardi Khan 4056.
● To give Chauth of Bengal and Bihar.
● Control of Odisha (Bengal Subah = BOB, Bengal, Odisha, Bihar).
● Chauth was paid until 1757, Battle of Plassey.
● East India Company (British) took Odisha during the 2nd Anglo-Maratha
War, 1803-05.
● 1751: Marathas attacked Nizam’s territories on the Konkan coast and forced
Salabat Jung (1751-62) to surrender Khandesh via the Treaty of Bhalke.
● 1751 onwards Marathas regularly raided Rajasthan.
● They extracted annual tributes (Chauth, Sardeshmukhi, etc.), interfered in
succession, but could not conquer permanently.
● 1752: Mughals came under the military protection of Marathas due to fear of
Afghan invasions
● Alamgir II, 5459 was made emperor by Marathas after interfering in
succession.
● 1765: Marathas defeated Mysore and extracted tribute.
● .1766: Hyderabad gave Nothern Carcars to EIC in return for Military
protection (that is against Marathas and Mysore).
● 1795: The Battle of Kharda was the last battle between Marathas and
Hyderabad, and here they won.
● EIC did not come to the aid of Hyderabad as after the Treaty of Salbai, 1782,
Marathas and EIC were in the military alliance.
● Therefore British stayed neutral.
● 1798: Hyderabad signed Subsidiary Alliance/Subordinate Alliance with EIC.
● Therefore now Hyderabad had effective military protection of EIC.
The decline of Marathas: (1:36 PM)

● Third Battle of Panipat 1761.

● Second Anglo Maratha War 1803-05
● Third Anglo Maratha War 1817-19
● (Covered Later).
● Therefore by the mid-18th Marathas emerged as the top Indian power.
● But it was the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, that halted their rise, and
thereafter their decline began.

Third Battle of Panipat: (1:40 PM)

● Fought between Ahmad Shah Abdali/Durrani. (Founder of Modern

Afghanistan), of Durrani empire, the trusted commander of Nadir Shah
declared himself king of Afghanistan after the death of Nadir Shah in 1747.
● (First Afghan invasion: 1748 was defeated by Sikhs.
● Second Afghan invasion: 1756-61 culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat
1761.) +
● Rohillas (Najid-ud-Dula of Rohilkhand) +
● Bangash Pathans of Farukkhabad. +
● Shuja-ud-Daula 5474, Nawab of Awad
● Vs.
● Marathas (led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau). +
● Initially, Jat king Suraj Mal 5663 supported later withdrew support. +
● Mughal Emperor (puppet).

Reasons: (1:51 PM)

● The conflict between two rising powers. That is Marathas in India and Abdali
in Afghanistan.
● 1756: Second Afghan Invasion began, and they raided North India (Punjab,
Delhi, etc.) +
● Abdali appointed his son Timur Shah as governor of Punjab and Kashmir
(Lahore).
● In 1756: Nana Sahib, 1061, sent brother Raghunath Rao 7374 who fought
and defeated and removed Timur Shah from Lahore.
● This was the peak of the Maratha empire.
● And now Nana Sahib 4061 thought of making son Vishwas Rao, emperor of
India.
● Those Mughals who were anti-Marathas requested the help of Abdali.
● Attacks by Abdali culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.

Why did Abdali win? 2:11 PM

● Stronger alliance of Abdali:

 ● Awadh supported Abdali as it wanted the weakening of Marathas who were its
rivals.
● And hence declined to support Marathas.
● Rohillas and Bangash Pathans were Afghans and expected greater
influence in North India if Abdali won.
● Sikhs, Rajputs, and Jat stayed neutral due to constant plundering in the past
by Marathas.
● Therefore, Marathas failed to convince them.
● A higher number of soldiers (60,000 vs. 50,000)
● Disunity between Maratha sardars.
● Bhonsale of Nagpur did not fight as he was against Nana Sahib (earlier did
not want him to be Peshwa).
● The better military leadership of Abdali and also Najib-ud-Daula
(Rohilkhand).
● Abdali’s forces had better artillery that could pierce Maratha's armor.
● Abdali’s forces were successful in cutting off supply routes of Marathas in
Panipat.
● That is between Delhi and Panipat.
● Therefore famine-like conditions existed in Maratha camps, i.e. no food for
men and no fodders for horses.
● While Afghan supply routes stayed functional.
● Maratha’s signature Guerrilla tactics of surprise attack were of low utility in
the context of the vast plain fields of Panipat.

Impact of 3rd Battle of Panipat: (2:27 PM)

● Marathas lost important leaders, e.g. Sadashiv Rao Bhau, and Vishwas Rao
during battle, and Peshwa Nana Sahib 4061 died within weeks of the 3rd
Battle of Panipat.
● Factionalism weakened the Maratha empire.
● Marathas got militarily weakened as they lost important leaders and 50,000
men.
● Abdali returned to Afghanistan with loot as there was a revolt in his army,
where some anti-Abdali military generals tried to capture power.
● Therefore the Third Battle of Panipat decided who will not rule India instead
of deciding who will rule India.
● There was also a significant loss on side of Abdali, and therefore a vacuum
was there at the center, filled later by the British after defeating regional Indian
powers.

Delhi: 3:00 PM

● Delhi was under the domination of Marathas from 1752-61.

● Then it was under Rohilla Afghans (1761-1771).
 ● 1771: Capture of Delhi by Mahadji Scindhia by defeating Rohillas (Najib
Khan)
● And he put Shah Alam II 6006 again on the throne of Delhi in Red Fort.
● 1803: Battle of Delhi as part of 2nd Anglo-Maratha War, here British captured
Delhi.
● However, sovereignty continued with the Mughal emperor until the
Government of India Act 1858, when Queen Victoria became Empress of
India.
● The capital of British India shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911 after
Swadeshi Movement 1905-11.

Why were so many empire-shaking battles were fought in Panipat? (3:18 PM)

● Battles were not fought for the city of Panipat, but because this region was
the gateway to Delhi.
● Anyone who wanted to capture Delhi from the West had to pass through
Khyber Pass in Afghanistan and then enter Punjab.
● For the ruler in Delhi, strategically it was best to stop the enemy at the gates.
● That is, in this region Panipat, Karnal, Kurukshetra, and Thanesar.
● This region had vast fields suitable for large armies.
● This region had many warrior classes, making military recruitment easy for
fighting wars.
● This region was agriculturally productive and close to Delhi, therefore, easy to
have supplies for the fighting army men.
● This region had amenable weather for long battles.
● Mahmud of Ghazni fought in Thanesar in 1014, and his empire extended
from Iran to Pakistan by 1030.
● Ghori fought Prithviraj Chauhan in Thanesar in
● The First Battle of Panipat in 1526 led to the establishment of the Mughal
Empire which replaced the Delhi Sultanate.
● 2nd Battle of Panipat 1556 re-established Mughal Empire.
● Battle of Karnal 1739 where Nadir Shah defeated the Mughals, and it was an
important point in the decline of the Mughal Empire.
● The Third Battle of Panipat prevented Marathas from establishing an
all-India empire.
● Maratha Empire was divided into Swarajya and Samrajya.
● Swarajya: it was the Maratha kingdom set up by Chattrapati Shivaji 7480,
with its capital at Satara, and after Shahu 1949, Peshwa became the effective
ruler (as Shahu 1949, delegated too much to Peshwa).
● Peshwa had his capital at Poona.
● Smarajya: It was territory outside Maharashtra.
● Parts of Samrajya were under the effective rule of Maratha Sardars. That is,
they controlled Samrajya but did not set up an effective rule in the whole of
Samarajya.
 ● Peshwa had a council of 12 ministers.
● Swarajya was divided into Sarkars, i.e. provinces.
● And the office of governor was auctioned.
● There existed a system of Checks and balances on the governor, as revenue
officers/collectors/Deshmukhs had dual reporting to the governor and the
Peshwa.
● Therefore enabling Peshwa to verify accounts submitted by governors.
● Patil/Village heads and Deshmukhs/Revenue collectors had Watan rights.
● Patils were responsible for revenue, executive, police, and judicial functions at
the village level.
● Therefore there was a concentration of power in the village head.

Sources of revenue: (3:54 PM)

● Land Revenue.
● Taxes on trade.
● License Fee, (example, from drug manufacturers).
● Judicial proceeds in form of Nazrana and Jurmana from the winning and
losing parties respectively.
● Further to increase revenue and peasant welfare, dams and canals were built.
● And loans were given at cheap interest rates.
● Also, there was effective supervision of revenue collectors so they don’t
oppress peasants.
● Judicial administration:
● A clear hierarchy existed from village panchayats up to the Peshwa.
● And final decision was of Peshwa.
● However, as far as possible, he respected the decisions of panchayats.
● Ancient religious texts acted as law.
● For example, Dharmashastras.
● There was a Rule of Law as even the highest of authorities and men of money
were punished.
● Policing was as effective as London police, with a very good network of
information collection.
● Maratha’s Military: Major force was the horse-mounted army with a focus on
light cavalry.
● The Navy was modernized with the help of the French.
● In 1736, Marathas defeated Portugues and Ethiopian Muslims in the
Konkan coast.
● They developed a highly effective strategy of surprising the enemy, i.e. shock
and awe with their Guerrilla warfare tactics.
● From Samrajya, Maratha Sardars sent money to central governments,
therefore, helping to reduce the burden of taxation on the people of Swarajya.
● Also, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from outside Maharastra helped in
reducing the tax burden.
 ● As the protected state got economically weakened and failed to pay Chauth,
it was annexed into Samrajya.

The topic for the next class: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, Why Marathas could not
establish All-India Empire?

Sardeshmukhi: 1:03 PM

● In Mughal times it formed the emoluments of Deshmukhs in return for their

service of revenue collection.
● Chattrapati Shivaji 7480 declared himself as Sardeshmukh. I.e., head of
Deshmukh.
● Therefore, Deshmukhs paid Saerdeshmukhi as a symbol of accepting and
recognizing the authority of Chattrapati.
● Sardeshmukhi could be collected from within and outside the Maratha empire.
● Sardeshmukhi= 1/10th of revenue.
● Chauth= ¼ th of Revenue.

Chauth: 1:07 PM

● It was a tool of external policy and helped Marathas expand their empire.
● It was levied on a defeated kingdom in return for Maratha's protection from
future Maratha attacks.
● As the protected kingdom got weakened and could not pay Chauth, therefore
lost protection, and now it was conquered by Marathas.
● Therefore, Chauth helped in the Empire building.

Why Marathas could not establish an all-India empire? (1:17 PM)

● The rise of Peshwa at expense of Chattrapati increased the chances of

factionalism in Maratha polity as strong Maratha Sardars asserted their
autonomy more against the Peshwa.
● The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 weakened the central authority of
Peshwa, as Marathas lost important leaders, and now young and
inexperienced Peshwas came to power.
● Therefore, increasing
● Marathas also got militarily weakened by the 3rd BoP, 1761.
● Raghunath Rao 7374 got Peshwa Narayan Rao 7273 murdered in a
conspiracy. And then was removed by Nana Fadnis in Baar Bhai Conspiracy,
and now RR 7374 sought the help of the British leading to the First
Anglo-Maratha War 1775-82.
● Now, Nana Fadnis became an effective ruler as Madhav Rao II, 7595 was an
infant.
● Therefore, effective power shifted further down from Peshwa to a minister of
Peshwa.
 ● Factionalism further increased when Madhav Rao II, 7595 committed suicide
due to overcontrolling Nana Fadni
● Also, Bajirao II 9618 wanted to get rid of Nana Fadnis.
● Therefore, factionalism further grew.
● In 1800, Nana Fadnis died, therefore Marathas lost the man who could have
kept the Maratha Sardars
● In 1802-03, Holkar of Indore defeated Scindhia and Peshwa Bajirao II, 9618.
● And now, Bajirao II signed a subsidiary alliance with the British surrendering
control of foreign policy and military and triggering Second Anglo-Maratha
War 1803-05, which proved devastating for Marathas.
● The factionalism, therefore, created an opportunity for the British to interfere
in the Maratha polity.
● Power could not be properly centralized:
● Maratha Sardars always stayed autonomous within the Maratha empire.
● Within Swarajya also, power was not properly centralized.
● As local assemblies of watan-right holders (Deshmukhs, Patils, etc.) exerted
influence and pressure on the central authority.
● Therefore, Maratha empire was a confederacy where power was shared
between Peshwa and Maratha Sardars.
● And proper centralized rule did not exist.
● Even in Samrajya, not all areas were brought under effective rule by Maratha
Sardars.
● Therefore, no proper effective rule outside Maharashtra.
● Their main focus was limited to extracting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi and
extracting revenue.
● Hence, Marathas establishing a rule over the whole of India was a distant
milestone, especially after the Third Battle of Panipat, 1761.

Sikh State: (2:31 PM)

● Gurunanak Devji established Sikh Panth in the 16th century, and he was a
contemporary of Babur 2630.
● Mughals began having problems with the Sikh community when their size
grew and they demanded political autonomy.
● For example, 9th Guru Teg Bahur was executed in 1675 by Aurangzeb.
● The Sikhs wanted to establish their own state in and around Anantpur in
Shiwalik Foothills which was under Shiwalik Hill Chiefs (allies of Mughals).
● 10th Guru Gobind Singh set up a brotherhood of Khalsa in 1699 as a
military organization to defend the Sikh Panth and to achieve the goal of a
Sikh State.
● The Sikh community was dominated by Khatris and Jats.
● Khatris were traders and also Sikh gurus came from this community.
● While Jats were peasants who had a military culture.
 ● Therefore, they dominated the Khalsa army, whose influence increased
gradually.
● Therefore, Guru Gobind Singh decided that there won’t be an 11th Guru.
● So as to bring parity between the two communities, and now authority was to
lay in Guru Granth Sahib.
● In 1707, after the death of Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah 0712, agreed to give
Anantpur to Sikhs.
● But then, he allied with Shiwalik Hill Chiefs and Guru Gobind Singh was
murdered in a conspiracy in 1708.
● Now Banda Bahadur 0815 continued Sikh rebellion and he was able to set
up his rule in the area around Patiala (between rivers Ravi and Jamuna).

Why did Banda Bahadur 0815 got defeated? 2:45 PM

● Khatri traders were turning against him.

● As their trade was getting hurt due to law-and-order instability, due to wars.
● Some Hindu Jat zamindars like Churaman Jat switched sides and allied with
the Mughals.
● Therefore, weakening Banda Bahadur 0815.
● Jahandar Shah 1213 and Farukhsiyar 1319 adopted a policy of divide and
rule.
● Jahandar Shah introduced the ijaradari system in Punjab.
● And this attracted Khatri Traders, as ijaradari was financially lucrative.
● They also offered Mansabs to Khatri traders, who now switched sides and
allied with the Mughals.
● In 1715, Banda Bahadur surrendered and was executed in Delhi in 1716.

Rule of Misls: (2:57 PM)

● After 1715 the Sikh State did not come to an end.

● As the Mughal empire was weak. (No conclusive follow-up action).
● Instead, now, power got decentralized among Misls.
● And a horizontal structure of polity came to exist.
● Misls were kinship-based clans headed by Misl chiefs.
● In 1770, 60 Misls in Punjab.
● Also, there was a Dal Khalsa at the head, with representatives from Misls and
a chosen leader.
● Misls got united at the time of war.
● And if they captured any territory, then members of the Misl were rewarded
with land as per their contribution to victory.
● For example, during Afghan invasions, Misls united.
● After defeating Zaman Shah (3rd Afghan invasion 1799), there was a rise of
Maharaja Ranjeet Singh 0139 of Suker Chakia Misl.
● He established domination over other Misls and established himself as ruler of
the Sikh State in 1801.
 ● In 1801 he conquered Lahore, and in 1809 conquered 5 Doabs, i.e., Punjab,
later conquered Multan and Kashmir by removing Afghans.
● Even EIC/British recognized him as a sovereign ruler of Punjab under the
treaty of Amritsar 1809, where there was also a military alliance between the
two.

Features of Rule of Ranjeet Singh 0139:

● Trade got boosted and there was law and order stability.
● Financially powerful state as 60% of the land was royal land.
● RS 0139 maintained the balance of power in the court effectively, between
Khalsa army commanders, Misls’ chiefs, Khatri traders, and Dogras of
Jammu.
● He had an inclusive attitude, for example, he was culturally magnanimous.
● And followed religious tolerance towards Sahajdhari Sikhs.
● The autonomy of villages was respected.
● (*Peshaw respected autonomy of villages + RS 0139 also did + In Mahalwari
Settlement 1822 British respected village autonomy + MG desired village
republics, therefore I now have an idea that village autonomy is a traditional
part of Indian culture which is why the Constitution of India has:
● Fifth Schedule that gives Tribal Advisory Council.
● Sixth Schedule that gives Autonomous Districts.).
● 73rd Constitutional Amendment,
● PESA Act 1996, for Fifth Schedule.)

Jat Kingdom of Bharatpur: (3:33 PM)

● 1695-1763.
● Jats were anti-Mughal since the time of Jahangir.
● And they set up the Jat Kingdom of Bharatpur under Churaman Jat
(1695-1721).
● This was done with the help of revolt by peasants against the oppression on
account of the over-extraction of LR by Mughals, especially in the context of
the Jagirdari crisis of the 18th Century.

Maharaja Surajmal (1756-63):

● He consolidated power and forced the Mughals to recognize him.

● He supported Marathas temporarily in the 3rd Battle of Panipat, 1761.
● He tried to implement reforms in the military by recruiting Europeans.
● Tried implementing the Mughal revenue system.
● Tried removing family members from the court (nepotism).
● However, his death led to the decline of the Jat Kingdom, which at one time
extended from Delhi in the North to Agra in the west to Chambal in the South
and Ganga in the east.
 ● However, the Jat kingdom was not a peasant utopia as LR demand was
greater than that during Mughal times.

Afghan Kingdoms in the North: (3:44 PM)

● Afghans were wandering warlords in North India.

● They migrated from Afghanistan to India due to political instability.
● But were unorganized politically until the arrival of Sher Shah Suri in 1540.
(Suri Dynasty 1540-55) after defeating Humayun
● But again got disorganized post 2nd BoP 1556 (Mughal Empire
re-established under Akbar 5605).
● The opportunity came with the weakening of the Mughals post-Aurangzeb
5807.
● Farukkabad was set up as a kingdom east of Delhi by Bangash Pathans in
1713 making use of weakened Mughal authority.
● (Jahandar Shah 1213 killed Farukhsiyar’s Father 1319, then himself killed by
Farukhsiyar)
● They named this kingdom after Farukhsiyar 1319 as a gesture of excepting
the symbolic authority of the Mughals.
● The next opportunity came during the invasion by Nadir Shah 1738-40.
● (Also 1738, Maratha victory over the Mughals, therefore Mughals were weak).
● Therefore, the kingdom of Rohillkhand was set up by Ali Muhammad Khan
in the Himalayan Foothills in 1738.
● Farukkhabad was a weak kingdom and neighbors attacked it frequently.
● Both supported Abdali in the 3rd Battle of Panipat in 1761.
● But after Abdali left, their power decreased.

Already Autonomous States (4:00 PM)

Rajputs:

● These were warrior groups who participated in the Military labor markets of
North India.
● Around the 16th and 17th Centuries, Rajputs emerged as a consolidated
group of 20 major clans (like Misls).
● Therefore, there existed a horizontal structure in the polity.
● And local Rajput chiefs of each clan ruled their respective territories.
● During the rule of Akbar 5605, the powerful Rajput chiefs were co-opted.
● Akbar recognized the authority of Rajput Chiefs who were extra powerful.
Therefore, giving them legitimacy over and above smaller Rajput chiefs.
● With the military help of the Mughals, bigger Rajput chiefs consolidated power
by defeating smaller Rajput chiefs.
● They maintained the military for the Mughal emperor as they were recognized
as Mansabdars and their lands as Watan Jagirs.
● They now played important role in Delhi politics.
 ● And recognized Mughals as emperors.
● Therefore, unable to defeat the Rajputs, the Mughals co-opted them and
increased the military strength of the Mughal empire.
● Also, the horizontal structure was replaced by a more vertical structure in the
Rajput polity.

Topic for the next class: Tensions between Rajputs and Aurangzeb, Mysore, and
Travancore.

Tensions in the relationship during Aurangzeb 5807: (1:17 PM)

● Not because of religion-based rivalry.

● Tensions were because of expansion by Mewar under Raj Singh against
other Rajput Chiefs.
● Aurangzeb 5807 did not want one supreme power in Rajputana and wanted
to maintain the balance of power among Rajput Chiefs.
● In 1680-81, Mewar and Marwar revolted against Aurangzeb 5807.
● But the revolt failed.

Reasons for revolt: (1:21 PM)

● Due to the death of the existing ruler, a child ruler came to power in Marwar
which lay along the important trade route between Delhi/Agra and
Ahmedabad.
● Since Marwar was strategically located, Aurangzeb did not want a child ruler
and interfered in succession.
● This provided the opportunity for Mewar to ally with Marwar against
Aurangzeb 5807.
● The revolt failed as other Rajput chiefs did not support their domination if
Mewar was to be victorious.
● In the 18th Century with the weakening Mughal Empire Rajputs acted more
independently, especially, under Sawai Jai Singh of Amber (1699-1743) who
ruled Jaipur and became a powerful entity in Mughal politics in Delhi.
● 1751 onwards Rajputs were regularly attacked by Marathas but they could
not conclusively defeat Rajputs, and their influence was limited to interfering
in succession and extracting annual tributes.
● (Marathas failed against the Sikhs as well).

Mysore: (1:34 PM)

● 16th century: Mysore was part of the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646).

● And then gradually became autonomous under Wodeyar Dynasty.
● 1673-1704: Mysore became militarily powerful and centralized under Chikka
Devaraja Wodeyar.

Hyder Ali 6182: (1761-82)

 ● Context:
● By 1761, Wodeyars were reduced to puppets by corrupt prime minister
Nanjaraj.
● Hyder Ali was a man of humble origin, who began as a junior officer in the
army and later became a senior military general.
● In 1761, he overthrew PM Nanjaraj to establish his rule.
● Highlights:
● Hyder Ali 6182 worked with the French to modernize his military by importing
technology and arms and taking the help of French trainers.
● The army was now designed on a European model.
● Army was organzied into Risalas (regiments).
● Each Risala had a commander personally appointed by the King.
● Each Risala had a clear chain of command and hierarchy leading up to the
king.
● Each Risala was a self-sufficient unit.
● As it had its own weaponry, own supplies, and own transport.
● Therefore a very efficient military organization capable of swift action was
created.
● Now Hyder Ali 6182 centralized power by subjugating local chiefs, Polygars,
Deshmukhs, etc.
● Polygars were big landlords who had their own private armies and acted
independently since the time of the Vijayanagar Empire.
● Polygars and Deshmukhs till now were real rulers of the Countryside.
● As they controlled land, land revenue, and wealth of temples.
● State: Organisation that manages affairs of country and nation.
● Therefore countryside = far-off rural areas.

Tipu (1782-99): 2:13 PM

Land Revenue model of Tipu 8299 and Hyder Ali 6182:

● Removed intermediaries, that is, Deshmukhs, and introduced a direct

collection of taxes by the state, via state officials.
● (Who got salaries and not commissions).
● This allowed more income for the state and lower taxes for peasants.
● As of now, no commission of intermediaries.
● This increased the financial strength of the state, immensely.
● Tipu 8299 did detailed surveys to assess Land Revenue, therefore preventing
over-assessment.
● Assessment = Amount of tax to be paid, field survey-based assessment
would take into account productivity, crop cultivated, irrigation available, etc.
● Land under Jagirdari was minimized.
● To maximize LR, Tipu modernized irrigation systems and introduced
Sericulture.
● And promoted cash crop production.
● Tipu 8299 protected peasants from corruption and oppression of tax officials
with effective supervision.
● Even Tipu’s enemies accepted that its population was the most prosperous.
● Tipu’s revenue model and other fiscal policies are also called military
fiscalism.
● As a huge amount of wealth was directly collected by the state, to build a
strong military.
● Removing intermediaries also helped in building a strong centralized state.
● Tipu sent ambassadors to France for importing foreign technology and to set
up an alliance against the British (1789 French Revolution 1792-1804: French
Revolutionary Wars, Rise of Napolean from 1795), therefore Britain-France
rivalry.
● (1799: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War).
● He built a modern navy since wanted to participate in oceanic trade like EIC.
● He set up a PSU/State Commercial Corporation, to set up factories outside
Mysore.
● (Before industrialization factories meant warehouses; trading settlement =
warehouses + homes + offices; Trading Depot = Group of warehouses,
where goods to be traded were stored.)
● Mysore began international trade in lucrative goods like sandalwood,
pepper, cardamom, Sulpher, silk, rice, etc.
● The PSU set up 30 trading centers in and outside India, for example in
Mascot, Oman.
● Tipu 8299 introduced rockets which were used in Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
in 1799, and the British developed their own rockets by copying these in
1806.
● However dreams were bigger than resources, and constant warfare with
Indian neighbors and EIC drained resources.
● Therefore Mysore threatened the British, but could not defeat them.
● Tipu 8299 declared independence from the Mughals formally.
● For example, minted coins in his own name, and used his own name in
Friday Prayers (Khutba).
● And he requested a Sanad/order from the Ottoman Khalifa (Religious head of
the Muslim World).
● Recognized him as an independent king separate from the Mughals.
● But he did not end his ties completely with the Mughals.
● And recognized Mughal authority when it suited him.
● In 1766, Hyder Ali invaded Travancore and annexed Malabar and Calicut.
● Therefore expanding Mysore’s territory significantly.
● Mysore wanted to dominate the whole of South India, which led to conflict with
important powers like Hyderabad and Marathas, especially during the rule of
Tipu 8299.
Travancore: (3:18 PM)

● Always maintained its independence from the Mughals.

● And was never formally a part of the Mughal Empire.
● The important ruler was Marthand Verma (1729-58), who by the 1740s set up
a strongly centralized state by subjugating local chiefs.
● He did some territorial expansion and build a west-like army with modern
weaponry.
● In 1741 he removed the Dutch from Cochin, who were present from 1669.
● Forced EIC to trade on his terms.
● Established state monopoly over pepper trade.
● And then over all the trade in Malabar Coast.
● Trade profits were utilized for the Military, development of irrigation, and
transport.

Rama Verma 1758-98 (3:28 PM)

● Under him, Travancore became the center of art and scholarship.

● But got militarily weakened.
● As Hyder Ali 6182 annexed Malabar and Calicut in 1766.
● Travancore was again attacked by Tipu 8299 and this led to the Third
Anglo-Mysore War 1790-92.
● As the British were allies of Travancore.
● After Rama Verma 5898, British influence in Travancore increased.
● In 1800, a British resident was stationed in court (i.e. cabinet).
● In 1805, Travancore was made to sign a Subsidiary Alliance in return for
help in crushing a revolt by Nair troops (revolted due to grievance about
salaries).
● In 1809, Diwan Velu Thampi (Diwan = Prime Minister) revolted with the help
of peasants and troops due to increasing interference in domestic affairs by a
British resident.
● (Under Subsidiary Alliance, the Indian state had independence in domestic
affairs and only foreign policy and military with EIC).
● The revolt was crushed by the British.

Topic for the next class: The advent of Europeans.

The advent of Europeans: (1:04 PM)

● (Not core topics but concepts below).

Colonialism:

● Exploitation and domination by foreigners of indigenous people in political,

economic, and socio-cultural spheres.
● Foreigners can be of 3 types:
 ● Foreign settlers,
● Foreign traders and businesses.
● Foreign states.

Were the Mughals a colonial power? (1:11 PM)

● Yes, in the 16th Century and they invaded India, captured political power, and
settled.
● But gradually, colonialism faded away as:
● They made India home, therefore, economic proceeds were not sent or
drained out of India.
● Domestically, they did not follow separateness. Or apartheid-like system.
● Indigenous leaders/Nobles/Rulers were co-opted and therefore enjoyed a
share of political power.
● Culturally, a fusion culture developed, therefore not exploitative domination
(Aurangzeb 5807 is an exception).

Imperialism: (1:16 PM)

● It is an extension of colonialism.
● To extract the same benefits of colonialism by using military or threat of
military.
● Usually done by a foreign state.
● Usually involves taking over sovereignty.
● Therefore there is a degree of formality.
● Imperialism and colonialism can be used interchangeably.
● The origin of the word colonialism is from the word ‘colony’, therefore,
colonialism was originally associated with settlement by foreigners, i.e.
converting a new land into a colony.
● These foreign settlers established their domination and exploited indigenous
people in domains of economy, polity, and society.
● Colonialism, therefore, is more associated with consequences for a colony
than with the act of settlement.
● If settlement does not lead to exploitation, then it is not colonialism.
● Colonialism took place in two phases:
● Pre-industrialisation
● Post-industrialisation.
● In old colonialism/imperialism, i.e. pre-industrialisation (pre-1870), 1870:
Industrialization of Europe, the US, and Japan began.
● (1750 to 1850: Industrialization of Britain.)
● The motivation was god, glory, and gold.
● God represented the motive of spreading Christianity.
● Glory represented empire building by the monarch or loss of sovereignty to
foreigners for indigenous people.
 ● And Gold represented economic motives. I.e. loot of wealth and resources via
mining, plantation systems for cultivation, setting up plantation systems for
cultivation, and trade of lucrative goods, and also the lucrative slave trade.
● For providing labor to plantation systems in Central and South America.
● Therefore, old colonialism led to socio-cultural domination, political
domination, and economic domination.
● Post industrialization/post-1870 there was a focus on converting or having
colonies as sources of cheap raw materials for factories at home and as an
export market for goods produced by factories of colonial powers.
● Traditionally, European trade with the east was done via the Silk Route and
the Spice Route.
● The traders from Venice and Genoa, i.e. Italy dominated European trade with
the East and earned huge profits by selling goods from the East to rest of the
Europe.
● The Arabian Sea part of the Trade was dominated by Arab Traders.
● In 1453, Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople and blockaded European
trade with the East.
● Therefore triggering the search for a new North-West trade route to the East.
● This led to an age of discovery in the 16th Century, therefore a map of the
world was gradually developed.
● And there were advances in shipping, cartography, and also knowledge of
geography. (Weather patterns, etc.)
● In 1492, Columbus landed in Haiti in Central America, in 1498,
Vasco-da-Gama reached Calicut in India via the Cape of Good Hope.
● In 1500, Amerigo proved that America was a continent different from India.
● And he also discovered the route to South America.
● In the early 16th Century, the Portuguese discovered a new route to China
and the Philippines.
● Therefore European trade with the east was re-established. And trade with
the Americas began
● However, so did colonialism in America.

Portuguese in India: (1:53 PM)

● Trade with India was done through a State led corporation (* PSU).
● They began their trade with Southern India and set up trading centers in
different parts of India, especially in coastal areas.
● They established their name base for trade, in and around Surat.
● And later set up their headquarters in Goa.
● They captured Goa in 1510 from the kingdom of Bijapur, and Bombay in
1534.
● And dominated international trade in the East Indies (All lands to the east of
Cape of Good Hope) for 100 years with headquarters in Goa.
● (at times East Indies = Indonesia).
 ● Since India had strong land power, therefore Portugues followed a policy of
dominating only the oceans and the oceanic trade of India.
● And did not aim to build a political empire in India.
● (Goa 1510 was an exception).
● (Strong Mughals from 1526-40 and from 1556 onwards).
● Portuguese dominated the high seas as they were strong naval powers,
while the land of India was under strong land powers.
● They did armed trade, engaged in piracy, and therefore dominated passage
via oceans.
● And allowed free passage only after payment of a license fee.
● They regularly raided Arab traders who till now dominated trade in the
Arabian Sea.
● They also threatened Mughal Ships forcing Mughals to give trade
concessions in form of lower duties.
● Permission to set up bases/trading centers in coastal areas.
● They were religious fanatics and hated India for its religion, and engaged in
brutality and forced conversions to Christianity.
● (above is the character/features of Portugues in India).
● In the late 16th Century, there was the rise of two new naval powers, the
Dutch and the British.
● The first challenge was to achieve freedom of navigation in oceans.
● And second, was to remove Portuguese control over the oceanic trade of the
East Indies.
● In 1588, in a decisive battle, the British defeated a large Spanish naval fleet
Armada in the Atlantic Ocean.
● And now British and Dutch could travel to the East via Cape of Good Hope.

Portuguese vs. British (2:30 PM)

● In 1608, the British wanted to open a factory in Surat.

● And sent Captain Hawkins to Jahangir’s 0527 Court.
● He was given Mansab and Jagir but then was removed from the Court due to
lobbying by Portugues.
● Therefore, EEIC (English East India Company) that the military defeat of
Portugues is a must for it to expand its trade with India.
● In 1612, EIC defeated the Portuguese Navy in Surat.
● And were rewarded by Jahangir 0527 with a Royal Farman (* Roman I) in
1612, which gave EIC the right to establish factories on the West Coast,
therefore Surat Factory was set up by EIC.
● To extract more concessions, Britain sent Sir Thomas Roe as an ambassador
and he was accepted as a resident in Jahangir’s court.
● Finally, in 1617, he was able to extract another Royal Farman (*Roman II),
where the British got:
● Right to establish factories in the whole of the Mughal Empire.
 ● Liberal Trading Rights. (i.e. lower custom duties).
● This angered the Portuguese and in 1620 conflicts culminated in a major
battle where the British defeated the Portuguese. This was a decisive victory
for the British ending Portuguese dominance over the international trade in
India.
● In 1661, King Charles II of Britain got the island of Bombay in dowry from the
Portuguese.
● Therefore mid-17th Century, Portuguese were restricted to Goa, Daman, and
Diu.
● Portuguese got British military protection from the marital alliance.

British vs. Dutch: (3:07 PM)

● Dutch removed the British from Ceylon and East Indies (Indonesia), and
now the rivalry between British and Dutch, who fought for decades and finally
by the mid-17th Century the British were defeated, and a compromise was
reached whereby, Dutch agreed to not attack British in India, while British left
Indonesia to the Dutch.
● British stayed in Malaya and Dutch set up their base in Cochin by 1669.
● From where they were removed by Martanda Varma (1729-58, Travancore) in
1741.
● By 1795, there was complete removal of the Dutch from India by the British.

English East India Company: (3:21 PM)

● Formed on the 31st of December 1600.

● By a Royal Charter, which was its founding document issued by Queen
Elizabeth.

Tools given to EIC by Royal Charter: 3:25 PM

● Monopoly over British trade with East Indies (east of Cape of Good Hopes)
for 15 years, if Charter is not renewed after 15 years, then company dies, as it
was the founding document.
● EIC was allowed to carry gold out of Britain to buy eastern goods in an era of
Merchantile capitalism.
● (MC = All policies and actions done in pursuit of maximizing the positive
balance of trade, i.e. net exports in value terms, i.e. exports-imports, i.e. to
maximize the inflow of gold or forex and minimize its outflow,
pre-industrialisation MC dominated, and post-industrialization, industrial
capitalism dominated; IC = For maximizing profits from machine
manufactured goods).
● Right to wage war and acquire territories and power to administer those
territories.
 ● Goal of EIC formation as per the Charter was not Empire-building or
colonialism, but trade with the East. And to counter the Dutch competition.

Presidencies of EIC: (3:41 PM)

● Presidencies of EIC in Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta served as regional

headquarters of EIC’s trade with South, West, and East India respectively.
● The term presidency was given or the status of Headquarters was given when
these places came to have significant EIC establishments in form of
warehouses, offices, homes, etc.
● Later when EIC annexed territories in India, they were added to respective
regional presidencies leading to the expansion of the Company’s regional
headquarters into provinces of British India.
● Madras Presidency was set up in 1652 (Village of Madras Pattanam was
purchased in 1639.
● Bombay Presidency was set up in 1687 (EIC got Bombay in 1668 on annual
rent of 10 pounds from the Crown).
● Calcutta Presidency/Bengal Presidency was set up in 1699 (Calcutta
Establishment was set up in 1690).
● Was the conquest of India a result of British policy?
● No-arguments:
● Britain had no such policy, and the conquest of India was the product of
sub-imperialism, i.e. results of policies and actions and personal ambitions of
senior EIC officials in decision-making posts in India. E.g. Robert Clive
5760, Wellesley 9805, (1798-1805), Hasting (1323), Dalhousie (4856).
● They had personal ambitions in British polity. And a personal desire for
empire building.
● Many senior officials built good political careers after their retirement from
EIC.
● In Pitts India Act 1784, there was a parliamentary prohibition on imperial
expansion: “Conquest in India is repugnant to wish, honor and policy of
this nation.”
● However British state cannot escape responsibility for imperialism in India as:
● Yes, partially: Arguments:
● Tools of conquest were given to EIC by the State as the Charter of EIC which
was its founding document and was issued by the state gave EIC the powers
to wage war, sign treaties, acquire territory and administer it.
● EIC had the military support of the Royal military, in its military conflicts,
and without the Royal, military EIC could not have begun conquest in India.
(Later EIC developed its own army; still, even the 1857 Revolt was crushed
with the help of the Royal military).
● The state assisted EIC in setting up and developing EIC’s presidencies.
● For example,
● Bombay was rented to EIC for just 10 pounds per annum by the Crown.
 ● British Crown, British State, and important figures in British polity, including
parliamentarians, benefitted economically from EIC’s trade and conquest.
● As: 170,000 pounds were given by EIC to the Crown in the 17th Century in
return for the renewal of the Charter.
● In 1698, Parliament auctioned the monopoly of British trade with the East to
“The New Company” as it offered a loan of 2 million pounds to the State as
against 700,000 pounds offered by EIC. (In 1709 EIC and The New Company
merged).
● In 1767, EIC was mandated to pay 400,000 pounds per annum to the State,
therefore State wanted its share of the loot of Bengal after the Battle of
Plassey in 1757, and the Battle of Buxar in 1764.
● Important figures in British polity were shareholders of EIC, e.g. many
parliamentarians and Queen Elizabeth
● EIC became an important tool of foreign policy in Britain.
● (Big companies are soft powers of the nation).
● After Regulating Act, 1773, and Pitts India Act, 1784, EIC’s affairs in India
were under the supervision and control of the British State.
● Therefore, even if imperialism was not a British policy, and was a product
of opportunities, made use of by important EIC officials in India, i.e.
sub-imperialism, the British state cannot escape responsibility for
imperialism in India.

Topic for the next class: Explanation of the Rise of EIC.

Modern History Class 08 Class started at 13:00:00

Conquest of India - Role of EIC or British Policy

● Explanation/Running notes
● Royal charter does not have provisions for the establishment of the empire,
Pitts India act 1784 says that conquest of India is repugnant to wish, honor,
and policy of this nation
● CoD was too far away, and information took time to reach London so EIC
officials were responsible for the establishment of the Empire (the result of
decisions of the subjects/subordinates ===> called sub-imperialism)
● Indian Perspective
● Charters Act==> tools to wage war and acquire territory + renewed by the
Crown and later by parliament
● Without the military support of Britain, EIC would not be able to acquire the
territory (Carnatic wars)
● Presidencies (Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) were expanded with the support of
the crown. the state was encouraged to expand the presidencies
 ● Economic Nexus - EIC was conquering and looting and sharing the loots
with the state
● a). In the 1600s Crown was paid money for renewing the charter
● b). Parliament (1698) gave charters to the company to those which paid
maximum money (the New company paid 2 million pounds)
● c). 1767, parliament is telling the EIC to pay 400,000 pounds every year (after
EIC got the Diwani rights).
● d). After the battle of the Plassey, they looted the treasury of Bengal and
shared the money with the royal military
● e). Many of the parliamentarians were shareholders of the EIC (Queen
Elizabeth was also a shareholder)
● Soft power- companies are the tools of foreign policy.
● Legal responsible- Regulating Act 1773- parliament will now regulate the
affairs of EIC
● Pitts India Act 1784- The company came under more control of the state,
Important officials will not be appointed without the approval of the crown.
● Pitts India Act 1784- BoC was established, had members of the government
==> can pass binding orders to the CoD==> it had powers to stop the
company ===> but it did not do anything to stop

Events in Empire Building by EIC 13:24:00

● 1686- EIC v/s Aurangzeb- EIC attacked Mughals in Bengal as Aurangzeb's

constant warfare had hurt overland trade, therefore, hurting EIC's oceanic
trade.
● EIC was comprehensively defeated but then forgiven by Aurangzeb
(1658-1707) in return for 1.5 lakh Rupees as compensation, as
● 1). Mughals got revenue from EIC and from Indian merchants who sold goods
to EIC in form of customs duties and domestic taxes respectively.
● 2). Indian merchants got business when EIC bought Indian goods for exports.
● 3). Indian peasants and artisans benefitted as EIC trade generated demand
for their goods
● 4). The inflow of gold due to exports
● Impact- in 1691 Aurangzeb (1658-1707) issued royal Farman (III) [1st royal
Farman was in 1612, second royal Farman was in 1617 of Jehangir (liberal
trading rights), 1691 was the third royal farman] whereby EIC got the right to
duty-free trade in Bengal in return for 3000 rupees per annum

Role of Britain- France rivalry 13:38:00

● Three Carnatic wars 1746-48, 1749-58, 1756-63 + battle of Plassey 1757 +

anglo-Mysore wars especially 4th anglo-Mysore wars 1799 (* first
Anglo-Mysore wars 1766-69, Second Anglo-Mysore war 1780-84, Third
anglo-Mysore war 1790-92). in these conflicts there was the role of Britain-
France rivalry that dominated the 18th century.
First Carnatic War 1740-48 13:52:00

● It was part of and the result of the Austrian war of succession 1740-48 where
Britain and France with their allies fought in Europe, America, and India (*
fought over succession dispute in Austria; France wanted its puppet ruler in
Austria)
● Dupleix was governor of french EIC (a PSU) in Pondicherry, the main base of
french in India since 1674
● He had personal ambitions of Empire building and wanted the french EIC to
eliminate international trade in south India.
● The conflict began in 1746 and after capturing Fort St. George, Dupleix
refused to hand it over as promised to Nawab of Carnatic, and this led to the
first Carnatic war (1746-48) where Carnatic + English EIC v/s French EIC.
● The war was won by Dupleix. however, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748
between Britain and France led to France getting back its positions in North
America while the British got back the Madras. (* Fort Williams was in
Calcutta, Fort St George and Fort St David in and around Madras, and Fort
Castle in Bombay) therefore status quo was maintained and now Dupleix
looked for the next opportunity to increase French influence and this led to the
Second Carnatic war 1749-54

Second Carnatic war 1749-54 14:33:00

● Dupleix got an opportunity in form of succession dispute in Hyderabad and

Carnatic
● In Hyderabad- Nasir Jung v/s Muzaffar Jung and in Carnatic- Md. Ali v/s
Chanda Sahib. Dupleix decided to support Muzaffar Jung in Hyderabad and
Chanda Sahib in Carnatic as he wanted economic and political influence after
putting his choice of candidate in power therefore anxious British EIC
supported Nasir Jung and Md. Ali.
● Dupleix and Bussy won the first phase while Robert clive of English EIC won
the second phase.
● After 1st phase - Muzaffar Jung was declared Nizam of Hyderabad and
Chanda Sahib of Carnatic.
● Muzaffar Jung was killed on his way from Carnatic to Hyderabad by Nawab of
Kurnool (because felt that Muzaffar Jung won't honor promises made in return
for support earlier)now Bussy continued to march to Hyderabad where he put
Salabat Jung (1751-62) in power as Nizam+ placed a french army for the
protection of Nizam+ this army was to be paid for by Hyderabad, therefore,
French EIC got Northern Circars/coastal Andhra from Hyderabad as payment
for the army.
● Other French gains after 1st phase
 ● 1). Bussy was stationed as a French agent in Hyderabad court, therefore,
establishing french political influence in Hyderabad + personal jagir for Bussy
+ 200,000 pounds for French EIC.
● A huge personal jagir for Dupleix in Carnatic + Dupleix was declared as
nawab of all lands between the river Krishna and Cape Comorin (today
Kanyakumari) with Chanda Sahib under Dupleix as nawab of Arcot (capital of
Carnatic).
● After the second phase victory by the British
● 1). Dupleix was recalled by France in 1754 due to high war expenditure
● 2). Also, France wanted to honor the treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle to secure its
possessions in America
● 3). Chanda Sahib surrendered on the promise of life and was killed and
beheaded by Clive [Clive killed two nawabs- Siraj-ud-daula and Chanda
sahib]
● 4). France was allowed to retain Pondicherry+ posts in Carnatic + Northern
Circars+ French agent in Hyderabad court
● 5). Md. Ali became nawab of Carnatic therefore French influence in
Hyderabad and British influence in Carnatic (* influence and not supremacy)

Third Carnatic War (1756-63) 15:11:00

● It was the result and part of a 7-year global war 1756-63 fought between
Britain and France and their respective allies
● War was fought in the Americas, Europe, Africa, and India
● Count-De-Lally arrived from France to lead the French military along with
Bussy who was in charge of Northern Circars while Robert Clive of British EIC
played an important role from the British side

Why did France lose? 15:19:00

● Tactical mistake of Bussy leaving Northern circars unguarded to help Lally in

Carnatic leading to a loss in Northern Circars to the British
● Poor leadership of Lally - he was hated among the french officers and sepoys
due to his ride conduct
● Superior British Navy
● Superior financial strength of Britain and EIC while France faced financial
difficulty, For example- soldiers were unpaid for months which hurt their
morale (* world history - Britain had greater accumulated wealth from trade
profits as it was trading with more regions of the world and since a long time;
British economy had more matured capitalism, while feudalism ended in
France only in 1789; War expenditure without benefits to France, Austrian
war of succession, first and second Carnatic wars)
● Britain- France rivalry over international trade over India decisively settled in
favor of the British
 ● Most important was the battle of Wandiwash in 1760 (Madras==>
Wandiwash===> Pondicherry) and the french were defeated everywhere
including pondicherry their main base
● France lost all gains made under Dupleix since 1749 therefore were restricted
to their bases that existed pre-1749 but they were Barred from fortifying their
bases or keeping a strong military
● In 1769, the French EIC itself was ended
● A high no. of military royal military troops arrived in India in favor of British
EIC, therefore, giving military advantage to EIC over Indian states.
● Post-1757, EIC began maintaining a bigger army of its own which
continuously grew in size (* at one point EIC army = 2 lakh men and British
army = 1 lakh men)
● Now EIC began increasing its political influence and started empire building
with the battle of Plassey in 1757 (* this battle was not part of the Carnatic war
or 7-year war, because not between Britain and France)
● In 1766 Hyderabad gave northern circars to EIC in return for military
protection
● In 1798 Hyderabad was the first to sign a subordinate alliance with EIC,
therefore, establishing British control over Hyderabad's military and foreign
policy. the huge territory of Mysore was annexed by EIC in the third and 4th
Anglo- Mysore war (1790-92, 1799) + Mysore made to sign a subordinate
alliance in 1799.
● In 1801, EIC annexed Carnatic, six years after the death of ally Md. Ali in
1795.
● In 1805, Travancore made to sign a subordinate alliance with EIC.
● Peshwa Bajirao II [1796-1818] signed a subordinate alliance in 1803.
therefore, EIC began political influence in south India with the Carnatic wars
and established political domination over south India by the early 19th century

Bengal 15:58:00

Battle of Plassey 1757 15:58:00

● Reasons
● 1). Royal Farman (IV) ==> Royal mint & Misuse of Dastaks.
● 2). Murshid Quli Khan did not allow the use of royal mint being the successor
state, also he did not allow the misuse of Dastak.
● 3). Private trade started by misusing the Dastak.

The Topic for the next class- The Battle of Plassey.

Origin of Conflict: (1:02 PM)

● It was Farukhsiyar’s 1319 Farman of 1717 which gave:

● Duty-free trading rights in Bengal, Gujarat, and Deccan.
 ● Right to use Royal Mint.
● EIC is allowed to rent 38 villages around Calcutta.
● MQK 1727:
● Allowed Duty-free trade to EIC, but did not allow misuse of Dastaks for
private trade.
● Did not allow the use of the Royal Mint.
● Allowed renting of villages but not purchase.
● Therefore Royal Farman of 1717 became a reason for conflict.
● However, misuse of Dastaks

Short-term reasons for conflict: (1:05 PM)

● Misuse of Dastaks:
● By the 1750s 100 thousand pounds was the quantum of private trade by EIC
officials.
● Which were 50 times their annual salaries.
● The Nawab of Bengal lost a huge amount of revenue due to the misuse of
Dastaks.
● EIC officials also sold Dastaks.
● The private trade of EIC officials hurt the economic interests of the EIC.
● But EIC was unable to curb it.
● The Charter of EIC gave a monopoly to EIC over trade with all territories east
of Cape of Good Hope.
● And therefore trade with India by non-EIC merchants (also known as
interlocus and free merchants) and private trade of EIC officials was illegal,
as they broke British law.
● Interlocus: They were non-EIC merchants from Britain, who traded illegally
with India.
● Free Merchants: Their trade was also illegal, but EIC allowed them to settle
in EIC establishments if they agreed to act as middlemen between Indian
merchants and EIC instead of directly trading with India.
● That is, they sold Indian goods to EIC, instead of exporting themselves.
● Dastaks were permits issued by EIC officials certifying that the goods
exported are EIC goods.
● And therefore entitled to duty-free trade.
● Therefore Dastaks operationalized the Duty-free trade privilege given to EIC.

Role of Britain France Rivalry: (1:25 PM)

● The British feared the French and were afraid of the French repeating their
gains of the Carnatic Wars in Bengal.
● Therefore EIC began adding fortifications in Calcutta in 1755 without the
permission of Alivardi Khan.
● Therefore challenged the sovereign authority of the Nawab.
● EIC also offered protection to fugitives from Nawab’s Port.
 ● However, AK 4056 avoided conflict with EIC.

Role of Siraj-ud-Daula (1756-57):

● He acted in haste and stopped all misuse of Dastaks.

● Therefore hurting the private trade of EIC officials.
● When the British gave asylum to Krishan Vallabh charged with fraud with Siraj
and began new fortifications in Calcutta, Siraj took over the British factory
in Kasim Bazaar near Hugli and attacked and captured Calcutta (renamed it
Ali Nagar).

Black Hole Tragedy: (1:38 PM)

● Here 30 British men were killed by suffocation due to overcrowding in a

non-ventilated room.
● This created huge controversy among the British.
● Events:
● Robert Clive’s army arrived from Madras and then defeated Siraj 5657, and
took back Calcutta.
● And then signed the Treaty of Ali Nagar which restored all privileges of EIC.
● Then the British defeated France at Chandar Nagar and destroyed Hugli
port, which was important to the French.
● Now Jagat Seth and Mir Jafar (war commander of Bengal Army) bribed EIC
and Robert Clive so they replaced Siraj-ud-Daula.

Battle of Plassey 1757: 1:50 PM

● Mir Jafar ensured that the majority of the Bengal Army does not participate.
● Therefore Siraj 5657 was defeated easily by Clive.
● He ran away and was later captured and beheaded.

Impact of Battle of Plassey,1757

● EIC established its political supremacy the first time.

● As of now Mir Jafar 5760, 6365 was a puppet Nawab of EIC.

Plassey Blunder:

● 275,000 pounds to Royal Military for distribution among its members.

● 25 Crore rupees to EIC.
● Personal Jagir for Clive is worth 35,000 pounds per annum + 234,000
pounds in cash.
● From 1757 to 1765, 2.5 million pounds were taken by EIC as political gifts.

Change in Structure of EIC trade: (2:09 PM)

● Now gold was no more needed from Britain to buy Indian goods.
 ● As of now, Indian money was used to buy Indian goods.
● Indian Gold was used to buy Chinese goods, therefore from gold inflow
pre-1757, now there was gold outflow from India.
● Therefore ‘drain of wealth’ began after 1757.
● Now rampant misuse of Dastaks, and EIC officials made personal fortunes.
● This also led to a huge dip in Bengal revenue.
● When Mir Jafar 5760, and 6365 could not pay anymore to EIC, he was
replaced by EIC with his son-in-law Mir Qasim 6063.

Battle of Buxar 1764: 2:22 PM

● Context:
● Mir Qasim 6063 was efficient an efficient administrator and wanted
independence from EIC control, therefore shifted base from Murshidabad to
Bihar.
● To be physically away from the British.
● He gathered money and started building the army.
● To get the support of Indian Merchants, he abolished all taxes on domestic
trade.
● Therefore bringing parity between Indian merchants and British traders who
did not pay any taxes.
● While they did domestic trade through their Indian agents, i.e. Gomusthas.
● This hurt revenue of Bengal, but Qasim wanted the support of Merchants.
● EIC defeated and replaced Qasim 6063 with Mir Jafar 5760, 6365.
● Now Qasim 6063 escaped to Awad with huge wealth and built an alliance with
Shah Alam II 6006 and Suja-ud-Daula, Nawab of Awadh.
● Suja 5474 agreed on the promise of 30 million rupees, Bihar, and its treasury.
● Fugitive Prince Shah Alam II had escaped from Delhi due to fear of Wazir
Imad-ul-Mulk.
● Was also frustrated with court politics, i.e. factionalism, and wanted to build
his own kingdom in Bengal which had stopped sending revenue to Delhi since
AK 4056.

Reason for defeat: (2:33 PM)

● A tactical mistake by Suja 5474 who followed an offensive strategy rather than
a more appropriate defensive strategy of cutting off supply lines of the EIC
army in Buxar.
● He ignored the advice of Mir Qasim 6063, therefore Hector Munro I, Battle of
Buxar.
● And now Robert Clive was sent to India to negotiate on behalf of EIC.

Impact/Importance of Battle of Buxar, 1764: (2:55 PM)

● EIC treated Shah Alam II with respect.

 ● As in him lay sovereignty of India.
● And with him on their side, EIC could have greater influence in India.
● Treaty of Allahabad 1765 signed between EIC (Robert Clive) and Shah Alam
II 6006, and also signed by Suja 5474.
● EIC promised 26 lakh rupees per annum as a tribute to Shah Alam II.
● Also promised Shah Alam II to help him recapture Delhi from Rohilla
Afghans.
● Had Delhi since 1761.
● Therefore EIC recognized Shah Alam II as emperor with themselves as
Mansabdars called Company Bahadur.
● Allahabad was given to Shah Alam II from Awadh.
● They never fulfilled the promise of Rs. 26 lakhs and recapture of Delhi.

Bengal @ TOA 1765: (3:15 PM)

● EIC got Diwani of Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar, therefore for the first time EIC
got a sovereign function.
● (now they are rulers).
● And therefore, EIC got an additional source of income in form of revenues
from the richest province of India.
● The dual government began in Bengal (1765-72).
● Legally, Diwani, i.e. revenue administration was given to EIC.
● And Nizamat, i.e. non-revenue administration was legal with Nawab of
Bengal, therefore called dual government.
● The policy of indirect rule was initiated.
● Nawab of Bengal was a puppet of EIC.
● Now a British resident was stationed in Court, which by 1772 became the real
center of power.
● Therefore EIC initiated ToIR in 1765.
● EIC also got the right to appoint and dismiss Deputy Subahdar who was
headed Nizamat on behalf of Nawab.
● Therefore, through him, EIC indirectly controlled Nizam.
● Therefore in practice, EIC got full control of Bengal, i.e. Diwani as well as
Nizamat.
● The dual government was ended in 1772 due to worsening law and order.
● And Warren Hastings 7385 wanted to improve administration.
● Therefore EIC established direct rule in both Diwani and Nizamat in 1772.
● Legally: Dual government.
● Practically: Control of EIC on both Diwani and Nizamat.
● Practically from 1765-72: EIC can rule legally in Diwani and indirectly in
Nizamat, but did not as appointed Deputy Subahdar, Md. Reza Khan (who
headed/ruled Nizamat on behalf of Nawab).
● Also as EIC’s Diwan.
● Indian administration under Indian Deputy Subahdar continued till 1772.
Awad @ TOA 1765: 3:36 PM

● Suja 5474 made to pay 5 million rupees.

● The policy of indirect rule:
● Suja 5474 was now a puppet of EIC.
● And a British resident could now be stationed in Awadh (who later by 1850s
established indirect rule).
● EIC got duty-free trading rights in Awadh.

Policy of Ring Fence initiated: 3:40 PM

● By Clive, associated more with Warren Hasting 7385.

● It meant creating a buffer around the core interest regions of EIC by signing a
military alliance with neighbors.
● A military alliance was signed between Awad and EIC, i.e. both would protect
each other militarily.
● Therefore now, EIC could use Awadh’s military resources for the protection of
EICs interests in Bengal.
● Awadh came under the military control of EIC, as now an EIC army was
permanently stationed in Awadh and it was to be paid for by Awadh in form of
an annual subsidy.
● Therefore TOA 1765 was a mini subsidiary alliance with Awadh.
● Therefore Clive: Initiator of PoIR, PoSA, PoRF.
● Subordinate Alliance / Subsidiary Alliance by Wellesly 1798-1805
● There was a ban on imperial expansion by Pitt’s India Act 1784 of British
Parliament, because of huge war expenditure by EIC as well as British State.
● Because Royal Military was deployed in these wars.
● Therefore British wanted to consolidate gains and prevent war
expenditure. (3 Carnatic Wars 1746-48, 49-54, 56-63; Battle of Plassey
1757, Battle of Buxar, 1764; 2 Anglo-Mysore wars 1766-69, 80-84; First-Anglo
Maratha War 1775-82; American War of Independence 1776-83).
● Therefore now EIC was to follow a policy of indirect rule and maintain the
balance of power among Indian states (BoP implies Indian Powers =
Summation of equal and inferior powers).
● Wellesley 9805 was an empire builder and had huge personal ambitions in
British polity.
● He gave up the policy of indirect rule and balance of power to reinitiate the
policy of expansion.
● He convinced the British government by overplaying the fear of Napoleon
invading India and setting up alliances with Indian states like Mysore.
● Napoleon attacked Egypt in 1798 with the goal of controlling the Middle East
and therefore dominating the Arabian Sea to hurt British trade.
● Napolean was also in communication with Tipu Sultan 8299 and had
ambitions of reestablishing French influence in India.
 ● However, there was no real danger of France invading India.
● And Wellesley 9805 and the British government both knew this, but London
still agreed as the primary goal of British foreign policy was to protect India
from European rivals.
● Wellesley 9805 also found a middle path in form of Subsidiary Alliance.
● As it led to establishing supremacy over an Indian state without formal
annexation.
● Model Treaty:
● (PoSA: PoIR+PoRF+Control over military and foreign policy)
● British protection of the Indian state as a military alliance between EIC and
Indian State.
● For this EIC stationed its army permanently in the state.
● State to pay for maintenance for EIC army stationed by paying annual
subsidy.
● A British resident stationed in the court of an Indian ruler.
● British consent was needed for stationing any Europeans in the Court.
● The state must consult the governor general while negotiating with any other
Indian state.
● The promise of non-interference by EIC in internal affairs of the state. (E.g.
Succession, Diwani, Nizamat).

The topic for the next class: Subordinate Alliance, dictation of impact of
Subsidiary Alliance.

Impact of Subsidiary Alliance on the Indian States: (5:36 PM)

● There was the drain of wealth in form of subsidies to EIC.

● And the subsidy was high.
● And EIC gradually continued to increase the amount of subsidy demanded.
● Now EIC could maintain a large army at expense of Indian States, as money
for this large army came in form of subsidies.
● At times Indian rulers gave the territory to EIC as payment of subsidy.
● For example in 1801, half of Awadh was annexed by EIC as a permanent
payment of subsidy under the Subsidiary Alliance of 1801.
● Hyderabad could not pay subsidies under the Subsidiary Alliance of 1798
therefore EIC annexed Berar in 1853.
● There was the loss of jobs for military men as the army of the Indian state was
disbanded.
● Indian states lost the ability of self-defense, as they had to disband their
armies.
● Indian rulers had to increase taxes to pay subsidies, and this made him
unpopular among zamindars, peasants, merchants, money lenders, etc.
● For example, it led to a breakup in the Nawab-Talukdar relationship in Awad.
 ● Peasants came under the oppression of high LR, and this led to law and order
instability, as chances of peasant revolt increased.
● Indian rulers were accused of maladministration while they had all
responsibilities and no power.
● As British did not respect the promise of non-interference in internal affairs
and the British resident gradually established his indirect rule, therefore
degrading the political status and authority of the Indian ruler.
● Due to the loss of control over foreign policy, Indian states lost power to settle
their border disputes with each other, therefore, now could not unite against
the British.
● Indian states could not build alliances with European rivals of the British.
● Hyderabad became the first state to sign the Subsidiary Alliance, for
protection against the threat of Marathas and Mysore.
● Mysore lost significant territory in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1799 to the
British and then was made to sign SA in 1799.
● In 1802 Gaikwad of Baroda signed SA in return for support in the succession
dispute.
● Peshwa Bajirao signed SA in 1803, Treaty of Bassein.
● To regain Peshwaship with help of the British, and this triggered Second
Anglo-Maratha War 1803-05.
● And post-victory, the British signed SA with Scindhia of Gwalior and took over
Delhi and other territories of Scindhia and took over Orissa from Bhosle of
Nagpur. And signed SA with tributaries of Marathas.
● That is Jats, Rajputs, Bundelas and Rohillas, etc.
● In 1805, Travancore was made to sign SA in return for help in suppressing
Revolt by Nair Troops (due to low salary).
● In 1801, after the death of ally Muhammad Ali in 1795, Carnatic was annexed.
● In 1801, SA was signed with Awadh, and half of Awadh was annexed as
permanent payment of subsidy.
● Wellesley was recalled in 1805 due to high war expenditure.

Anglo Mysore Wars: (6:09 PM)

● 1766-69, 1780-84, 1790-92, 1799.

● Reasons for the rivalry between Mysore vs. (EIC+Marathas+Hyderabad).
● Mysore wanted to dominate the whole of South India, and its trade.
● Therefore led to a rivalry with Indian states, as well as EIC.
● The rise of Mysore as a political, military, and mercantilist power threatened
EIC and Indian neighbors.
● Mysore followed the policy of military fiscalism, similar to the policy of EIC.
● Mysore used resources from LR and trade to modernize its military with the
help of the French.
● However, Nana Fadnis was the first to realize the political ambitions of EIC
and set up an alliance with Mysore (Hyder Ali 6182) and Hyderabad 1780-82.
 ● And this helped Maratha's victory in First Anglo-Maratha War 1775-82.
● However, it was an inconclusive victory, and EIC settled disputes with
Marathas and set up a military alliance via the Treaty of Salbai, in 1782.
● Also, EIC settled disputes with Hyderabad by giving back Guntur to
Hyderabad in 1782.
● Therefore breaking the alliance and setting up a new triple alliance between
EIC, Marathas, and Hyderabad.
● Also, the aggressive foreign policy of Tipu 8299 and EIC’s diplomacy led to
the isolation of Mysore.
● Result:
● Status quo in terms of territory after the first 2 Anglo-Mysore wars. (1766-69,
1780-84).
● In the Third Anglo-Mysore war 1790-92, Mysore lost roughly half its territory.
● For example, Malabar to EIC, some territories to Marathas, and Hyderabad.
● In Forth Anglo-Maratha War, 1798-99, it further lost huge territories, especially
to EIC.
● Tipu 8299 died defending capital Seringapatnam/Srirangapatanam.
● Wodyar Dynasty was restored to power and SA signed with Mysore.
● (For more details Document number 07)

Travancore: 6:47 PM

● In 1800, a British resident was stationed in Travancore.

● In 1805, SA, in return for suppressing a revolt by Nair Troops.
● In 1809, Diwan Velu Thampi revolted with help of Nair Troops and peasants
due to interference in internal affairs by the British resident.
● The revolt was crushed.
● Carnatic was annexed in 1801 by Wellesley 9805.

Three Anglo-Maratha wars: 1775-82, 1803-05, 1817-19. (6:50 PM)

● Importance of Deccan for British:

● The large coastal area, i.e. Konkan Coast, and parts of Malabar Coast, are
therefore important for trade.
● High cotton trade with China.
● First Anglo-Maratha War: 1775-82:
● Reason:
● Raghunath Rao 7374 was removed as Peshwa in Bar Bhai Conspiracy by
Nana Fadnis an important minister since 1761.
● As RR 7374 became Peshwa after the murder of Peshwa Narayan Rao
7273.
● Now RR 7374 went to EIC in Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775,
where the British agreed to reinstate him as Peshwa in return for Salsette and
Bassein/Vasai.
● This triggered the First Anglo-Maratha war 1775-82.
 ● After Regulating Act of 1773, final decisions in matters of war and peace by
EIC were with GG Bengal, except in emergency circumstances, where
Governors of Bombay and Madras could act independently.
● Therefore, GoB (Governor of Bombay) acted independently by signing the
Treaty of Surat in 1775.
● To prevent war expenditure GG Bengal overturned the Treaty of Surat 1775
and negotiated the Treaty of Purandhar 1776 whereby EIC was to recognize
infant Peshwa Madhav Rao II 7595 and EIC to get Salsatte and Bassein and
Marathas to not allow French any positions in their domain.
● However, Nana Fadnis gave the French a port, therefore Treaty of Purandhar
1776 could not be finalized and the war resumed.
● By 1782, the British were defeated and the important reason was an alliance
between Marathas, Mysore, and Hyderabad, however, it was an inconclusive
victory, therefore, Marathas signed the Treaty of Salbai in 1782 that ended
the first Anglo-Maratha war, and Marathas got back their territory and a
military alliance between EIC and Marathas.
● And British recognized Madhav Rao II as Peshwa and retained Salsatte.

Second Anglo-Maratha War 1803-05: 7:14 PM

● Due to the high war expenditure of the First Anglo-Maratha war 1775-82 and
the Second Anglo-Mysore war 1780-84, Pitt’s India Act 1784 put a ban on
imperial expansion.
● Therefore peace until the arrival of empire builder Wellesely 9805.
● In 1802, he signed SA with Gaikwad of Baroda, in return for help in
succession disputes.

Reasons for War: 7:18 PM

● Wellesley 9805 was an empire builder.

● He got the opportunity due to factionalism in the Maratha polity.
● After the suicide by Peshwa Madhavrao II 7595, due to overcontrolling Nana
Fadnis, Bajirao II, son of RR 7374, wanted to get rid of Nana Fadnis.
● The death of Nana Fadnis in 1800 led to the loss of a leader who could have
united Marathas.
● These factors led to rising of factionalism.
● In 1802, Holkar of Indore defeated Scindhia of Gwalior and Bajirao II 9618.
● And now Bajirao II signed SA via Treaty of Bassein 1803 to regain
Peshwaship with the help of the British.
● And this triggered Second Anglo Maratha war 1803-05.

Result: 7:33 PM

● British put Bajirao II 9618 in power at Poona, that is, he regained Peshwaship.
 ● Sindhia lost all territories north of the Yamuna (including Delhi and Agra), and
all his territories in Gujarat.
● Orissa was taken over by EIC from Bhonsle of Nagpur.
● He had it since 1751.
● Tributaries of Marathas who were earlier under Maratha protection now
signed SA with the British: Jats, Rajputs, Bundelas, and Rohillas.
● (Rohilkhand’s significant territories were annexed by Awadha in 1774 and
Rohillas were limited to the Princely state of Rampur.)
● Due to high war expenditure Wellesley recalled, and Cornwallis 8693 was
sent back as GG Bengal with clear directions to follow the policy of no
expansion and non-interference.

Policy of Paramountcy (1813 onwards)

● By Hastings 1323 (1813-23):

● It meant that henceforth a new policy of Paramountcy was initiated by
Hastings in 1323, whereby the British were to be the Paramount/supreme
powers among all other powers in India.
● And therefore British interests were
● And to protect these paramount interests, the British had the right to interfere
in the internal affairs of Indian states and even the right to annex, therefore
from 1813, Indian states were to have no rights if British interests demanded
so.
● (In SA, at least legally, Indian states had some rights. Therefore Paramountcy
= PoSA + No rights of Indian State)

Third Anglo Maratha War 1817-19: 8:00 PM

● Reasons:
● Policy of Paramountcy since 1813 again gave the push to imperial expansion.
● (sub-imperialism: Clive, Wellesley 9805, Hastings 1323, Dalhousie: 4856)
● Since 1803 SA, Peshwa Bajirao II was a puppet of EIC, and he now wanted to
regain independence from British control
● Also, the policy of non-interference since 1805 allowed Maratha Sardars to
consolidate power and feel confident against EIC.
● Therefore Bajirao II and Maratha sardars rose to overthrow British dominance,
and the 3rd Anglo-Maratha War began.
● Result:
● Significant territory loss for Bhonsle of Nagpur and Holkar of Indore. And
made to sign SA.
● Peshwaship was now abolished.
● Maharashtra was annexed into the Bombay presidency.
● Therefore Bajirao II was the last Peshwa, and was pensioned off to Kanpur.
● Therefore by 1819, EIC had total control over all territories south of Vindhyas.
Annexation of Awadh, 1856: (8:08 PM)

Dalhousie 4856:

● He implemented/used the policy of Paramountcy to expand the British empire

in India.
● The Doctrine of Lapse was a product of the policy of Paramountcy.
● Under this doctrine, Dalhousie annexed those Indian states where there was
no legal heir (i.e. Biological) of a deceased ruler.
● The annexation was justified as succession disputes could destabilize the
Indian state putting British trade and business interests under threat.
● (Bhagat, Sambhal, Jhadio Me Udta Sa Naag)
● He annexed Bhagat and Sambalpur in 1850, Jhansi in 1854, Udaipur in
1852, Satara in 1848, and Nagpur in 1853.
● To safeguard the British interests from the threat of neighboring powers, he
fought and won the 2nd Burma war 1852-53, to annex Pegu in lower Burma.
And the 2nd Anglo-Sikh war in 1849.
● When Hyderabad could not pay subsidy in 1853, he annexed Berar as
payment for subsidy.
● To protect British paramount interests he annexed Awadh on grounds of
maladministration.

Topic for the next class: Annexation of Awadh.

Annexation of Awadh: (1:08 PM)

● Treaty of Allahabad 1765 was a form of Subsidiary Alliance.

● But the concrete shape was given by Wellesley 9805 when formal SA was
signed in 1801.
● Awadh was important as ⅗ of Indigo cultivation was in Awadh.
● Importance of export of raw cotton from Awadh to China.
● Subsidy demanded under ToA 1765 gradually increased by EIC to
compensate for its high war expenditure.

Arrival of Wellesely 9805:

● He interfered in succession as after the death of Asaf-ud-Daula, EIC refused

to accept his son Wazir Ali as Nawab.
● And made uncle Sadat Ali Khan II, Nawab in 1798 in return for some territory
and 76 lakh rupees as an annual subsidy.
● Conflict arose with Sadat Ali Khan II because of:
● Misuse of Dastaks. The Treaty of Allahabad gave Duty-free trade rights to
EIC.
● Interference by British resident: This is also a feature of ToA.
● Nawab defaulted on payment of subsidy in 1801.
 ● Richard Wellesley 9805 sent his brother Henery (Third Brother = Arthur
Wellesely) to impose a treaty of SA on Awadh in 1801.
● And Awadh was made to cede half of its territory as permanent payment of
subsidy.
● LR= 1.3 Crore from this territory.
● Therefore EIC annexed Rohilkhand, Doab, and Gorakhpur.
● Despite permanent payment of subsidy, EIC continued demanding more
money.
● And Nawab had to increase taxes.
● Therefore making him unpopular.
● Now oppression of peasants due to high LR began.
● And therefore fear of peasant revolts by 1855.
● By 1855, the British resident had established his indirect rule, e.g. held his
own Darbar/Court, therefore degrading the status of Nawab.
● Now Dalhousie 4856 accused Nawab of maladministration, while in reality,
EIC’s high subsidy demand was responsible for the situation.
● And Nawab had no powers due to the indirect rule of a British resident.
● Therefore Nawab had all responsibilities and no powers.
● In 1856, Dalhousie 4856 annexed the rest of Awadh on the grounds of
Maladministration, in line with the policy of paramountcy.

Annexation of Punjab/Sikh State: 1:38 PM

● Context:
● As per the policy of Ring and Fence, the British also wanted stable
borders/frontiers to ensure the protection of the British empire from foreign
powers.
● If a neighboring power threatened the frontier or the frontier Indian state
became weak, then the British acted.
● They either annexed the border states or set up an indirect rule for the safety
of the core British empire.

Reasons for First Anglo-Sikh War, 1845:

● After the death of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh 0139, factionalism increased with
rivalries between Misl chiefs, Dogras of Jammu, Khalsa Army, and Sikh
princes of the royal family.
● There were now succession disputes and political murders, therefore frontier
Sikh state became politically unstable, and there was a rise of the Khalsa
army in the Sikh polity, which threatened the British, as the Khalsa army
talked about some form of rule of Panchayats.
● Finally British acted in form of the First Anglo-Sikh war, where the British and
Dogras vs. Sikh State (Hardinge 1844-48).
● Result:
● Humiliating Treaty of Lahore, 1846 where:
 ● The size of the Khalsa army decreased.
● And EIC army stationed.
● EIC annexed Jalandhar Doab.
● Kashmir was given to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra of Jammu.
● Maharaja Dileep Singh 4349 was advised by a British resident, therefore, the
policy of indirect rule was initiated.
● Another Treaty in December 1846, whereby the mother of Dileep Singh 4349
removed as regent (person or body that rules, because the ruler is not an
adult).
● And a Regency Council headed by a British Resident was set up.
● Therefore British took control of internal administration and fully established
indirect rule.

Second Anglo-Sikh War, 1849 (2:18 PM)

● By Dalhousie 4856.
● Reason:
● Rebellion by 2 Sikh Governors/Chiefs of Multan and Haripur.
● Result:
● Annexation of Sikh State and Punjab made a province of British India.
● In the 19th Century, a series of annexations were done by the British.
● Reasons:
● Selfish interests of British Military generals, of the British Indian Army.
● A cycle developed whereby, the threat to the British empire led to the
annexation of border areas which further led to a bigger British empire.
● Examples:
● First Burma War, 1824-28, as frontier Bengal province came under threat of
an expansionist Burma.
● This led to the annexation of Assam and Nagaland; Cachar annexed in 1830;
annexation of some lower Burma regions, e.g. Arakan and Tenasserin.
● Second Burma War, 1852-53: Dalhousie annexed the rest of lower Burma,
i.e. Pegu.
● First Afghan War, 1838-42:
● Reason:
● Fear of Russia via Afghanistan, i.e. North West Frontier (Indirect rule in
Afghanistan established).
● Sindh was annexed in 1843.
● Annexations by Dalhousie 4856:
● Bhagat and Sambalpur, Jhansi, Udaipur, Satara, Nagpur; Berar, Awadh
(maladministration), Pegu.
● Therefore by 1857, EIC annexed 63% of the Indian subcontinent and
controlled 78% of the population.
● While 37% area was with 565 Princely states.
● There were no more annexations post-1857.
 ● Questions:
● What began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence, as
rebels wanted to get rid of the alien government and restore the old
order of which the king of Delhi was rightful representative. Do you
support this view?
● What administrative changes were introduced in India after 1857? And
why? (10 marks/150 words)
● Explain how the 1857 revolt was a watershed in the evolution of British
policy.
● The 1857 Revolt was the culmination of many small and big rebellions in
the first century of British Rule.

The Revolt of 1857: (2:54 PM)

● Introduction:
● On the 29th of March 1857, Mangal Pandey at Barracpore near Calcutta
fired at European officers, and his fellow sepoys refused to arrest him.
● All of them were hanged in April.
● On the 10th of May, Meerut sepoys mutined, and on the 11th of May reached
Delhi and proclaimed Bahadurshah Zafar 3757 as emperor of Hindustan
● The revolt spread to other cantonments in North-West provinces and Awadh
by end of May 1857, and the civil population joined leading to the collapse of
British rule from the 11th of May-20th of September, 1857 in Delhi.
● And in North and Central India till the spring of 1858.
● There was a huge amount of violence on both sides, and therefore British
monopoly over violence was broken.

Reasons for Sepoy Mutiny: (3:11 PM)

● Service-related. (Self-interest)
● Racism:
● Discrimination between Indian Sepoys and European Sepoys in salaries and
pension.
● The highest post an Indian sepoy could reach was Subedar, which gave only
60-70 rupees a month.
● Indian sepoys were subjects of racist slurs, e.g. called ‘suar/pig’
● Economic:
● To compensate for the high war expenditure of the past, EIC decreased the
salaries of sepoys, and allowance for service outside their region was ended
in 1856.
● Socio-religious grievances:
● Initially, EIC recruited sepoys in line with Indian traditions, i.e. men from upper
castes were recruited.
● British respected caste and religious customs.
 ● As the British expanded, EIC became heterogenous, as different communities
joined EIC.
● Therefore it was now difficult for the British to respect the religious customs of
upper castes.
● British tried developing a uniform culture in the Army.
● As it would decrease loyalty to caste/religion and increase loyalty to the
employer, leading to better control over sepoys.
● Therefore EIC reduced caste privileges, for example, wearing religious
symbols, food preferences, etc., and sepoys were forced to go abroad, which
led to a loss of caste, e.g. Burma, Sindh, Afghanistan.
● And those who refused were dismissed or punished.
● Also since the Charter Act of 1813, there was a focus on the spread of
Christianity.
● And the presence of Christian missionaries in the Barracks created fear of
conversion.
● Rumor of mixing cow and pig bone dust with flour.
● Rumor of cartridges of new Enfield Rifle, that replaced Brown Bess Musket,
having grease made of cow and pig fat.
● These were to be bitten off before loading.
● Sepoys feared that the British want to make them lesser Hindus/Muslims for
easier conversion to Christianity.
● The Revolt began in Bengal Army as most sepoys were from upper castes.
● And the ratio of British men to Indians was the lowest in the Bengal army.

Political Reasons: (3:45 PM)

● The majority of the sepoys in the Bengal army were from Awadh and nearly
every family in Awadh sent a member to British Indian Army, therefore
annexation of Awadh in 1856 was seen as a betrayal and it hurt the loyalty of
the sepoys.
● Bengal Army was almost equal to the half of British Indian Army

Agrarian Grievances: 3:49 PM

● British did summary settlement in Awadh, i.e. determine LR without proper

field surveys, leading to unreasonable LR demands.
● When peasants could not pay LR, the government auctioned off their lands
and peasants became indebted to moneylenders to pay LR, and then lost
their lands due to indebtedness.
● Sepoy was a peasant in uniform since he came from a peasant family, and
therefore, his loyalty was hurt by British LR policies.

Reasons for civil rebellion: (3:55 PM)

 ● Feudal elements,e. Rajas/Nobility: loss of kingdom due to annexations, e.g.
under the doctrine of lapse led to grievances among ex-rulers and nobility.
● Along with the Indian ruler, the entire aristocracy was negatively affected,
therefore they offered leadership in the 1857 Revolt.
● For example, Nana Sahib in Kanpur: Adopted son of last Peshwa Bajirao II,
9618, who was denied pension after Bajirao II.
● Assisted by Tatya Tope.
● Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow: Wife of ex-Nawab Wajid Shah; began
ruling in name of her young son.
● Khan Bahadur Khan: A Rohilla in Bareliy (used to be the capital of
Rohilkhand before 1774).
● Rani Lakshmi Bai: in Jhansi; her adopted son was not recognized as a legal
heir.
● Kuwar Singh: From Jagdishpur, Bihar; a big jagirdar whose estates/mikhiya
were taken over.
● Bahadur Shah Zafar 3757 in Delhi: Canning 5662 announced in 1856 that
Mughal Emperor will now be called the prince and he should leave Red Fort,
and shift to Qutub.
● Big landowners:
● Application of Mahalwari Settlement in North-West provinces and Awadh: In
this system land ownership is given to ryot, leading to the loss of personal
estates for Talukdars, therefore, they lost economic status.
● British focused on building a strong centralized state, and therefore private
forts, and private armies of Talukdars were disbanded, and there was now to
be rule of law under the British, i.e. equality before the law, therefore their
social status was hurt.
● Hence Talukdars provided leadership to peasants.

Topic for the next class: Grievances of Peasants.

Grievances of Peasants: 1:05 PM

● High LR and indebtedness due to high LR led to the oppression of peasants

by EIC officials and moneylenders.
● The interest rate at which the moneylenders lent money was high leading to
oppression.
● And finally, default.
● Traditionally ryots enjoyed occupancy rights, but now there was the loss of
land in government auctions due to non-payment of LR and to
moneylenders, due to indebtedness.
● British did not do proper surveys in North-West provinces and did summary
settlements in Awadh.
● The new British courts supported the money lenders, therefore completing the
process of loss of land.
 ● And hence moneylenders also became targets of peasant attacks, along with
EIC officials.

Threat to Religion: 1:16 PM

● The whole rural society had a fear that their religion is under threat.
● Since 1813, there was an inflow of Christian missionaries and forced
conversions done under police protection.
● The socio-religious reforms of the British escalated the fear that the British
want to destroy traditional customs and religious practices.
● For Example, Sati Abolition 1829, and Widow Remarriages Act 1856. And
Lex Loci Act of 1850 gave the right of inheritance to those Hindus who
converted to Christianity.
● Therefore escalating conversions to Christianity.
● British began taxing revenue-free lands of religious sects, temples, and
mosques, and therefore Hindus and Muslims both felt a threat to their religion.
● And Pandits and Maulvis spread hatred against the British among the people
and sepoys.
● There was a common feeling among Indians that British rule was immoral,
due to all of the above-mentioned grievances, and therefore, the goal of the
1857 Revolt was to restore the Pre-British order: Political, Economic,
Social, and Religious.

Why the British won: (1:52 PM)

● Sepoys lacked financial resources.

● Lack of modern weapons and training among peasants.
● British had a strong centralized bureaucracy and army, and an effective
communication system.
● Lack of unified leadership on the Indian side, as there were multiple
regional leaders, but no effective central leadership. Therefore coordination
suffered.
● Rebels/Sepoys focused on coming to Delhi. Due to this, the movement did
not spread properly. And the defeat of Delhi meant, the defeat of the Revolt.
● Due to the localized nature of uprisings, the British could defeat rebels one
after another.
● The whole British Indian army did not revolt, Bombay and Madras Regiments
were quiet.
● While Punjabi and Gurkha soldiers actively helped the British.
● The largest was the Bengal army (therefore about half of the British Indian
Army revolted).
● The civil rebellion was limited to Central and North India, and only minor
participation elsewhere.
● Madras Torture Commission 1855 resolved Ryot Grievances.
● Ryotwari gave land ownership to the farmers/ryots.
 ● Canals in Punjab boosted agricultural production.

Was it a war of Independence? (2:14 PM)

● Modern nation: summation of people who are equal, united, and supreme.
● If the nation was supreme, then democracy is a must.
● If equal, then used ‘Hindustanis’, not Hindu or Muslims.
● The whole Indian army did not participate.
● There was no proper planning, and the revolt was a spontaneous outburst.
● While modern political movements have elements of planning and
coordination.
● There was no modern alternative in form of democracy.
● And the goal was to restore the old political order, where there was the rule of
monarchs/feudal

Arguments in favor of the 1857 Revolt being much more than a mutiny: (3:09
PM)

● Yes, modern nationalism was absent, however,

● A common enemy was there.
● Common hatred was there against disruptions brought by Colonial rule in form
of political annexations and destruction of Indian industry.
● High land revenue, loss of land, oppression by moneylenders and EIC
officials, and threat to religion. Therefore all agreed that British rule was
immoral.
● Sepoy’s Declaration in Delhi went beyond their selfish grievances:
● Listed following reasons for mutiny:
● High land revenue.
● Increase in Chawkidari Tax. (was levied for payment to the village watchman).
● Increase in unemployment of artisans.
● Toll tax for traveling on public roads.
● Decrease in the status of the Indian ruling class.
● Therefore sepoys were fighting for all Indians.
● A common fear of religion under threat:
● Hindu Muslim unity was there, and there was the belief that Hindustan was for
Hindus and Muslims.
● A common goal of restoring moral order was disturbed by the British.
● That is, restore the pre-British way of life:
● Political, economic, and social.
● All agreed among rebels, that the capital should be Delhi, with Bahadurshah
Zafar 3757 as emperor of Hindustan.
● Rebels did not desire 17th Century Centralized rule but wanted 18th Century
decentralized set up, with provincial autonomy, with Mughal Emperor as a
weak center, with real power at the provincial level.
● Therefore they desired a form of federalism.
 ● They did not want the British out of their area, but out of Hindustan.
● Out of their area would imply selfish interests.
● Out of Hindustan implies fraternity.
● Hence, this time rebels were not restricted to their area, and there was
communication between regional leaders (for the first time).
● It was a movement of the masses and not of elites.
● Elites were forced to take up leadership in many cases, by those who
revolted.
● For example, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Nana Sahib and Jhansi ki Rani.
● Therefore initiative was of the common man.
● In many cases, peasants and peasants and artisans continued their revolt
despite surrender by Talukdars.
● The main initiative was of the sepoy, who was a peasant in uniform, and now
removed his uniform to be a peasant again.
● And therefore main initiative was of peasants, who are the masses in an
agrarian society.

Why Revolt of 1857 an important watershed? 3:47 PM

● VD Savarkar called it the Indian War of Independence and fought for

Swadharm and Swaraj.
● Indian War on Independence.
● Swaraj: Political Independence.
● Swadharm: Religion.
● The mainstream stand is that it was more than a mutiny. But modern
nationalism was absent, hence not a proper war of independence.
● Arguments in favor of it not being a war of independence:
● And not having modern nationalism.
● The middle class benefitted from jobs created by British rule.
● And they also believed in the providence of British rule, i.e. British Rule
is good for India, and will modernize India.
● Indian rulers who did not lose power did not support the revolt.
● Talukdars, who did not lose their estates.

The political impact of 1857 Revolt:

● EIC was blamed for mismanagement of Indian affairs, and public pressure in
Britain increased in favor of ending absentee sovereignty.
● (Real sovereign power was Britain but it was absent as ruler in India. And
ruled India through an agent, i.e. EIC.)
● Therefore GOI Act 1858, ended EIC Rule.

GOI Act 1858: (3:54 PM)

 ● It declared Queen Victoria as sovereign ruler of India, with direct rule over
British India, and a relationship of paramountcy between the Crown and
Indian princes.
● Therefore queen was now the empress of India.
● A Secretary of State for India (SOS), a Cabinet Member was made top
authority in Britain on India.
● Queens Proclamation of First of November, 1858 promised religious tolerance
and that India would be governed as per its traditions and customs.
● Therefore Socio-Religious Reforms now took the back seat.
● And so did the spread of Christianity.

Ideological Impact: (3:56 PM)

● British became distrustful towards Indians, racism increased and

authoritarianism increased.
● Therefore Indians were now considered racially inferior and beyond reforms.
● And British did not want Indians in senior positions in bureaucracy, police, and
military, and did not want to share power with Indians, and therefore became
more autocratic.
● However, this frustrated educated middle-class Indians who wanted to share
in power and this anger led to them starting modern nationalism-based INM
in the second half of the 19th Century.

Administrative impact: (4:07 PM)

● Now there was a focus on effective policing, and collection of information and
intelligence.
● 1860 Police Commission led to the Indian Police Act, 1861, which
established the structure and functions of the police and continued until 1947.
● Police Act of 1861:
● The state police concept was implemented properly throughout British India.
● Provincial Police were to be under Inspector General (IG) who reported to
Governor, and District police under the Superintendent of Police (SP) who
reported to DC/DM.
● And Thanas and Police Stations under Sub-inspector, who reported to SP,
who reported to IG.
● Therefore for the first time, a proper hierarchy of specialists with a proper
chain of command was implemented.
● Therefore from 1857, a police raj was created, and Indians were excluded
from senior positions.
● Changes to Civil Services:
● The exam was introduced under the Charter of 1853.
● And now it was ensured that the exam is not held simultaneously.
● And maximum age of eligibility was kept low between 19 to 23, to prevent
Indians from clearing the exam.
 ● As the British were highly insecure, and also racist therefore did not want
Indians in senior positions.

Topic for the next class: Peel Commission for Military Reform.

Peel Commission: (1:05 PM)

● After the 1857 Revolt, Peel Commission led to many changes in the Military.
● Prevent homogeneity by having a heterogeneous mix of different castes and
nationalities in a regiment.
● This was to prevent caste-based bonds of unity among sepoys.
● Like in Bengal Army, in 1857 Revolt.
● Prevent inter-region interaction within the army to prevent pan-India unity
among regiments.
● As British benefitted from the lack of unity between its regional armies in the
1857 Revolt.
● Now recruitment was done on the basis of race, and the idea of the martial
races was started by the British.
● e. Jats, Rajputs, Sikhs, and Gurkhas were called martial races.
● Which have characteristics of loyalty, and courage, and were good fighters.
● But for the British, they were also incapable of leadership, therefore Martial
races and those regions that stayed loyal were preferred in recruitment.
● British focused on building a culture of loyalty to salt.
● And promoted the idea of sacrifice for the employer for the honor of one
community.
● Now British maintained a huge standing army to counter any future revolts.
● British ensured at least a 1:2 ratio between Europeans and Indians in the
army.
● (As not having this in Bengal Army was a mistake.)
● British ensured that sepoys lived in barracks as far as possible to minimize
the political influence of nationalist ideas on them.
● Minimum or no Indians in senior military positions.
● Financial control over the army to civilian authority.
● There was high use of the British Indian army and police against peasant
revolts and INM, post-1857.

British Imperialist Ideologies: (1:27 PM)

● Orientalism: Indian laptop was great but today it has many viruses. We need
to do a system restore to the original version.
● Authoritarianism of Cornwallis: Indian laptop is great but too many viruses.
Do not restore, but new software is needed.
● Post-1813: Evanglicst: Christianise India to modernize India.
● Liberalism: Don’t conquer India (anti-authoritarian) and civilize India by giving
them the best ideas of age (which are British).
 ● Utilitarianism: Focus on law, rule of law, and good governance. As what
India needs is an effective schoolmaster. The focus is on utility and efficiency.
● Question:
● “Many Englishmen honestly consider themselves the trustees for India
and yet to what a condition they have reduced our country.”
● British vision of India had no single set of ideas. Discuss.

White Man’s Burden: (2:04 PM)

● The conquest of Ireland in the 16th Century led to this belief among British
● WMB= Idea among Western Europeans that they are a superior civilization,
therefore they have the responsibility to civilize the rest of the world.
● This belief got strong further with the age of Enlightenment, the 17th and 18th
Centuries (These are modern political ideas).
● Growth of Capitalism, end of Feudalism, and then Industrial Revolution in
England 1750-1850.
● And Scientific Revolution, 17th and 18th Century.

The ideology of orientalism: (2:09 PM)

● Oriental implies ‘relating to East’.

● Orientalists believed in the greatness of ancient Indian Civilization.
● Therefore they wanted to study Indian art, languages, literature, architecture,
and Indian scriptures.
● Degradation has only in the recent past, and WMB is to restore the glory of
ancient times.
● William Jones argued in favor of kinship ties between Indians and
Europeans, and that European and Indian languages are part of the same
family.
● Therefore Indian Civilisation is at par with European Civilisation.
● He supported the Aryan invasion theory.
● He argued that degradation in the present time is due to the domination of
Pandits.
● However, Orientalism supported Colonialism as:
● The authority to restore the golden past was to be with the British and not
Indians, who were seen as incapable of leadership.
● Aryan invasion theory implied that even the Great Ancient Indian
Civilisation was the product of the West.
● Arguments of kinship had the benefit of decreasing opposition to colonial rule.
● (We are your relatives, therefore do not oppose our rule).
● Orientalists believed in ruling India in the Indian way, because,
● Since ancient civilization is great, therefore do not impose the British way of
life:
● British law, administration, customs, religion, language, etc.
 ● Some believed that India is not ready for Modern British ideas, therefore rule
India in the Indian way, to prevent any negative reactions from Indians,
against the British.
● This led to less focus on social reforms and administrative and legal reforms.
● Orientalism, therefore, helped in the smooth transition of power from Indian
rulers to the British.
● Orientalism led to the focus on the study of Indian systems, Indian laws, and
languages, by EIC officials, so they could rule India the Indian way.
● (They are setting up Calcutta Madarasa)

The Authoritarianism of Cornwallis 8693: (2:58 PM)

● Greater study of the ancient past led to a belief among the British that
degradation in present is too much, and therefore attempt should not be to
restore the Golden past, but to impose the British system.
● Cornwallis was an authoritarian, who imposed the British system of
administration (for example, Permanent Settlement 1793 inspired by
Landlordism of England).
● And he replaced Indians in all senior positions with British officials.
● His policies also had elements of racism, and he converted the British
bureaucracy into an aloof elite.
● That he discouraged the intermingling of EIC officials with Indians and
supported separateness.
● He discouraged EIC officials from having Indian wives, and Eurasians were
banned from joining the EIC service.
● The reason was also to prevent a repeat of the American Revolution 6583
(1765-83), where British permanent settlers of 13 Colonies revolted against
the British Crown to get independence.
● Therefore he banned the purchase of land by EIC officials who had Indian
wives.
● Authoritarianism leads to the establishment of a strong state which
implements the Rule of Law effectively.

1813 onwards: (3:22 PM)

● By 1813 Orientalism came under attack and it was argued that Indians have
not benefitted from British Rule as orientalism prevents Britain-like
modernization of India.
● Therefore now there was a greater push for the westernization of India and to
White Man’s Burden.
● Three imperial ideologies emerged:

Liberalism: (3:31 PM)

 ● This meant that British Rule should civilize India rather than just conquering
India, by giving the best ideas to the age, i.e. the British ideas to India.
● They argued that this will liberate India from Feudalism (backward @
economy, polity, and society), and modernize India.
● They argued for bringing Western Education to India and implementing of
British Legal System with rule of law.
● Westernization of Indian Economy and social reforms (and English
language).

Utilitarianism: (3:38 PM)

● Argued that it is only good governance implied by good laws and efficient
implementation of those laws, that can modernize India.
● James Mill in his book History of India (1817) argued that the great Indian
civilization is a myth.
● And what India needs is an effective ‘school master’.
● Their focus was on utility, e.g. supporting the use of vernaculars for the
greater spread of Western Education.
● Utilitarianism also favors majoritarianism, i.e. those laws which are good and
which maximize benefits for maximum stakeholders (majoritarianism).

Evangelicalism: (3:46 PM)

● They argued that the main thing wrong with India is its religion.
● And British conquered India with acts of sin, therefore to modernize India, and
Christianize India.
● Charter Act of 1813 under the leadership of Evangelist Charles Grant, a
member of the Court of Directors of EIC, legalized the entry of Christian
Missionaries into India.
● And now there was a push for conversion to Christianity.
● And Lex Loci Act 1850, gave a right of inheritance to those Hindus who
converted to Christianity.
● Charter Act 1813 ended the monopoly of EIC over Indian trade, therefore
now, non-EIC British businesses entered India.
● In 1835, Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education decided in favor of the
spread of Western Education in the English language.
● Post-1857 Revolt, the British came to believe that Indians are barbarians
who can’t be reformed and now social reforms took a backseat, and racism
and authoritarianism increased greatly.
● And now India was not just inferior, but also different, i.e. not kins of
Europeans, as now race instead of language became determinant of
civilization.
● Racial sciences became prominent in the later half of the 19th Century.
● And British became distrustful of Indians and prevented sharing of power in
any meaningful manner.
 ● Proclamation of 1858, Queen Victoria promised religious tolerance and
non-interference.

Farming System of 1772: (4:01 PM)

● By Warren Hasting 7385.

● Context:
● In the Treaty of Allahabad 1765, EIC got Diwani/Revenue administration if
BOB.
● However, LR continued to be collected by Indias, with Muhammad Reza Khan
as the Deputy Subahdar as Diwan of EIC.
● To maximize LR collection, some hasty experiments were done, and overall
EIC killed Golden Egg laying goose.
● In 6 years, such plunder and high LR that Great Bengal Famine killed 10
million, and EIC did not do anything for relief.
● And instead doubled LR demand, and used force for extracting LR when there
was nothing to be extracted.
● After 1770, a decline in EIC earnings as LR declined and trade revenue
declined.
● 1772 Farming System:
● Right to collect LR was auctioned/farmed out to the highest bidder, i.e.
revenue farmer (therefore rule India the Indian way, as similar to Izaradari).
● Supervision/In-Charge of LR collection was to be European DC.
● Result was the high exploitation of peasants due to the huge LR demand of
revenue farmers, leading to no collection at all in many cases.
● Overall the rural population was ruined.
● Now Cornwallis 8693 was sent as GG Bengal with the main task of LR
reforms.
● As LR had become an important source of funding for EIC’s trade.

Topic for the next class: Permanent Settlement of 1793

Permanent Settlement 1793: (1:06 PM)

● Context:
● Was influenced by the personality of Cornwallis, and also by the fact, that
Bengal already had big zamindars. (By 1727, there were 15 intermediary
zamindars that were collecting 50% of LR; MQK 1727)

Features and regions: (1:21 PM)

● Zamindars were made legal land owners, therefore, for the first time, legal
ownership of land or proprietary rights in land was created.
● (pre-British, all land belonged to Emperor).
● Therefore land was not a sellable, leaseable, or mortgageable commodity.
 ● Therefore now a land market would come to exist in India.
● (today in China, all lands in urban areas are legally of the state, and the state
leases land for companies, and buildings can be private).

Reasons: (1:30 PM)

● Cornwallis 8693 believed in landlordism, i.e. agrarian capitalist or big land

owner, who works for profit and has the security of property.
● He would make big investments in property, to maximize profits.
● Therefore leading to:
● food security.
● increased trade in agricultural goods.
● high LR collection for British.
● The settlement was done with Zamindar (i.e. agreements on how much LR
and who pays LR to the government).
● Reason: ease of collection because of the limited number of big zamindars.

Permanent assessment of LR: (1:43 PM)

● At the time of settlement with zamindar, LR was calculated as 10/11 of

produce. And the amount arrived was fixed forever.
● (if 11 lakh=produce, after costs, then, 10/11x11 = LR = 10 lakhs to be paid
every year with no increase or decrease).
● The incentive to the agrarian capitalists, as an increase in production, won’t
lead to an increase in LR.
● And this will lead to food security, and the government will have certainty of
LR income.
● Since the government gave up the right to increase its LR income, therefore
LR was decided at absolute maximum, i.e. 10/11 of produce.
● Sunset Clause:
● By the evening of a pre-decided date, zamindar must pay LR else
automatically his lands will be up for auction to anyone who agrees to pay the
decided LR.
● Jotedars= Those who bought lands in the auction.
● They were either moneylenders, merchants, or relatives of zamindars.
● Another benefit would be the creation of a loyal class that is rich and socially
influential.
● Therefore leading to greater political stability for the British.
● (In 1857, Bengal zamindars stayed loyal.).
● (The permanent assessment would also decrease corruption and workload of
administration.)

Impact of Permanent Settlement 1793: (1:56 PM)

 ● In short term, many zamindar lands were auctioned, because, LR was very
high.
● Therefore in the short term, growth of jotedars.
● However, in long term, stability came.
● And therefore zamindars did emerge as a loyal class to the British.
● The British did get certainty of LR income and regular flow of LR.

Failures: (2:03 PM)

● Zamindar did not behave as an agrarian capitalist.

● Because LR was very high, therefore nothing was left for investment.
● Agrarian productivity lacked.
● Now Ryots became a landless and rightless entity.
● All rights in land were vested in zamindars.
● Therefore Ryots = tenants at will (can be evicted from land at will of
zamindar).
● Oppression of high rents.
● And illegal abwabs continued.
● Therefore now there was no respect for Patta system.
● And the security of property only for zamindar, and not for Ryot. (i.e. no
occupancy rights).
● (British hoped to earn or make up for any loss of income due to permanently
fixing LR via an increase in other taxes. And increase in trade revenue).
● Cornwallis also took away the police powers of zamindars.
● As they were to act as pure agrarian capitalists.
● Regulation VII of Regulating Act 1799 gave police powers to zamindars, i.e.
powers to imprison Ryots, and to cease property of Ryots who defaulted.
● Therefore oppression further increased leading to many peasant revolts.
● Therefore, the British had to bring the Rent Act of 1859: Any Ryot who had
cultivated land continuously for more than 12 years would have occupancy
rights.
● However, the British did not implement the act properly, and zamindars
evicted tenants before the completion of 12 years.
● Finally, the Bengal Tenancy Act, of 1885 recognized the rights of tenants.
● The powers of zamindars were significantly curtailed.
● Ryot who had cultivated different lands, but in the same village, for more than
12 years, was to have occupancy rights. (Peasant revolt’s pressure: the
reason for Bengal Tenancy Act)
● Permanent Settlement: BOB went to North Madras.
● Ryotwari Settlement was a B Grade Scam (Sindh, Coorg, Assam,
Madras, Bombay).

Ryotwari Settlement: (2:49 PM)

 ● Experimented by Alexender Reed in Madras, 1792, then applied by Thomas
Munro in Madras (was senior official) from 1801-07.
● Then re-applied by Munro as Governor of Madras (1820-27) from 1820.
● Land owner= Ryot, i.e. actual cultivator, therefore big land owners suffered the
loss of lands.
● The reason that Munro was from Scotland where a Yeoman farmer was
championed.
● (Cornwallis 8693 was from England, where the big landlord was champion.
And he was from a landed family.)
● Munro = was Orientalist and argued that in ancient times, in India, there were
no intermediaries. That is no big landlord, and he argued PS 1793 was not
suited for Madras as big zamindars were unavailable.
● Deccan had problems with finances due to low productivity and high war
expenditure in the past.
● Therefore removed intermediaries for financial reasons and for greater
political hold of EIC.
● As non-state actors won’t be powerful. (Big landlords).
● And the British would get the loyalty of Ryots, as he would now become a
land owner.
● The settlement was done with Ryot.
● And therefore the direct interface between Government and Ryot.
● Revenue was not permanently assessed.
● That is, could be periodically revised.
● And could be in percentage terms, instead of a fixed amount.

Impact of Ryotwari System: (3:03 PM)

● Improper or non-detailed field surveys led to unjust LR demand. That led to

the indebtedness of Ryot to moneylenders, who charged high-interest rates.
● And this led to the loss of lands to moneylenders.
● Auction of lands by the government when non-payment of LR to the
government.
● Mirasidars: They were land owner cultivators who entered lower bureaucracy
and had police powers, revenue collection powers, and judicial powers, and
were corrupt.
● Mirasidars bought the best lands in the auction and therefore gradually got
converted into big landlords, leading to the rebirth of intermediaries.
● Therefore, the British goal of removing intermediaries failed.
● Ryots were greatly oppressed leading to peasant revolts.
● And finally, in 1855, Madras Torture Commission led to relief for Ryots
against the oppression of high LR and of Mirasidars.

Mahalwari Settlement 1822: (3:27 PM)

 ● The settlement was done with Mahal/Estate/District/Village Community in
most cases.
● And with Talukdar/Intermidary Zamindar/Primary Zamindar in some cases.
● The village community/mahal was represented by the village
headman/lambardar.
● The assessment was done at Estate/Mahal level.
● That is not per field calculation of LR demand.
● LR was to be collected from the village headman by the British.
● And, the individual contribution of each member of the village
community/Mahal was to be decided by the village community.

Reason:

● To respect village-level autonomy.

● Land ownership: In most cases to actual Ryot.
● And in some cases, to primary and intermediary zamindars.
● Therefore Mahalwari: Hybrid of PS 1793 and Ryotwari.

Impact of Mahalwari System: (3:35 PM)

● Improper field survey in North West, and summary settlement in Awadh, i.e.
no survey led to unjust LR demand and consequent loss of lands to
moneylenders and in government auctions for Ryots.
● And the loss of lands for Talukdars.
● Therefore Ryot and Talukdars came together in the 1857 Revolts.
● Mahalwari in CUP: Central Provinces, United Provinces, Punjab.
● Question:
● 1857 Revolt acted as a catalyst for the end of EIC rule in India.
Comment. (10 marks/ 150 words).
● Parliament came to regulate EIC affairs in India by the 1770s as:
● Rise of EIC:
● EIC was earning huge profits, therefore state wanted to share and in 1767,
parliament asserted the rights of the state over revenues earned from
territories brought under control with the help of the Royal military.
● Therefore in 1767, EIC directed was directed to give 400,000 pounds to the
state.
● Also, the state became anxious due to the political and economic rise of a
non-state actor, i.e. EIC.
● And therefore wanted to regulate EIC.
● The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 hurt the image of Britain and EIC’s
conduct went against the idea of White Man’s Burden, and against the
‘morality of imperialism’.
● Therefore EIC came under criticism in England.
● Also huge corruption by EIC officials who returned superrich from India.
 ● While, in 1770, EIC requested a 10 million pounds loan from state as it was
going bankrupt.
● This was when Bengal was being plundered by EIC officials and EIC.
● The request for a loan acted as an opportunity for the British state to bring
EIC under regulation.
● Important men like Clive and Warren Hastings desired of formal relationship
with the state to increase their own legitimacy.

Select Committee of Parliament 1772: (4:02 PM)

● Why formed?:
● To look into the state of EIC affairs in India.
● To identify what could be the relationship between EIC and British State, w.r.t
territory acquired by EIC.
● And how EIC’s headquarters in London, i.e. Court of Directors (CoD) can
best control EIC’s administration in India.

Result:

● EIC was allowed to continue its monopoly over trade with India, however, the
COD of EIC was made accountable for EIC’s administration in India.
● It also led to Regulating Act of 1773.

The topic for the next class: Regulating Act of 1773

The class started at 1.04 PM

A brief overview of the previous class:

Regulating Act, 1773: (at 1.12 PM)

● The first time the Right of Parliament to regulate Indian affairs was legally
recognized.
● The Act brought the Court of Directors of EIC under the supervision of the
British Parliament as the Court of Directors (CoD) now had to submit all
information received from India regarding civil & military government and
revenue matters to the British government.
● However, commercial matters were kept free from supervision as only
those areas where EIC acted as a state were brought under supervision.
● The Governor of Bengal was elevated to the Governor-General of Bengal
and the governors of Bengal and Madras were subordinated to the
Governor-General of Bengal in matters of war & peace (***Because of high
war expenditure that contributed to poor financials of EIC***) except in
emergency circumstances.
● GG-Bengal to collect information on all the matters (Civil, Military, Revenue
and Commerce) and transmit the same to the Court of Directors of EIC in
London.
● The supreme council of Bengal was created under GG-Bengal with four
members/councillors that is GG-Bengal was put in a council of four (One plus
four).
● This was done to ensure democratic decision-making as all the decisions
were to be taken on the basis of a majority vote of councillors and this
decision was binding on GG-Bengal.
● The GG-Bengal only has a casting vote that is to break a tie.
● A supreme court was set up in Calcutta with one chief justice and three
judges are chosen by the king.
● Regulating Act, of 1773 barred the taking of gifts by EIC officials from
Indians, therefore, focusing on anti-corruption.
● Four years tenure of the Directors of the Court of Directors of EIC plus not
eligible for re-election as director (24 directors were chosen by the
shareholders).
● Five-year tenure for GG-Bengal (also of other members) plus can be
reappointed and can be displaced in between plus four years tenure of
councillors (chosen by the EIC).
● GBO and GMA could be suspended by GG-Bengal if disobey in the matters
of war & peace.
● The legislative function was given to the supreme council of Bengal (Dual
government ended in 1772 and the direct government began therefore
need for law-making. Seeds of legislative bodies that are future parliament
sown).
● Results:
● The huge distance between India and London led to poor supervision due
to problems of communication.
● The centralization in GG-Bengal began.
● However, disunity in the supreme council of Bengal and lack of veto
power with GG-Bengal led to the problem of indecision (Example two versus
two decision @council plus GG-Bengal not in favour but the council in favour:
In-fighting intentions in the council).
● Vague wordings of emergency circumstances meant that the Governor of
Bombay (GBo) and the Governor of Madras (GMa) acted independently. Egg:
Treaty of Surat in 1775.
● The conflict between the Supreme court and GG-Bengal's council due to a
lack of clarity in the jurisdiction.
● The jurisdiction of the supreme court was to be over all British-warn
subjects in Bengal and their native Indian servants (SC was set up in 1774 but
the Act was in 1773 plus the King's bench in London heard cases against top
EIC officials and not SC plus other EIC officials under SC = Also reasons for
the conflict).
 ● EIC administration:
● District-level courts:
● Sadar Diwani Adalat for civil matters.
● Sadar Nizamat Adalat for criminal matters.
● Along with the above, another court was added is the supreme court in
Calcutta.
● The Supreme Courts at Madras and Bombay were established by1800 and
1823, respectively.

Amending Act of 1781/Declaratory Act/ Bengal Judicature Act 1781: (at 2.12
PM)

● It resolved the ambiguity in the jurisdiction of the SC and GG-Bengal's

council.
● The jurisdiction of the SC is now equal to all cases in Calcutta plus EIC's
property/properties in Fort Williams in Calcutta plus all cases involving British
in Bengal Subah except for acts done by the EIC officials in their official
capacity plus the rest of cases under GG-Bengal and his council members
who headed Sadar Adalats.

Pitts India Act, 1784: (at 2.17 PM)

● It is named after prime minister William Pitt.

● Public affairs of EIC and EIC's administration in India were brought under
the British parliament's control by setting up the Board of Control (BoC) in
London.
● For the first time, the phrase "British possessions in India" was used but
the issue of sovereignty over territory under EIC was still not decided clearly
whether that is the sovereignty of the British state or of EIC.
● BoC = 6 members = one of the secretaries of the state who was to be the
president of BoC plus Chancellor of the exchequer plus four privy council
(Nawab-court, PM-cabinet, king-privy council plus British cabinet was one part
of Privy council which also had eminent judges & other experts).
● Role of BoC = super-intent, direct & control all acts, operations and concerns
related to civil, military and revenue and British territorial possessions in East
Indies.
● Therefore CoD was the top authority in commercial matters and BoC in
public affairs that is Civil, Military and Revenue matters.
● Therefore Pitts India Act 1784 set up a Dual control for EIC's affairs in
India
● CoD to send all incoming & outgoing letters of India to BoC.
● Now BoC could pass the binding orders to CoD and also to GG-Bengal of
EIC.
 ● Therefore within Civil, Military and Revenue (CMR) matters that are public
affairs, GG-Bengal now had two bosses, therefore dual control of
GG-Bengal in the public affairs.
● Now the principal servants could be appointed only after the approval of
the British crown that is GG-Bengal, G(Bo) and G(Ma) and the
Commander-in-chief of EIC army.
● GG-Bengal's council:
● The size was reduced to three members (that is 1+3) to solve the problem of
indecision as this led to an increase in GG-Bengal's power and even with the
support of one member he could get his decisions approved.
● G(Bo) and G(Ma) were also put on the council (1+3).
● G(Bo) and Governor of Madras (GMa) subordinated to GG-Bengal in war,
peace and revenue matters plus the responsibilities of these three were
more clearly defined (that is the issue of vague wording was resolved).
● Impacts:
● Dual control of GG-Bengal which is two bosses (CoD & BoC), in practice
meant no control as GG-Bengal could play his two masters against each
other.
● Still, no veto power to GG-Bengal over his council.
● Therefore indecision problem continued.
● The conflict between GG-Bengal and Chief-in-Commander (CiC) as the
decision to war with GG-Bengal but the right to use army with CiC.
● There was a ban on imperial expansion as the act stated conquest in India
is repugnant to wish honour in the policy of the nation (due to high war
expenditure of the past: Second Anglo-Mysore war: 1780-84; First
Anglo-Maratha war: 1775-82).

Amending Act of 1786: (at 3.29 PM)

● It gave veto power to GG-Bengal over his council in extraordinary

circumstances.
● EIC is empowered to appoint the same person as the GG-Bengal and
Commander-in-Chief (Posts not merged but only the option of holding Dual
charge).
● Therefore Cornawallis = First to be common GG-Bengal and
Commander-in-Chief (Warren Hastings (1773-85) = First GG of Bengal;
William Bantick (1828-35)= First GG of India; Canning (1856-62)= First
Viceroy of India).
● The above system of controlling EIC continued till 1858 with very little
change.

Charter Act, 1793: (at 3.36 PM)

● Hallmark: Concept of civil law.

● A code of all regulations for governing Bengal was framed.
 ● These regulations dealt with the rights of persons and property and
contained rules & directives.
● Therefore they are bound to the courts to follow these regulations while
passing orders.
● All laws were to be printed in local languages, so people know their rights,
privileges and immunities (Notice the influence of Cornwallis personality
and link former settlement of 1793 that created property rights in
Zamindars).
● The size of BoC decreased and now BoC = President of BoC plus two junior
members who may not be from the Privy council.
● Therefore centralization of power in the president of BoC.
● GG-Bengal's power over his council and over G(Bo) and G(Ma) increased
further.
● Salary of BoC to be given by the EIC.
● The subjects of the crown can not acquire sovereign powers over territory
on their own but only on the behalf of the crown.
● Therefore, the company was to exercise political functions on behalf of the
crown (*** Issue of who is sovereign power over EIC or EIC's territory of
India).

Charter Act 1813: (at 3.56 PM)

● Hallmark: Beginning of westernization of India.

● Context:
● The industrial revolution in England from 1750 to 1850, therefore rise of the
industrial economy led by machine-based manufacturing factories and now
the British wanted to convert India into a source of chief raw material and
export market for the British machines' manufactured finished goods .
● There was high pressure on manufacturers and non-EIC traders to end the
monopoly of the EIC over the business with India that existed since the
Charter of 1600.
● Adam Smith via his work and enquiry into Nature and Causes of the Wealth
of Nations, 1776 argued in favour of free-market economy.
● Therefore, the idea of monopoly is under huge criticism.
● It was argued that the opening of the Indian economy would westernize the
Indian economy via the transfer of technology and foreign direct investment
that would industrialise India, therefore, fulfilling the "White man's burden".
● Evangelist Charles Grant (a member of CoD) and liberals & utilitarianists
argued for westernizing India to fulfil Whiteman's burden.
● Provisions:
● The monopoly of EIC over trade with India ended and EIC retained its
monopoly over trade with China & tea trade.
● Entries of Christian Missionaries are now legalized and could enter India
by taking a license from the CoD of EIC or from BoC.
 ● Therefore, the spread of Christianity began.
● The Charter of 1813 talked about the undoubted sovereignty of the crown
over Indian territorial positions.
● The goal of British rule was defined as the moral & spiritual development
of India.
● Therefore now there was a push for western education.

The topics for the next class: (Charter Act of 1833, etc)

Charter Act of 1833: (Saint Helena Act) 1:06 PM

● Island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic, taken over from EIC by the British
Crown (a port of call in the Atlantic).
● And Napoleon died here in 1821.
● Charter Act of 1833: Also, known as a landmark in the Constitutional history
of India.
● As the territory with EIC in India expanded and the influx of Britishers into
India post-1813 Charter, therefore need was felt for uniform laws and
administration of those laws.
● Therefore GG Bengal was elevated to GGI (Governor General of India) with
control over all of British India’s civil, military and revenue matters.
● The GGI in Council was empowered to make laws for the whole of British
India, and these laws were to be equally applicable to all persons, British or
Indian.
● GGI became executive head of British India, therefore centralization peaked
in 1833.
● It had begun in 1773.
● The legislative powers of Bombay and Madras were away.
● Later restored via ICA 1861 (Indian Council's Act 1861)
● One law member was added to GGI’s Council. I.e. Thomas Macaulay.
● And a law commission was set up under him for the codification of laws. (i.e.
Draft uniform law for the whole of British India).
● Which was completed by 1837, however, deliberation and updation
continued and full implementation was done post-1857, via, the Code of Civil
Procedure 1859, Indian Penal Code 1860, and Criminal Procedure Code
1862.
● EIC lost its monopoly over trade with China and Tea Trade, and the
commercial function of EIC was ended. (Therefore no business function now
of EIC).
● Therefore now EIC had now political functions, also on behalf of the British
Crown, since the territory was not of EIC.
● BoC’s supervisory powers extended to all administrative affairs in India.
● (earlier CMR, now also admin: appointment, transfer, posting, functioning of
administration in day-to-day matters).
 ● Judicial positions were opened to Indians.
● President of BoC remanmed as Minister for Indian Affiars.
● Lower Civil Services, i.e. uncovenanted civil services opened to Indians.
● (CS organized into covenanted and uncovenanted by Cornwallis 8693.
● Therefore he is called the father of Civil Services in India.)

Charter Act 1853: (1:35 PM)

● This renewed the Charter of 1833 but not for 20 years, and only till in case
Parliament otherwise specifies, therefore now a sword was hanging on the
neck of EIC.
● (Charter = Founding document of EIC).
● Big blow to EIC as its patronage was ended by introducing exams for civil
services in India.
● And from now on, EIC hardly controlled policies in India.
● (Patronage: the power of appointment, transfer, posting, etc).
● (* First exam in 1855, the legal provision in 1853).
● Introduction of separation of power within GGIs council.
● As of now 6 more members were added for legislative purposes.
● Covenanted services opened to Indians as now Indians are eligible for
appearing in exams.

GOI Act 1858/Charter Act 1858/Act for Better Government of India: (1:50 PM)

● Context:
● EIC was blamed for the mismanagement of Indian affairs that led to the 1857
Revolt.
● Britain also wanted stronger control over India after the 1857 Revolt.
● High demand among the British public post-1857 Revolt for direct British
rule.
● e. for ending absentee sovereignty.
● (Actual ruler was the British State, but on the ground actual ruler is absent,
because ruling via agent EIC.)
● Free traders wanted direct British rule, as they complained that EIC was not
taking care of their interests.
● Educated Indians also wanted direct British rule for greater accountability of
British rule.
● (as a company not expected to implement good governance like a state).
● Administratively, it was more continuity than change.
● President of BoC/Minister for Indian Affairs replaced by Secretary of
State for India (SoS for India, a new Cabinet Minister level post).
● He was now to be the main authority and the director of policy for India.
● BoC 1784 is replaced by the Council of India/India Council of 15 members
and headed by SoS for India.
● 7 COD directors were absorbed into this Council.
 ● Dual control of GG since 1784 finally ended he now, as Viceroy reported only
to SoS for India.
● No change in powers of GGI as Viceroy.
● The same exam of Charter 1853 continued.
● Canning 5562, therefore, became the first Viceroy.
● The sovereignty of India shifted from Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar,
3757 to the British Crown, i.e. Queen Victoria.
● BS Zafar pensioned off to Burma therefore legally Mughal rule ended in 1858.
● The Policy of Subordinate Union began w.r.t. Princely states.
● As of now, paramountcy is legally established between princes and the British
Crown.
● Therefore, Princely States became legally part of the British Empire in India.
● Via Royal Titles Act 1876, Queen was empowered to take the title of
Empress of India or Kesar-i-Hind.
● In 1877, Imperial/Delhi Durbar organized by Lytton 7680, Coronation of
Queen Victoria as Kesar-i-Hind took place (She was using the title since
1858).

EIC Administration/Judicial, Police and Civil Services: (2:32 PM)

● Bengal 1765-72/Dual Government:

● Muhammad Reza Khan, Deputy Nawab headed Diwani and Nizamat on
behalf of Nawab.
● Reason: EIC did not want to change the administration due to the ideology of
orientalism
● Therefore Indian officials continued to be decision makers.
● 1772-Direct Government:
● e. EIC implemented their administration because:
● They believed that the British administration would be more efficient, therefore
will lead to better law and order, and more revenue collection, which was
down since the Great Bengal Famine of 1770.
● To fulfill White Man’s Burden (WMB) by providing a fair administration
without nepotism and a rule of law that applies equally to all Indians.
● Therefore ending any feudal privileges.
● It will allow EIC to establish its sovereignty, i.e. establish firm control in Bengal
polity by eliminating Indians from senior positions in Administration.

British Judicial System: (2:55 PM)

● Warren Hastings’ system of 1772:

● In Diwani Adalats at the district level, European DC was also made the judge,
however, assisted by Pandits and Maulvis.
● In Nizamat Adalats at the district level, Kazis and Muftis continued to head the
court but were now under the supervision of European DC.
 ● Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were now to be headed by
GG Bengal and his Council members.
● The conflict between GG Bengal and SC at Calcutta was set up in 1773 and
resolved in 1781.
● (Refer to Regulating Act 1773).

Changes of 1773: 3:06 PM

● Separation of power at the level of European officials was implemented.

● That is a European officer who was a DC not to be a district judge and vice
versa, to prevent conflict of interest.
● And to bring justice physically closer to people, Diwani Adalats were replaced
by 18 Mofussil Courts headed by a European judge/officer. (Mofussil areas:
Rural areas/smaller than a district).
● (In 1781, a Code of 1781 made written orders compulsory and framed rules
for the court’s functioning, and in 1775, a Committee of 11 Pundits, and in
1778, a Committee of Kazis and Muktis for Codification of Hindu and Islamic
laws respectively.)

Cornwallis Code 1793: (3:13 PM)

● Cornwallis reintroduced separation of power, at the level of CCS officers

(Covenanted Civil Services) to reduce the concentration of power, therefore
protecting the rights of landlords, i.e. zamindars, and preventing their
harassment. (Recall PS 1793).
● He created a 3-tier structure of Judiciary, i.e. District Courts/City Courts, 4
Provincial Courts of Appeal, and SDA (Sadar Diwani Adalat as the top court in
civil matters).
● Similarly, District Courts, 4 Courts of Circuit, and SNA (Sadar Nizamat Adalat
as the top court in criminal matters).
● All judges were to be EIC officials.
● He wanted to end the corruption of Kazis and Muktis and remove Indians from
Criminal Justice System.
● Office of Nayab Nazim, i.e. Deputy Subadar abolished.
● Now lawyers could be appointed to fight cases of others.
● Therefore a new class of lawyers got created.

Judicial System in Ryotwari Areas: (3:31 PM)

● Ryots were made land owners, therefore, courts were overburdened due to a
large number of property owners.
● And consequently, a high number of revenue-related disputes.
● And district courts were physically far away for a poor Ryot in the village.
● Therefore Bengal system was replaced in 1814 in Madras on the advice of
Thoma Munro.
 ● Separation of power was ended, as European DC and his Indian
subordinates were given judicial powers, so they can adjudicate cases at
ground level.
● This also led to greater Indianisation of the judiciary at lower levels.
● Ryotwari/Judicial system was extended to Bombay, in 1890 by Elphinstone.
● The Codification of laws was taken up by Law Commission under Macaulay,
after the Charter of 1833 leading to CPC 1859, IPC 1860, and CrPC 1862.
● Indian High Courts Act 1861 led to the setting up of High Courts in 3
presidencies in 1865, e.g. in Bengal, SC+SDA+SNA.

Police: (3:50 PM)

● Mughal System=
● Fuajdars, in charge of Rural districts/Sarkars.
● Kotwals: in charge of urban towns.
● Village watchman: On the payroll of zamindars.
● The overall head of law and order was Nayak Nazim, and this system
continued till 1781.

1781 System of Warren Hastings 7385:

● Fauzdars were replaced by British magistrates.

● And under magistrates, were zamindars with police duties as before.
● Impact =
● The inadequate number of magistrates/DCs/DMs leading to poor supervision
and therefore oppression by zamindars continued.

Cornwallis’ System of 1793/Daroga System:

● Removed police powers of zamindars; and divided districts into thanas of 30

sq miles each.
● And each thana under a new officer called Daroga.
● Appointed and supervised by DM/DC.
● Impact:
● Zamindars bribed darogas leading to daroga-zamindar nexus, which acted
as a tool of oppression of the 1800s.
● Indians were blamed for the negatives of this system.
● It was applied to Madras in 1802.

Indian Police Act 1861: (4:00 PM)

● It created a clear chain of command and a clear hierarchy of specialists with

IG as head of provincial police, SP at the district level, and sub-inspector at
the Thana level.
● Overall civilian control as IG reported to Governor and SP to DC.
● Indians were excluded from all senior positions.
 ● Police Commission 1902 supported the appointment of educated Indians at
officer levels.
● But they stopped in rank where European officers began.
● Civil Services:
● Cornwallis reduced patronage by promoting merit-based selection.
● And he increased salaries to curb corruption and prevented private trade.
● And focused on the separation of powers.
● 1833:
● Uncovenanted Civil Services opened to Indians.
● And Judicial positions opened.
● 1853:
● Exam introduced.
● Therefore Covenanted CS opened.
● Post-1857: British rejected the demand for simultaneous exams in India. To
prevent Indians from joining senior positions.
● 1860+ pressure by Western Educated Indians for Indianisation of Civil
Services.
● 1877-80:
● Press campaign for Indianisaiton of CS.
● 1878:
● Statutory CS was introduced by Lytton, 7680, where Indians could be
nominated to CCS rank positions.
● But he ensured that only loyalist Indians are nominated.
● He reduced the age limit from 21 to 19, which was raised back to 21 by Ripon
8084.
● In 1892, ICA (Indian Councils Act), Statutory CS was abolished, and CCS
was renamed to Indian CS and UCS changed to Provincial Civil Services.
● 1919 decision to hold exam also in India.
● And the first exam was in 1922.
● By 1939, there was parity between and Indians and Europeans in Civil
Services (ICS), due to pressure created by INM.
● (Refer to UPSC document on History of Civil Services).

Topic for the next class: Socio-Religious Reforms.

Socio-Religious Reforms: (1:07 PM)

● Till 1813, orientalist ideology and non-interference by the British in Indian

Society to prevent the negative reactions from Indians.
● However, from 1813 onwards, push for the westernization of India as a shift
away from orientalism to liberalism, evangelicalism, and utilitarianism.
● Therefore greater push to White Man’s Burden, and to civilize India,
therefore western education and social reforms, were supported by the British
mainly post-1813.
 ● (Western Education vs. Indian Education: Debate from 1813 to 1833).
● And settled in favour of Western education in the English language by
Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education, 1835.

Reasons for push to Western Education: (1:14 PM)

● To decrease the cost of administration by having Indians in lower bureaucracy

and clerical jobs.
● To create a loyal class in form of an educated middle class, i.e. a brown
sahib, argued Macaulay.
● e. Indian from outside, but British from inside, as Western Education,
glorifies the British.
● Therefore increase the stability of British rule.
● To create a market for British goods, therefore increasing British exports to
India.
● Middle-class Indians supported Western Education due to personal interests
in jobs created by British rule.
● For example, Government jobs, legal practice, doctors, professors, press, etc.
● And they believed that only western education and western sciences can
modernize India. And lead to the industrialization of India.
● Educated Indians led social reforms.

Cultural Nationalism: (1:31 PM)

● It was a response to the British criticism of Indian civilization.

● Which increased in the 19th Century.
● Therefore cultural nationalism was a reason as social reforms wanted to
prove, that Indian civilization is not inferior.
● They were also greatly influenced by the doctrine of reason and of humanism.
● Therefore wanted social reforms to remove irrational and inhuman social
practices.

Two groups of Indian Reformers in the first half of the 19th Century: (1:40 PM)

● Those who relied solely on reason and rationality to argue for social reforms.
● Those who used scriptures for social reforms, and tried to locate reason and
rationality in Indian scriptures. I.e. they argued that true Indian religion
supports social reforms and is in line with the doctrine of reason and
humanism.
● This was to respond to British criticism and also to have greater acceptability
of suggested reforms.
● Step 01: Find what is logical/reasonable/rational.
● Step 02: Locate or trace this rationality in scriptures/shastras.
● Step 03: If unable to locate, then, argue for amendment in scriptures.
 ● For early social reformers, logic, reason, and rationality were infallible, i.e.
non-negotiable.
● Therefore even when they argued that Vedas are superior, in case of a clash
between rationality and scriptures, they supported the former and argued for
reinterpretation or change in scriptures.

Print Culture: (1:57 PM)

● There was a push to print culture by British men like John Malcolm,
Governor of Bombay (1827-30) and Charles Metcalfe (GGI 1835-36), and
other liberals.
● Western Educated Middle (WEdMC) class also took to print culture and
therefore there was the development of press and journalism in India in the
19th Century.
● The social reforms used the press, as their main tool for discussing and
debating social reforms, western sciences, scriptures, etc.
● Mnemonics: (Italian PM In Calcutta for Pre-Polls.)
● Idolatry, Priestcraft, Marriages (Child/Widow Remarriage), Infanticide,
Casteism, Polytheism, Polygamy.
● Wellesley 9805 banned child sacrifice in Sagar Island in the Bay of Bengal in
1803.

Henry Vivian Derozio, and his Young Bengal in the 1830s:

● Primary focus = using reason and rationality and questioning everything, and
atheism + Western Sciences.
● Therefore, argued for social reforms only on the basis of reason.
● And negated religion.
● Derozio = Eurasian professor at Hindu College Calcutta, who instigated free
thinking among the students.
● Therefore Young Bengal= Derozio and his students, who intellectually
challenged orthodoxy in Hinduism.
● Result = failed to develop any movement for social reforms due to total faith
in Western education, western sciences and rationality, and no regard for
religion.
● While masses were deeply religious.
● Got alienated from the masses.
● However, became famous due to radical ideas.

Raja Ram Mohun Roy and his Brahmo Samaj, 1828: (2:43 PM)

● Roy believed that social reforms were not possible without religious reforms.
● Due to the high importance of religion in Indian social practices.
● He is called the Father of modern India.
 ● And he was a student and scholar of Vedas, Christianity, Persian, and
Sanskrit literature, and came to believe that Vedas are superior.
● Was against otherworldliness. (Heaven, hell, another world, etc.)
● And was against the Doctrine of Karma. I.e. acts of past life determining
present life.
● And was against the Doctrine of Incarnation, god’s human worth.
● However, BS 1828 took no definitive stand regarding Karma and
Transmigration of Soul.
● And left the belief to individual Brahmo Samajist.
● Roy’s response was to go back to the pure Vedic past.
● Therefore agreed with degeneration in present times, but also argued in favor
of the glorious ancient past.
● However, rationality was supreme, and therefore Vedas were not infallible.
● Wanted western education and western sciences, instead of Indian education,
because for him, only this can lead to modernization.
● For example, he opposed the British establishment of Sanskrit College in
1824.
● And his views influenced the decision of Macaulay’s Minute on Indian
Education in 1835 of promoting western education in the English language.
● Set up Brahmo Samaj in 1828 for achieving social reforms.
● BS 1828 worked for (Italian PM In Calcutta for Pre Polls: Idolatry, Priestcraft,
Marriages (Child/Widow Remarriage), Infanticide, Casteism, Polytheism,
Polygamy).
● The special focus was against idolatry, priestcraft, polytheism, and against
Sati.
● Roy argued that caste divides, which is why Indians lack modern nationalism
and a sense of Indianness.
● He translated Upanishads to Bangla, to prove that Hinduism favors
monotheism (only one god).
● Took help of Britishers, for example, worked with William Bentick 2835 for the
abolition of sati, and with David Hare (Philanthropist for western education
spread) + with Macaulay.
● (Died in 1833).
● Roy (and Young Bengal) demanded separation of powers, freedom of the
press, Indianisation of civil services, and trial by jury.

Sati: (3:09 PM)

● Reasons = Greed of relatives was the primary reason, as they didn’t want to
share the property with the widow.
● The stereotype of the ideal wife, following the husband even after death.
● Sati was not a widespread phenomenon and existed only in Bengal among
upper castes.
 ● In the 1800s, began to be practiced even among lower castes in Bengal due
to the desire for higher status for caste.
● Missionaries opposed Sati but failed.
● Therefore the main role was of Roy in Sati Abolition in 1829.
● The scripture-based debate took place BS 1828, and orthodox sections like
Dharma Sabha of Radha Kanta Deb.
● Bentick 2835 made it a pre-condition for abolishing the Sati by law, that it be
proved that Sati is not in line with the Indian scriptures
● Roy proved that Sati is a murder as per every Shastra.
● Finally abolished by law in 1829 by Bentick.
● DBT took over leadership after Roy.
● Brahmoism was a major religious movement based on monotheism among
the educated upper caste middle-class Bengalis.
● (i.e. not among masses).
● DBT gave organizational strength to BS 1828.
● BS 1828 failed due to organizational and ideological differences:
● Kesab Chand Sen, KCS: Radical Reformer
● Debendra Nath Tagore, DBT: Gradualist.
● KCS argued strongly in favour of women's rights.
● For example, pro-Widow remarriage, and against Child Marriage, and
questioned the high caste leadership of BS 1828. And pro-intercaste marriage
and attacked the institution of caste.
● Issues of caste and women were considered too sensitive by gradualists in
the early 19th Century.
● Therefore DBT feared the alienation of Hindus from BS 1828.
● KCS tried to make Brahmo Samaj a mass movement by spreading it among
common men, outside Calcutta, and even outside Bengal.
● Started Missionary activities, i.e. wanted people to leave Hinduism and adopt
Brahmoism while DBT did not want a break from Hinduism.
● Therefore Radicalism of KCS, and differences with DBT on goals and
methods led to a break in Brahmo Samaj in 1866.
● KCS set up BSOI (Brahmo Samaj of India) while DBT set up Adi Brahmo
Samaj (Adi: original). Therefore Roy is: Gradualist.

Efforts of KCS: (3:38 PM)

● Role in setting up of Prarthna Samaj 1867, in Maharashtra.

● His efforts led to Brahmo Marriages Act 1872, by Mayo 1869-72.
● Under this intercaste marriages and widow remarriages were legal.
● But failed because it required the bride and groom to leave Hinduism and
(adopt Brahmoism).
● Further split in BSOI in 1866, therefore now formation of Sadharan Brahmo
Samaj.
● Reason:
 ● KCS married off his minor daughter, therefore causing controversy.
● Therefore BS failed due to multiple splits.

Maharastra (3:45 PM)

Paramhans Mandali, 1849:

● Worked like Young Bengal, therefore failed like Young Bengal.

Prarthana Samaj: 1867:

● Formed after the efforts of KCS, and founder = Atmaram Panduranga.

● However, a major role was played by MG Ranade, RG Bhandarkar, and KT
Telang.
● Goals: Idolatry, Priestcraft, Marriages (Child/Widow Remarriage), Infanticide,
Casteism, Polytheism, Polygamy.
● Therefore did focus on caste and women.
● However followed the method of gradualism, as did not want a break from
Hinduism.
● (Refer to Indian Social Reformers Handout for MG Ranade)
● Prarthana Samaj opened branches outside Maharastra: Gujarat, Karachi, and
Madras.
● In Telegu-speaking areas of Madras, Veerasalingam Pantulu set up a society
for widow remarriage, however slow reforms in Madras due to slow progress
of Western Education and high Casteism.

Child Marriage: (3:55 PM)

● Reason: Ghar Bandhan Ceremony which had a religious basis, as per which
marriage before puberty and consummation of marriage post-puberty.
● Since child marriage had a religious basis, therefore, it was more of a
socio-religious issue.
● Therefore high use of scriptures by orthodox sections and reformers, both.
● Efforts of Ishwarchand Vidyasagar led to the Age of Consent Act, 1860.
● That set the minimum age of consummation to 10 years.
● Akshay Kumar Dutta cited medical reasons against Child Marriage.

Rukma Bai Case: 1884-88: (4:00 PM)

● Married as an infant, and after decades of separate living argued that

marriage is invalid.
● 22-year-old Rukma Bai was taken to court by her husband on grounds of
denial of his conjugal rights.
● The real fight was between reformers and orthodox Hindus who supported the
husband.
 ● Rukma Bai Defence Committee of Social Reforms was led by Malabari (His
1884 Note that Child Marriage = enforced widowhood created a huge
controversy in Maharashtra).
● She lost the case.
● Two years later in 1890, the death of 11 years old Pholmuni was due to sexual
abuse by her husband.
● Therefore Lansdown brought the Age of Consent Bill 1891.
● That set the minimum age of consummation to 12 years.
● Huge controversy, as orthodox Hindus opposed the Bill strongly.
● Tilak argued that the British have no right to interfere in Indian Customs, and
any reform should be the product of a social movement, and not British
legislative and executive authority.
● (Therefore the issue is of jurisdiction)
● RG Bhandarkar of Poona Deccan College and PS 1867 showed by research
on Dharmashastras that Hinduism allows marriage after puberty.
● Overall, reforms against child marriage failed.

The topic for the next class: Widow Remarriage.

Widow Remarriage: (1:07 PM)

● There existed a phenomenon of child widows, due to child marriage with the
high age gap.
● For example, Malabari, 1884 Note on Child Marriage led to enforced
widowhood which created a huge controversy in Maharashtra.
● Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar’s efforts: Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
● However, women lost the right to the property of their dead husbands.
● In Maharashtra, Vishnu Shastri Pandit set up a society for WR in 1866.
● Therefore debate continued even after the 1856 Act.
● Jytibha Phule made efforts among lower castes in Maharashtra for WR, but
he failed.
● Pandita Ramabai (MH), married late, married a man from a lower caste, then
became a widow, and later, went to England, converted to Christianity, and
worked for the welfare of widows in Maharastra and other women-related
reforms.
● For example, set up Widow Home, but such examples were rare among
women.
● In Madras, Veersalingam Pantulu set up a society for WR in Telugu-speaking
areas.
● Result = Reforms for WR were fiercely debated, with high use of scriptures
in debate.
● The reforms failed as orthodox Hindus won scripture-based debates, i.e.
proved that Hinduism does not allow WR.
 ● The issue became highly popular, and therefore now, even lower castes
stopped practicing WR.
● By 1900, only 39 WRs in MH.
● It succeeded in Haryana, as there, WR was already practiced.
● (Refers to Indian Social Reformers)

Criticism of Reforms: (2:05 PM)

● Led by upper caste Western Educated Brahmins.

● Therefore, little or no presence of lower caste leaders.
● And this hurt success of reforms.
● Lower castes did not associate with.
● A major focus was on women-related reforms.
● Since British used the benchmark of the status of women, to decide the status
of civilization.
● However, no leadership by women.
● And this hurt progress and success of reforms.
● Was led by Brahmins, but was anti-priests.
● Reform was a response to criticism of Indian civilization by the British.
● And inspired by the doctrine of reason and humanism.
● The primary importance was of scriptures.
● As reformers, orthodox sections as well as the British gave primary
importance to scriptures.
● (quote examples from previous discussions. For example, Roy translated the
Upanishads to Bangla to prove that Hinduism favors monotheism.)
● Therefore reforms searched for modernity within Indian scriptures.
● And did not suggest the adoption of British culture on grounds that it was
superior. (Cultural Nationalism).
● Early reformers relied on British legislative and executive authority, therefore,
reforms were top-down reforms and not bottom-up based on a mass
movement.
● The use of British authority led to distrust among the masses towards reforms.
● Western Educated reformers did not even try to make it a mass movement.
● For example, Roy used complex Sanskritized Bengali prose not understood
by the common man
● And the small size of the reformist organization, e.g. PS 1867 had just 72
members.
● Therefore only the upper caste middle class was the target of social reforms.
● Method of gradualism by most reformists.
● Reformers stayed largely silent on the issue of casteism.
● Either because they were themselves from upper castes the issue of caste
was considered too sensitive or radical, therefore feared alienation from upper
caste Hindus.
 ● There were rival organizations of orthodox sections, that had a greater
support base, especially after 1857.
● As British racism increased.
● The reformers’ lack of focus on building a mass movement allowed orthodox
sections to capture the leadership of the masses.
● And this contributed to the failure of reforms.
● (for example, Dharma Sabha vs. BS 1828 in the context of Sati, a rival
orthodox section set up to counter Vishnu Shastri Pandit’s Society for WR in
1866 in MH).

Post-1857 Social Reformers and Revivalism, 1875 onwards: (2:23 PM)

● Revivalism: Hinduism is superior to other religions which are inferior.

● Positive revivalism: Hinduism is great/ superior or universalism.
● Gradually Post 1857, there was a shift toward greater cultural nationalism,
and then towards revivalism. (from Reformism of pre-1857)
● Revivalism meant a stronger assertion of Indian traditions.
● Now reformism seemed to mean excepting that Indians are uncivilized.
● There was now a greater assertion by reformers like Ramkrishna
Paramhans, Swami Vivekananda, and Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
● However, this cultural nationalism got transformed into Hindu revivalism as
per which the Hindu past was glorious and degeneration took place under
Muslim and Christian rule.
● And that not just Hinduism is superior, but also other religions are inferior.
● This was in contrast to universalism, i.e. all religions lead to god.

Ramakrishna Paramhans: (2:47 PM)

● Became popular among western educated Bengalis.

● He was an ascetic, who believed in meditation, renunciation, and
monotheism.
● Became famous among educated Bengalis, who hated Chakari, the
drudgery of new clerical jobs.
● He did not directly criticize Colonial rule or western culture, however, due to
pure focus on Hinduism, rejection of Western values and western superiority
was inherent.

Swami Vivekananda: (2:56 PM)

● Believed in the superiority of Hinduism and also in Universalism.

● Set up Ramakrishna Mission in name of his guru for spreading the message
of Vedanta and social work.
● A Christian could be a better Christian if they follow the philosophy of
Vedanta, therefore is no focus on conversion but on the spread of values and
morals of Vedanta.
 ● The service of Jiva is the worship of Shiva.
● Therefore they believed in social work, as the path to spiritualism.
● He popularized the idea of Daridra Narayan. I.e. god residing in the poor.
● Indian masculinity is superior to western masculinity, as the former focuses on
not just physical strength but also mental spirituality.
● Therefore Indians are not feminine as argued by the British and in fact Indian
masculinity is superior.
● Started movement for setting up Akhadas/Gyms.
● Believed in the supremacy of Vedas.
● And accepted idolatry and some Hindu rituals.
● As they simply helped develop religious fervor.
● This led to greater acceptability of Swami Vivekananda among the masses.
● Represented Hinduism in Parliament of Religions in Chicago, US, in 1893.
● Where he argued that Western Materialism and Indian Spiritualism should
come together for the welfare of mankind.
● Netaji Bose called him the Spiritual Father of INM in Bengal.
● Therefore represents Cultural Nationalism and pride without being communal.

Arya Samaj 1875: (3:17 PM)

● Started by Swami Dayanada Saraswati (died in 1883).

● Believed in:
● Vedas are infallible.
● That is the ‘Supremacy of Vedas’.
● Promoted Hinduism as a religion of the book, like Islam and Christianity.
● (i.e. Book’s authority is final).
● Argued that real scientific truths are available in Vedas.
● The goal was to go back to the pure Vedic past.
● Therefore Arya Samaj was an aggressive response to British civilizations'
criticism. And racism.
● Arya Samaj strongly argued against:
● Caste system and untouchability and supported intercaste marriages.
● And supported Varnashrama.
● And opposed idolatry, priestcraft, polytheism, polygamy, and child marriage,
and strongly supported Widow Remarriage and female education.
● Therefore Arya Samaj was not conservative, and in fact, wanted radical
reforms.
● Arya Samaj failed because demanded radical reforms, therefore did not get
the support of reformist organizations, and orthodox sections.
● It was successful in Punjab and NW Provinces.
● After 1883, death of SDS, Arya Samaj became a revivalist under Guru Dutta
and Lekhram, who now began preaching Vedas with missionary zeal, and
started Shuddhi Movement for reconversion to Hinduism.
 ● In response, Sikhs started Singh Sabha Movement and Muslims began
Tabligh and Tanzeem Movements, and Arya Samaj in the 1880s-90s began
Cow Protection.
● And in 1893, there were Cow Killing Riots.
● Therefore post 1883, there was an increase in communal tension.

Topic for the next class: Peasant Revolts (pre/post-1857), Tribal Uprisings.

Pre 1857 Peasant Revolts and Tribal Uprisings. (1:07 PM)

● 1857 Uprising/Revolt was a culmination of small and big rebellions in the

first 100 years of British Rule.

Grievances of peasants (Pre 1857 and Post 1857):

Farming 1772 (Bengal)

● Oppression by revenue farmers.

● Who did not respect Patta, extracted high LR.
● And had the support of British officials.

Permanent Settlement 1793: (BOB in North Madras)

● Oppression by zamindar via higher rents, lack of occupancy rights, illegal

Abwabs.
● British officials and British courts who supported zamindars.

Ryotwari Settlement (SCAM - B) and Mahalwari (C, U, P)

● High LR by the British government and loss of land in the auction by the
government; high-interest rates on loans given by money lenders (to pay high
LR).
● Loss of land to moneylenders due to nonpayment of loans, British officials and
Courts

Contract Farming: (1:23 PM)

● Oppression by Indigo planters in Bengal, pre-1863, and in Bihar, mainly

post-1863.
● Ryots were forced to grow Indigo by taking loans from Indigo planters.
● Ryoti system in Bengal: Forced to grow Indigo on 25% of their lands.
● Tinkathiya System in Bihar:
● They were forced to grow Indigo on 15% or 3/20 of their lands.
● Indigo cultivation had a long-lasting negative impact on soil productivity.
● Continued indebtedness to planters as they did not give remunerative price to
Ryots for Indigo cultivators.
 ● Since contracts were enforceable, therefore, British courts and officials
supported planters.
● Ineffective implementation of the Rent Act 1859 in Bengal leading to
zamindars disrespecting occupancy rights. (Act gave occupancy rights to
Ryots who cultivated land for more than 12 years).

Grievance of Religion under threat: (1:32 PM)

● Because of Christian missionaries.

● Britishers ended revenue-free or rent-free tenures on lands of religious sects
or temples and mosques.
● Religion helped in giving organization to revolts in form of unity, a leader, and
a program.
● Especially when a religious community revolted.

Tribal Grievances pre/post-1857: (1:46 PM)

● Tribals: Two special aspects: Tribal autonomy and living in forests.

● Grievances agrarian order/life turned upside down by outsiders.
● The British government and its laws hurt Tribal autonomy.
● British LR systems led to economic oppression.
● The influx of outsiders in form of zamindars from plains, revenue farmers,
merchants and moneylenders, Christian missionaries, and British businesses,
due to railroad construction and British greed for timber.
● The primary concern of the British was the extraction of LR, therefore in many
cases, zamindars of plains made land owners of tribal areas.
● Revenue farmers: To them forest lands were farmed out, at times Tribal chief
was recognized as zamindar.
● However, due to high LR demand, there was an influx of moneylenders and
indebtedness to moneylenders.
● British also did land acquisition for railroad construction.
● Therefore there was the loss of land to outsiders, i.e. zamindars, revenue
farmers, merchants, moneylenders, and the British government.
● The autonomy of Tribal chiefs and tribals hurt because of the application of
British laws in civil and criminal matters.
● British law banned Phodu/Jhum/Shifting/Slash-and-burn cultivation.
● And banned hunting because wanted settled peasant communities for ease of
LR collection.
● And for maximizing LR collection.
● There was a loss of home for tribals because of:
● British forest laws categorized forests into reserved (no access to tribals),
protected (tribals can use forest produce but only for personal consumption
and not for commerce/sale.), and uncategorized (open to all).
● Loss of home because of land acquisition for railroad projects, mining, and for
exploiting forest produce. (timber).
 ● Tribals were made to do forced labor on these projects.

Peasant Revolts: (2:16 PM)

● Those which are led by peasants.

● Where leadership is of elites, e.g. ex-Raja = Civil uprisings.
● Western Educated Middle Class responded to British Rule in form of social
reforms.
● They believed in providence or benevolence of British Rule, i.e. British will
modernize India.
● They also benefited from British Rule.
● That is, jobs created by British Rule.
● And through Permanent Settlement 1793.
● INM leaders called pre-1857 revolts as Pre-history of Modern Nationalism.
● It was the peasants and tribals who were first to respond to British Rule with
defiance and often voluntary.
● They were aggrieved of the New LR system, high LR and loss of their lands,
and oppression by moneylenders.
● The tribals lost their autonomy and their homelands to outsiders.

Revolts led by Elites/Civil Uprisings: (2:38 PM)

● Raja Chaitsingh of Banaras revolted when he was removed due to

non-payment of revenue. (1778-81)
● Deposed Nawab Wajir Ali (1797-98) revolted in 1799 in Awadh with peasant
support.
● (Refer to Annexation of Awadh topic)
● Bundela Chiefs of Bundelkhand revolted due to British interference after SA,
after the 2nd Anglo Maratha War 1803-05.
● Ground support was of peasants.
● In South India:
● Polygars (who were traditionally autonomous, revolted from 1799-1805
against the British, in Madras Presidency/Province)
● Loss of status due to British Rule of law and Ryotwari settlement led to the
loss of lands, and high LR demands that hurt peasants.
● The revolt by Diwan Velu Thampi of Travancore in 1809, with the help of
Nayar Troops and peasants.
● Grievance: interference by British resident after SA 1805.

Revolts where peasants took initiative: (2:48 PM)

● Rangpur Rebellion:
● 1783 in North Bengal:
● Grievance:
● Oppression by Revenue farmers/contractors, under Farming System 1772.
 ● And the corruption of British officials who supported revenue farmers (RF
worked under the supervision of European DC).
● Action: Targeted Bebi Singh and Govider Singh by looting their grain stores,
attacking prisons and releasing Ryots. Attacked local courts.
● For some time, ran their own government using money from self-imposed
taxes.
● Result:
● Crushed by the British.

Mysore: 1830-31:

● After 1799, Wodyar Dynasty was brought back by British.

● And the grievance of the peasants was high LR demands, and they revolted
against Wodyar Dynasty and British agents.
● Result:
● British crushed the revolt.

Religion played important role in the following revolts:

● Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion.

● Pabna Rebellion: In North Bengal and Bihar.
● These were religious sects.
● Dasnami Sanyasis included among their members, peasants and small
traders.
● Grievance: High Rents, and monopoly of EIC agents over domestic trade of
Bengal.

Madari Fakirs:

● Included among their members were peasants. And they enjoyed rent-free
tenures traditionally.
● Which was now ended by EIC.
● Both groups had good relations due to similar religious philosophies.
● They revolted but were finally crushed by the British.

Pagal Panthis Revolt:

● Revolt in East Bengal 1823-33:

● The leaders of this sect were Karim Shah and Tipu Shah.
● Grievance: High rents, illegal abwabs, lack of occupancy rights.
● Action: Tipu Shah promised lower rents, post-victory over zamindars and
British.
● Result: Crushed by the British.

Titu Mir of 24 Parganas:

 ● (in 1837)
● Titu Mir belonged to Wahabi Sect.
● Wahabism teaches the teachings of Shah Waliullah of Delhi.
● Followers of Titu were poor peasants, and they also followed a distinct
identity, unique dress and beard.
● Grievance:
● Tax on Beards and high rents, oppression by Indigo planters.
● Result:
● Established their own government, and self-imposed taxes, but were finally
crushed by Army.

Faraizi Movement: (the 1830s and 1870s)

● In Bengal.
● Led by a father-son duo Hazi Shariatullah and Dudu Mia.
● The sect believed in the philosophy that Quran is the only true book, and
wanted to remove all un-islamic beliefs and therefore purify Islam by going
back to the golden past.
● Grievance: Oppression by Indigo planters/Zamindars and British officials.
● Action:
● Dudu Mia declared land is of God, therefore, tax/rent on land is ungodly.
● Result:
● Set up own government, self-imposed taxes, set up own courts, finally
crushed.

Moplah Revolt/Mopillah Revolt in Malabar: (1840s) 3:15 PM

● Malabar was annexed by EIC after 3rd Anglo-Mysore War.

● Traditionally:
● Jannies (members of Brahmin Princely families) were landed magnets.
● While Kannakarans were supervisors who collected LR.
● And, Verumpattakarans: Moplah (rural Muslim peasants).
● Traditionally earnings were shared between the three sections:
● And all three enjoyed some rights in land.
● Grievance:
● EIC recognized jannies as legal land owners.
● And now Moplahs lost all traditional rights.
● And were oppressed by jannies.
● Action:
● Moplahs revolted violently, and revolt took the communal colour, as
oppressors and oppressed had a particular religious identity.
● Result:
● Crushed by EIC army.

Tribal Uprisings pre-1857: (3:26 PM)

Kandh Uprising:

● 1837-56:
● In Bihar.
● Grievance:
● Ban on Human sacrifice.
● Was led by Chakra Basoi.

Kol Uprising:

● 1831-32.
● In Chotanagpur and Singhbhum of Bihar and Orissa.
● Grievance:
● Tribal autonomy was hurt by British authorities, the influx of outsiders, or suds.
● Raja of Chota Nagpur farmed out lands to merchants and moneylenders,
therefore loss of lands to suds.
● Action:
● Kols attacked the property of suds and not their lives.
● Result:
● British army crushed it.

Khasi Uprising:

● Grievance:
● Loss of land, due to Brahmputra-Silhyt Road.
● Inflow of outsiders, ie. British businesses and their agents and British officials.
● Was led by Tirath Singh.
● Result:

Santhan Hool:

● (1855-56).
● In Rajmahal Hills.
● Grievance: Loss of their fatherland or Damini Koh to Dikus.
● British gave tribal lands to non-Santhal zamindars and moneylenders.
● Railroad construction led to land alienation.
● Santhals gave a prior warning in 1855 to the British and then revolted under
Sedo Murmu and Kanhu Murmu, to win back their fatherland from outsiders.
● The unholy trinity of British, zamindars, and moneylenders was attacked with
bows and arrows.
● And the British Rule collapsed.
● British took violent revenge, and they burnt villages and killed 50,000
Santhals.
● Therefore crushing the Revolt.
 ● However, a separate administrative unit Santhal Parganas was created with
protection to Tribal Culture and Identity.

Character of Pre-1857 Revolts: (3:42 PM)

● Modern Nationalism was missing, as they were not all Indian movements.
● There was no coordination between each other.
● No outside leaders, and only local leaders.
● And the goal was not democracy.
● Also lacked proper planning, and were spontaneous in many cases.
● However, they are called the pre-history of Modern Nationalism.
● As they were political in nature, and not apolitical.
● A political movement had an ideology, organization, planning, and political
symbolism.
● Peasants clearly knew their oppressors and tools of oppression. E.g. they did
not attack the life of the oppressor, in many cases, but property, account
books of moneylenders, etc.
● Santhals declared that traditionally, they have hunted game, and now they
hunt their oppressors.
● Crimes are done secretly, and their revolts were public.
● For example, public meetings were held, for example, Santhals gave a prior
warning in 1855.
● The program was there, for example, large meetings were held and planning
was done.
● The organization was there as in many cases, they set up their own
government, own courts, and self-imposed taxes.
● And religion-based bonds in form of sects also provided organization and
leaders.
● Ideology was there, and they wanted to restore the moral order disturbed by
British rule.
● Therefore anti-colonial ideology was there.
● Political symbolism in form of grand marches.
● For example, the fatherland idea of Santhals.

Post- 1857 Tribal Revolts (3:58 PM)

● Munda Ulugulan (1899-1900) in Chota Nagpur: Leader = Birsa Munda.

● Grievance: Loss of lands to outsiders, oppression by British officials,
activities of Christian missionaries.
● Action: leadership taken by Birsa Munda, people came to believe in the
Supernatural powers of Birsa.
● Therefore religion gave courage to the Tribals to rise against the mighty
British.
● Political symbolism was present as Mundas revolted on 25th December
1899.
 ● Result:
● Crushed by the British.

Rampa Rebellion: (1879)

● In Rama Hills of Andhra.

● Also known as Tripuri.
● Grievance:
● Commercial exploitation of forests, and construction of roads led to land
alienation, and loss of lands to merchants and moneylenders.
● Restriction on the use of forest resources.
● Prohibition on Podu, tax on local drink Toddy.
● Action:
● Firturi was led by Muttadars who were local estate holders.
● Result:
● Crushed by 1880, and in the 1920s, the movement merged into the Gandhian
struggle.
● For example, violation of forest laws in Andhra, during NCM in 1920-22.

Topic for the next class: Post-1857 Peasant Revolts, Early Indian Nationalism.

Indigo Revolt (1859-63): (1:05 PM)

● New features emerged in peasant movements, post-1857.

● Greater awareness of British laws and institutions.
● For e.g., peasants used British courts for grievance redressal.
● Therefore they were politically more aware.
● Now middle class began taking up the leadership of peasants.
● Therefore peasant questions became part of modern INM. (Small Level,
properly post 1920).

Indigo Revolt (Context): 1:16 PM

● 1788: EIC began Indigo plantation by giving loans to 10 European planters in

Bengal.
● European planters leased lands from zamindars.

Indigo Cultivation Systems: (1:27 PM)

● Nij System (Bengal)

● Planters bought land and directly hired labour for cultivating Indigo.
● Problems:
● Had to buy large tracts of land, and the problem of mobilizing labour, bullocks
and ploughs.
● Ryoti System (Bengal):
● Lease large lands from zamindars.
 ● Planters signed contracts with tenant ryots, whereby Ryot must grow Indigo
on at least 25% of occupied lands.
● Planters gave advances and loans on low rates to ryots, so they could buy
Indigo Seeds and seed drills, etc. from planters.
● Easier than Nij as labor already present on land.
● Tinkathiya System (Bihar):
● Same as Ryoti System, but here 3/20 or 15% of the land.

Pre-1857 revolts against Indigo Planters: (1:35 PM)

● Titu Mir of 24 Parganas (1831+ Faraizi Movement 1830s under Dudu Mia in
East Bengal)
● The fertility of soil was destroyed by Indigo plantation, continued
indebtedness, and forced cultivation and oppression by agents of European
planters= Grievances.
● Trigger:
● Fall in international prices of Indigo and sympathetic LG of Bengal who asked
DCs to take sides of Ryots in case of conflict with planters.
● Liberals:
● Believe in a free market economy.
● Action:
● Ryots refused advances and did a social boycott of agents of planters, and
zamindars supported ryots, as against domination by Indigo planters.

Use of British Courts: (1:41 PM)

● Planters went to courts to enforce contracts for Indigo cultivation.

● Now Ryots began the no-rent campaign.
● And now planters tried eviction.
● Now Ryots went to courts to enforce their occupancy rights under Rent Act
1859.
● Therefore peasants were more organized and aware of the British system.

Role of educated middle class and missionaries: (1:45 PM)

● Deenbandhu Mitra wrote a play ‘Neel Darpan’ in 1860: Which showed

oppression by European planters, therefore increasing awareness about the
issue.
● Bengali poet Micheal Madhusudan Dutta translated the Play into English.
● Christian Missionary James Long published it leading to awareness in
England.
● Indian press began the campaign by writing aggressive editorials.
● British Indian Association 1851 (BrIA) an organization of educated
zamindars, supported Indigo Ryots.
● Result:
 ● British set up Indigo Commission 1860: It asked Ryots to fulfil present
contracts but free to not sign future contracts.
● Therefore by 1863, Indigo cultivation shifted from Bengal to Bihar, where
grievance became the Tinkathiya System.
● Champaran Satyagrah 1917: Mahatma Gandhi led peasants leading to the
Champaran Agricultural Act 1918, which led to the decline of the Tinkathiya
System.

Pabna Agrarian Leagues, 1873: (2:01 PM)

● Grievance: High rents, illegal abwabs, zamindars not respecting occupancy

right under 1859 Rent Act.
● Action:
● Peasants organized themselves into leagues and pooled money to fight in
courts.
● Naya Miya replicated the movement in other districts.
● Result:
● Bengal Tenancy Act, 1885 gave more protection to tenants regarding
occupancy rights.
● For example, Ryot, who had cultivated different lands but in the same village:
To have occupancy rights.
● Educated Middle Class got divided as now Indian Landlords were under
attack.
● And this division was seen in the press.
● As some newspapers supported zamindars.

Deccan Riots: (1875, Maharashtra) 2:15 PM

● Grievance:
● Oppression by money lenders.
● High interest on loans, loss of land due to indebtedness, high LR in Ryotwari
and loss of land in auctions on non-payment of LR.
● Action:
● Poona Sarwajanik Sabha 1870 an organization of the western educated
middle class, collected 17,000 signatures on the power of attorneys by Ryots
to represent them in front of the government.
● Convinced government:
● Now confiscation of land is to be the last resort for recovery of LR. (take the
moveable property, give more time for LR payment).
● However, moneylenders refused loans, therefore peasants were unable to
pay LR and now violent revolt began in 1875.
● The life of the moneylender was spared and debt bonds were burnt.
● Therefore peasants were aware of the tools of oppression.
● Result:
 ● Deccan Agriculturalist Relief Act, 1879 gave protection against loss of land
due to indebtedness and regulated interest rates on loans.
● (World History: US Civil War 1861-65 increased prices of raw cotton; end of
war: prices decreased).

Pre-INC INM/Pre-INC organizations: (2:29 PM)

● Trace the emergence of INM until the formation of INC. (10 marks / 150
words)
● Nationalism at an organizational level at the top as against peasant struggles
on grounds emerged in the second half of the 19th Century.
● The first contribution to modern politics/nationalism came from educated
zamindars.
● When in the run-up to Charter Act 1853, they set up regional organizations
and sent petitions to the British parliament for legitimate Indian demands.
● However, they failed to set up single all-India organization, and failed to send
joint demands.
● Begnal:
● British Indian Association 1851:
● Was the first major voluntary organization, based in Calcutta.
● Had educated members of the landed class.
● And represented zamindars’ interests and was an all-Indian organization
against Land Holder’s Society 1838 of Dwarkanath Tagore, which had many
non-official Britishers/Anglo Indians.
● Similarly, the Bombay Association 1852 and Madras Native Association 1852
were set up.
● They sent the following demands in three separate petitions to British petitions
to the British Parliament before Charter Act 1853.
● Complaint against high taxes, expensive administration, against salt and
opium monopolies. And against the neglect of education and public works.
● And against incompetent administration.
● Therefore they were not opposed to British Rule but wanted to highlight that
Indians haven’t benefited from British Rule, and therefore made the first
contribution to modern nationalism. (notice very mild demands).
● And no demand for self-government.
● Results:
● No demands were met, as the British assumed unconditional loyalty of the
landed and educated class, as they had greatly benefited from British rule.
● However, post-1857, where leadership was provided by the landed class and
Indian rulers, the British wanted the support of these sections, therefore, they
were nominated to Councils. (ILC, PLCs) created by ICA, in 1861.

Rise of INM post-1857, due to the following factors: (3:05 PM)

 ● Rapid spread of western education among the middle class. (refer to
Education Reforms).
● Greater interconnectedness due to railways and telegraph.
● Rapid development of the press.
● Colonial institutions like legislative councils, where Indians could raise their
political demands.
● British racism and authoritarianism.
● Inspired by ideas of modern nationalism, due to western education, the
educated middle class took leadership of INM.
● They used tools of the press to raise the demands of Indians.
● And later, the Moderates used legislative councils for the same.
● Railways, telegraphs, and press allowed greater interaction between regional
leaders and greater interregional awareness.
● Racial Tensions led to opposition to British Rule.
● Lex Loci Act/Removal of Religious Disabilities Act 1850: passed despite
opposition by Hindus. Hindu converts to Christianity was given the right to
inheritance.
● Black Acts, 1850:
● Brought British-born subjects into the presidency towns under criminal
jurisdiction of ordinary courts, where Indians were judges.
● Had to be put on hold due to high opposition by anglo-Indians.
● Therefore controversy increased the psychological distance between the two
races.
● Rise of Cultural Nationalism in response to British Criticism of Indian
Civilisation post-1857.
● (later Extremists, i.e. late 1880s, 90s, like Lal-Bal-Pal made use of this
Cultural Nationalism for strengthening political nationalism).

Role of Education: (3:27 PM)

● The rapid growth of Western Education led to rising of the western educated
middle-class post-1857.
● British wanted to colonize Indian minds, i.e. crate Brown Sahib, however, we
used the education to develop a criticism of British Rule, especially when, the
educated middle class realized that the British had no intention of sharing
power with Indians.
● Due to western education, there was a growth of enlightenment ideas.
● Uneven growth of western education led to uneven growth of modern INM.
● For example, 3 presidencies benefitted more compared to other regions, and
within presidencies, presidency towns benefitted more.
● Marathi is benefitted than Gujarati speaking.
● Bengali > Odia, Bhojpuri speaking.
● Tamil > Telugu, Kannada speaking.
● Since education was not free, therefore Upper Caste> Lower Castes.
 ● Middle Class>Workers and Peasant Class.
● Hindu>Muslims.
● Where Muslims were rich, either they were landlords who had less utility of
Western education or wanted to preserve Persian Culture and poor Muslims
were under the domination of Ulemas who feared Western culture.
● Result:
● More political activity in more educated regions and groups.

Role of Press:

● Expression to demands of our rights made via the press.

● Spread of nationalistic ideas due to the rapid growth of the Indian press.
● And after Social Reformers, the press was used for political propaganda.
● In 1875, 400 Indian newspapers in English and Vernaculars with a readership
of 1.5 lakh.
● Result:
● Press increased political consciousness and boosted inter-region awareness
and solidarity.
● (on the question of press use content from: Social Reforms, Indigo, Pabna
peasant movements and Vernacular Press act 1878, Illbert Bill
Controversy 1883-84, Moderates and even Extremists and MG, and all
political organizations used newspapers and Harijan campaign of MG).

Introduction of Income Tax in 1860: (3:54 PM)

● In 1860s-70s famines in different parts, still British introduced Income Tax in

1860.
● Led to protests in Press.
● Therefore withdrawn by the British, but was then reintroduced in 1868 by the
British.
● Therefore taxation without representation became a grievance of educated
Indians.
● And NTWR became the slogan: No taxation without representation.
● The INM was inspired by NTWR (No taxation without representation).
● High expenditure on Army, and administration combined with an increase in
taxes, while expenditure on higher education decreased in the 1870s.
● Due to increased agitation in press by educated Indians, the Anglo-Indian
press in India began propaganda that educated Indians are becoming
seditious.
● Therefore in 1870, the government decreased expenditure on higher
education in Bengal.

Administration of Lytton, 1876-80: (4:05 PM)

● Notice we coming closer to 1885, and British negatives increasing.

 ● Decreased Age-Limit for CS exam from 21 to 19 in 1876.
● While demand for the simultaneous exam in India was ignored.
● (Exam: 1853 Charter, first held in 1855, in India GoI 1919.
● And first held in 1922.)
● Therefore he distrusted Indians and did not want us in senior administrative
positions.
● Statutory Civil Services 1878 was created by Lytton to operationalize
provisions of British law of 1870, that wanted more Indians in CS.
● Lytton however ensured that only loyalist Indians are nominated to Statutory
CS.
● Where entry was via nomination and not by examination.
● There was a huge press campaign for the Indianisation of CS from 1877-80.
● Imperial/Delhi Durbar 1877: Here Queen Victoria got Coronated as
Kaiser-i-Hind/Empress of India, and huge expenditure at a time when
famines in different parts.
● Vernacular Press Act, 1878:
● To curb freedom of the press.
● As the vernacular press was becoming increasingly critical of British policies.
● Printers and publishers of the vernacular press to deposit money as an
advance that could be forfeited if they published any objectionable content
(anti-British).
● This led to huge agitation in the press, and even British parliamentarian
Gladstone (a liberal, 4-time Prime minister) criticized the act.

Arm’s Act 1878: (4:16 PM)

● Indians needed a license to own arms, while Europeans and Eurasians did
not.
● Therefore, racism in the form of oppression.
● Lytton’s Afghan adventure, i.e. expensive and avoidable 2nd Afghan War
(1878-80), was fought due to fear of increasing Russian influence in
Afghanistan.
● Treaty with Russia after the war led to the modern borders of Afghanistan.
● Therefore, avoidable war expenditure at times of famines.
● In 1880, Liberal Party came to power in Britain, and liberal Ripon 8084 was
sent as Viceroy.

The topic for the next class: Explanation of Lytton’s administration and Ripon.

Positive regime of Ripon 8084: (1:11 PM)

● Repealed Vernacular Press Act 1878 in 1882.

● Amended Arms Act 1878 to remove racial discrimination clauses, i.e.
everyone required a license for owning arms.
Local Self Government Resolution, 1882:

● There existed committees for different works.

● Like sanitation, road construction, education, etc. in rural areas, and
municipalities in urban towns.
● However, they were under official control (members, chairman = IAS,
day-to-day government control).
● Reforms strengthened urban and rural local bodies via LSG Resolution 1882.
● And by 1884, the effect was visible in the whole of British India.
● The purpose was to train Indians in self-governance.
● That is to politically educate Indians. (notice liberalism in operation).
● Now in rural areas district/taluk boards were set up across the whole of British
India.
● And their members to be elected by rent payers and taxpayers, instead of
nomination.
● (therefore poor tenants got the right to vote at the LSG level).
● In urban towns, powers of Municipalities increased, and minimum ⅔ elected
members and maximum ⅓ nominated members.
● Chairman to be a non-official member.
● Subjects of health, education, roads, communication, etc.
● Given to local bodies which were to be autonomous in day-to-day
● However, the government could inspect and also dissolve the local body.
● Like regulators today.

Hunter Education Commission (1882-83):

● Set up to assess progress since Woods Despatch 1854. (Mass western

education in Vernaculars).
● Focused and ailing primary and secondary education suffered even more
after the transfer of education subject in 1870 to provinces.
● As Provincial governments lacked funds.
● Recommendations:
● Transfer education subject to local bodies.
● Focus on mass education in vernaculars, and on female education, especially
outside 3 presidencies.
● Divide secondary education into literary and vocational subjects.
● Ripon 8084 increased age limit for CS exam from 19 to 21.

Ilbert Bill Controversy 1883-84:

● By CP Ilbert, a law member in Ripon’s council.

● Bill gave jurisdiction to Indian judges over British-born subjects in Mafussil
areas as they already had in presidential towns.
● Strongly opposed by non-official Anglo-Indians and British officials.
 ● For example, LG of Bengal River Thompson argued that the bill ignored
racial distinctions.
● Bill had to be withdrawn and amended and a compromise made.
● Trial by mixed-jury in cases involving British-born subjects.
● The controversy was a turning point for educated Indians, as any doubt
regarding our subordination to British and British racism was removed.
● An important benchmark in the growth of political activities in India due to
massive press propaganda.
● The proposal for the simultaneous exam in India failed.
● Therefore all positive reforms of Ripon were strongly opposed by the British in
India.

Rise of associations led by Middle-Class professionals in the 1870s: (1:55 PM)

● They gradually replaced the domination of organizations of the landed class.

● British Indian Association 1851 (Nominated to ILC post)

Bombay:

● Young western-educated Indians like MG Ranade, K T Telang, and

Phirozshah Mehta, challenged the domination of the Bombay Association in
1852.
● MG Ranade Set up Poona Sarvajanik Sabha 1870. (Sarvjan = all people vs.
Bombay Association, landlord association).
● It took up issues of all sections, for example, collected 17000 signatures on
Power of Attorneys, therefore claimed to be representative of all people.

Bengal:

● Indian Association 1876 by Surendranath Banerjeea (SNB) with the goal of

representing the people.
● Similarly, Lahore Indian Association 1878 by Ajeet Singh and Lala Lajpat
Rai.
● In Madras, Mahajan Sabha, 1884.
● Therefore in 1870s there was a rise of moderate politics, and the middle class
took up leadership at an organized level. (Refer to Pre-INC Handout).

Formation of INC: (2:12 PM)

● Indian Naitonal Congress 1885.

● First President: W C Bonnerjee.
● Founder: A O Hume.

Safety Valve Theory: (2:26 PM)

● Origin:
 ● Due to the involvement of Hume in creation.
● The biography of Hume argued that Hume received secret reports from
Religious Gurus about the conspiracy to overthrow British Rule by lower
classes.
● Therefore met Dufferin and with educated Indians, Dufferin and Hume
formed INC as a safety valve.
● e. vent grievances and prevent revolt.

Why is Safety Valve False? (2:51 PM)

● Those seven volumes of secret reports were never found in any archives.
● And no reference except in bio.
● Dufferin 8488 did not take Hume seriously.
● He hated moderates and didn't consider them as leaders of the masses.
● And called them a microscopic minority and babus working for self-interest.
● And did not like the formation of INC.
● And asked the Governor of Bombay to be alert.
● And feared the Irish Home Rule League-like movement by INC.
● Even if Hume had not taken initiative, we would have formed an all-India
organization.
● Political activities were on a rise, pre-1885 in all 3 presidencies and even
outside.
● And all the demands of pre-1885 regional associations remained unfulfilled.
● Therefore, we were looking for an all-India association.
● Journalists invited to 1877 Imperial Durbar set up the Native Press
Association as an all-India organization with SND, editor of Bengalee as
president.
● And decided to meet annually.
● The national conference was held by Indian Association in Calcutta in 1883.
● And another one was to be held in 1885.
● In 1885, a national fund was formed for political campaigns in India and
London.
● Wedderburn wrote so in Biography as he was a friend of Hume, therefore
portraying him as a patriot, who wanted to save Britain from a crisis.

Utility of Hume: (3:05 PM)

● Acted as a mediator and helped overcome differences between regional

organizations.
● And convinced them to come together.
● And the British won’t have allowed the formation of an all-India organization
as an all-Indian organization: Argued GK Gokhle in 1913.
● This is why INM leaders took the help of Hume.
● Therefore, even if the British wanted to use INC as Safety Valve, we used
Hume as a ‘lightning conductor’.
Ideology of Moderates: (3:31 PM)

● The first 20 years of INC, i.e. 1885-1905= Moderate Phase of INM.

● Ideology:
● Believed in Constitutionalism and use of law for reforms i.e. wanted Good
Governance with rule of law and ideals of Enlightenment, like responsible
government, separation of powers, an independent judiciary, Fundamental
Rights, etc.
● Believed in Constitutional methods, i.e. use of mechanisms and institutions
created by the state for giving voice to demands.
● For example, the use of courts, council work, sending petitions, passing
resolutions, writing articles, etc. without disturbing law and order.
● Knew that British Rule is exploitative but believed that if pressurized, then
British Rule can modernize India.
● Therefore believed in providence or benevolence of British Rule.
● Indians are not ready for self-rule. Therefore goal was limited self-government
to Indians within British Empire. And never even thought about full
independence.
● Were secular, and believed in national unity.
● They believed in the capitalism and industrialization of India on the lines of
Britain.

Indian Councils Act, 1861: (3:46 PM)

● Moderates demand: Amend ICA 1861 to give limited self-government.

● Reason for ICA, 1861:
● Post-1857, the British wanted the cooperation of elite Indians.
● Provisions:
● Viceroy’s Council was converted into the Imperial Legislative Council and
Imperial Executive Council/Viceroy’s Executive Council. I.e. separate
legislature and executive bodies, both under Viceroy.
● Provincial legislative councils (PLCs) and Governors’ executive councils in
provinces.
● Therefore ILC and PLCs were set up by ICA 1861.
● Viceroy could nominate 6-12 law members to ILC of which half must be
non-officials (earlier all officials).
● Therefore first time that Indians were included in law-making.
● Therefore ICA 1861 introduced a grain of ‘popular element’. (popular:
Indian).
● Therefore the first attempt at the representative character of governance as
some Indians could be nominated to the legislative branch.
● In 1862, 3 Indians were nominated to ILC: Raja of Benaras, Maharaja of
Patiala, and Sir Dinkar Rao. (All elites).
 ● Until 1892, zamindars, moneylenders from the British Indian Association
1851, and British businessmen were nominated.
● Overall only 45 Indians were nominated in 30 years (1861-1892).
● Powers:
● No discussion in ILC without prior approval of Viceroy.
● No discussion on the actions of the administration.
● Prior approval of Viceroy needed for the introduction of Bills (compare
Viceroy with President today).
● Viceroy had veto power over bills.
● Therefore ILC of 1861 was not a parliament executive.
● Portfolio system of 1859 legally recognized, i.e. allocation of departments to
members of VEC who to have final decision.
● Power of law-making by ordinance to Viceroy in special circumstances (life of
six months).
● Viceroy got power to create new provinces, and appoint LG for the same.
● ICA 1861 began decentralization between the Center and Provinces.
(Federalism?)
● As legislative powers of Bombay and Madras were restored.
● New PLCs are proposed for Bengal and NWFP, Punjab.
● Power to Viceroy to frame rules and orders for the conduct of business in all
councils.
● Provisions similar to ILC in PLCs.
● Prior approval of viceroy for the introduction of certain bills.
● PLCs did not have separate budget-making power, got it in GOI, 1919.

The topic for the next class: Demands of Moderates.

The demand of Moderates: (1:04 PM)

● Abolish India Council so that SOS can function freely.

● Increase the size of ILC and PLCs. To have more Indians.
● Elected majority in councils.
● Elected majority with indirect elections.
● More powers to ILC and PLCs.
● Indianisation of services. (civil and military).
● Decrease and share military expenditure between India and Britain. (since
British Indian Army was used for defense of the British Empire, and not just
India).
● Voluntary army/volunteer Army. (right for all Indians to aspire for joining the
Indian Military).
● British did not want to recruit more nationalistic Indians.
● Example: From Bengal in Maharastra. (greater growth of western education in
Bombay and Bengal, and greater Hindu nationalism/cultural nationalism).
● Trial by jury and removal of Arm's Act 1878.
 ● (connect Right to bear arms in the USA, traditional Indian culture of bearing
arms.)
● Decrease land revenue and other taxes.
● Extend Permanent Settlement outside Bengal.
● (Selfish interests as PS 1793 favoured zamindars and national interest, in
PS 1793, LR cannot be increased. Ideological interest: Rise of agrarian
capitalist)
● End salt tax.
● End exploitation of indentured (indentured= working on basis of contract)
laborers of Assam Tea Gardens.
● Because here oppressor and employer was a foreigner.
● (protect Indian capitalist but target foreign capitalist).
● Result: None of the demands were met.

Weaknesses of Moderates: (1:34 PM)

● Uneven representation and total exclusion of non-elites.

● Therefore their claim of representing Indians was weak.
● As INC was dominated by upper caste Hindus, males, from Bengal, Bombay,
and Madras, from linguistic groups of Bengalis, Tamils, and Marathis.
● And from Middle Class.
● Due to their social background, they did not take up the anti-zamindar stand,
pro-working class or pro-peasant stand.
● They were pro-capitalism, and this hurt their support (social background)
● They had a limited goal of limited self-government.
● Therefore they did not want the end of British Rule, as they believed in
providence or benevolence of British Rule, and that British Rule will
modernize India.
● And they believed that Indians were not ready for self-rule, (due to the low
spread of Western Education an average Indian wanted monarchy as proven
by 1857 Revolt).
● Even their ultimate long-term goal was self-government on the lines of
Australia and Canada within the British Empire and full British citizenship.
● They had moderate methods of sending petitions passing resolutions, writing
articles, and making speeches and council work, which did not create
enough pressure on the British.
● Therefore developed a rich culture of debate, but no focus on mass struggle,
i.e. not involving the common man in national politics.
● INC decided it would not take up social questions, e.g. casteism,
communalism, and class questions, as it would hurt unity among Indians.
● However, this hurt the participation of different sections in INM.
● For example, if INC takes the pro-peasant stand, then disunity between Indian
zamindar and Indian peasant will increase, and INC may lose the support of
Indian zamindars.
Gradualism: (1:53 PM)

● That is, they wanted gradual reforms and not radical reforms.
● They were part-time politicians with lucrative legal practices on the side.
● Also, INC was not a party, but a 3-day annual conference, without any
organizational structure at the province and local levels.
● Overall they had mild goals and mild methods.
● Extremists criticized their methods as the policy of /begging.
● Their constitutional agitation did not create enough pressure on the British
and none of their demands were met.

Positive of Moderates/Contribution of Moderates/How INC Built National Unity

under Moderates?/Laid Foundation for future INM: (2:11 PM)

● Began project of nation building.

Nation Building:

● 1885 Bombay Session: INC declared its goal of building national unity.
● Each session was held in different parts of the country.
● And the president is not from the region of the session.
● Therefore built national leadership and interregional awareness among
leaders.
● And built inter-regional unity. (Imagine yourself as a regional leader on an
India tour and a Bengali who sees a non-Bengali leader raising your issues).
● Tried for unity between different religions. For example, the 1888 decision=
No resolution to be passed by INC if the majority of Hindu or Muslim members
do not agree).
● 1889 Minority Clause: In future Council reforms INC wanted reservations to
minorities (including Hindus in provinces) in proportion to their percentage in
the population.
● Focused on issues that did not divide India. I.e. on issues common to all
Indians.
● For example, the 1886 rule by Dadabhai Naoroji that INC to not take up
social and class questions as they could divide Indians.
● Built a culture of parliamentary politics, as INC sessions were held like
parliament and in a democratic manner.
● Supported Indian capitalists as capitalism in India was in a nascent stage.
● And under high competition from British exports and British businesses in
India.
● They wanted the Indian economy to modernize on the lines of the Western
Capitalist model.
● (because no other model existed).

Drain Theory by Moderates: (2:36 PM)

 ● Biggest contribution: Intellectually proving that British Rule exploits India
economically.
● And British Industrialization converted India into a source of raw materials for
British factories and an export market for British finished products.
● That is, a modern colonial relationship developed post-British industrialization.
● Drain Theory was given by:
● RC Dutta (ex ICS: Economic History of India, 1901).
● MG Ranade, Dadabhai Naoroji, etc.
● Therefore, the British looted India through mercantile capitalism, plunder and
land revenue prior to the 19th Century and via industrial capitalism from the
19th Century.
● And there was the drain of wealth from India to Britain which prevented the
economic growth and industrialization of India.
● The agricultural sector was overburdened as the Indian handicraft sector was
destroyed combined with the lack of modern industrialization in India.
● India became a net exporter of raw materials, from an earlier net exporter of
finished goods.
● (from finished cotton, now we exported raw cotton).
● Indians lost domestic and export markets.

Components of drain: (3:19 PM)

● Pre-19th Century: Misuse of Dastaks.

● Plassey Plunder: 1757-65. LR post-1765
● Therefore the structure of British trade changed from the inflow of gold into
India to the outflow of gold from India to Britain.
● From 19th Century:
● Modern Colonial relationship, i.e. colony = source of raw materials and an
export market.
● Absence of protective tariffs: therefore drain due to high imports.
● Manipulation of the exchange rate benefitted British businesses.
● Home Charges:
● Salaries, pensions, and training costs of British Officials and soldiers.
● Expense related to SOS for India and India Council (earlier BOC).
● Dividends through EIC shareholders.
● Purchase of goods/stores on behalf of India by Britain, e.g. Steel, import of
government stationeries by India from Britain.
● Interest on loans taken by EIC.
● EIC earned forex by exporting Indian goods, e.g. opium to China.
● FDI led to a drain in form of profits. And in form of guaranteed interests if
projects failed.
● Use of the Indian Military for the defense of the British Empire.

Whether British Modernized India? (3:44 PM)

 ● 45 trillion dollars = value of drain at 2022 prices.
● Any modernization was the by-product and not a result of British intent.
● Railways:
● British argument: Railways connected India internally and to the world
economy via rail to port infrastructure.
● Indian argument: Dalhousie 4856 started railways in 1853 for faster
movement of the Army.
● Railway lines focused on connecting Indian markets and raw material sources
to ports and not on connecting Indian manufacturers to Indian city markets.
● Very limited transfer of technology and that also in low-tech areas.
● For example, Bridge Building, tunneling, etc.
● Focus:
● Create investment opportunities for British businesses.
● 5 percent guaranteed interest/ROI to companies who were given free land
with 99 years of the lease.
● At any time, they could give a railway line to GOI.
● And GOI would give then back their capital with 5% interest.
● Therefore FDI became a fixed deposit, and profits were private, while risks
and losses were public.
● The guaranteed interests led to wasteful construction, and the same money
could have been invested in irrigation. (connect 2022 UPSC question on
famines).
● However, by-product:
● By 1947, 78% of India was covered by railways.
● And the building of feeder roads allowed the utilization of railways by Indian
businesses.
● Railways increased people-to-people contact increasing national unity.

Canals: (4:07 PM)

● British developed irrigation infrastructure, therefore modernizing agriculture,

and achieving food security and canals became role-model for Asia.
● Indian argument:
● Canals built only in non-PS 1793 areas.
● Where LR could be increased.
● For example, Punjab, Western UP, and Coastal Madras.
● Water from Canals was not free.
● Therefore only the rich benefitted.
● By 1947, only 25% of the cultivated area was under public irrigation system.
● Bengal Famine 1943, where 4-5 million people died therefore no food
security.
● British argument:
● Drain allowed West-like development for India.
 ● Guaranteed return on FDI attracted FDI into India, i.e. road, railways, and
canals.
● Therefore drain= Cost for development.
● The drain was only 2% of Indian export value in the early 20th Century.
● Indian argument:
● GDP growth was not substantial.
● Uneven regional growth.
● Not enough investment in irrigation, health, and education.
● Dadabhai Naoroji argued that this 2% was the surplus, that if invested in
India would have led to GDP growth.

Topic for the next class: Indian Councils Act, 1892.

Indian Councils Act, 1892/Lord Cross Act: (1:06 PM)

● Viceroy is Lansdowne.
● Result of the struggle by Moderates, and also proof of their failure.
● As it did not bring limited self-government.
● Grain of indirect elections: In ILC and PLCs.
● Some nonofficials could be selected from local bodies to PLCs and to ILC.
● But it was selection not election.
● As local bodies, i.e. municipalities, district boards, chambers of commerce,
and universities would send lists of nominees from among themselves, and
from this Viceroy and Governors would select members for ILC and PLCs.
● A few more members added to ILC.
● Size expanded.
● More non-official members, as now 10-16 could be non-officials.
● (ICA 1861: Half of 6-12 legal members: nonofficials).

Bills and resolutions:

● Opposition can’t bring any resolution.

● Nor demand a vote on any government resolution.
● Resolution implies the declared intent.
● (opposition implies nonofficial, i.e. not part of the executive).
● The government was given the power to legislate even without bringing a bill
into the legislature.
● Therefore, the legislature’s functions were at best recommendatory and not
mandatory.

Budget:

● The budget could be discussed for the first time.

● But can neither vote on it nor amend it.
 ● Question: (No taxation without representation was a slogan/demand of
INM/moderates/extremists. Discuss.)
● Discussion: Questions could be asked to executives, but no discussion of
answers and no supplementary questions.
● Covenanted Civil Services changed to ICS.
● Uncovenated Civil Services changed to PCS.
● Statutory Civil Services 1878 abolished.
● Therefore very few constitutional demands of moderates were met.
● (Non-official majority: No, Elected Non-official majority: No, proper indirect
elections: No, Indinizaton of civil services: No, expansion of Councils: Yes, but
not satisfactory, powerful Councils: No).
● Therefore post-1892 Moderates changed their demands to self-government
like Australia and Canada within the British empire, and officially INC changed
its goal to Swaraj (within British Empire, in 1906 Calcutta Session with Dada
Bhai Naoroji as President).

Extremists: (1:34 PM)

● Called Extremists because had a stronger goal of Swaraj.

● Which for most Extremists like Tilak, meant self-government within British
Empire.
● However, for some like Aurobindo, and BC Pal, it meant Poorna Swaraj.
● They had stronger methods, i.e. Passive Resistance: Non-Cooperation+Civil
Disobedience.
● As against petitions.
● (PR= NC (boycott)+ CD
● NC= Opposing British without breaking the law, e.g. Boycott of British
institutions: Courts, Councils, Educational institutions, and of British Goods;
● CD= violating unjust laws and orders.)
● And respond violently if the British repress.
● Extremists also supported constructive work.
● Which was apolitical and focused on developing Atma-Shakti= self-reliance by
promoting skilling, promoting swadeshi goods, and swadeshi education and
institutions.
● Spirituality and self-confidence, developing community unity, and cultural
nationalism, therefore Atma Shakti of not just individual but of community.
● And not just economic but also physical and spiritual.
● Physical training is also part.
● (therefore NGO-like activity, and remember Swami Vivekananda).
● Therefore Constructive Work/Constructive Swadeshi acted as a recruitment
ground for future political movements.
● And later MG made it an important part of the training of Satyagrahis during
the passive phase of INM.
Reason for rise of extremists: (2:03 PM)

● (Refer to Religion and INM)

● Failure of Moderates, e.g. ICA 1892.
● Question:
● Failures in INM led to stronger INM. Elaborate.
● (Failure of pre-1857 Revolts led to the 1857 Revolt.
● And the failure of the 1857 Revolt led to modern INM.
● The failure of conservatives led to rising of moderates and pre-INC
organizations.
● Failure of pre-INC regional organizations led to the All-India organization INC.
● Failure of Moderates led to rising of Extremists, whose failure led to rising of
Revolutionaries, whose failure led to the rising of Gandhian politics.)
● Extremists had greater support of religious masses.
● Exploitative natirue of British Government. E.g. Lytton. Curzon 9905.
● And after 1905, Extremists dominated INM.
● Growth of education.
● International influences like the Russian Revolution of 1905 increased belief in
Mass struggle.

Swadeshi Movement, 1905: (2:11 PM)

● Curzonian Administration: 9905

● Calcutta Municipal Corporation Amendment Act: 1899 which decreased the
number of elected members.
● Indian Universities Act, of 1904, brought universities under government
control.
● As Curzon believed that they are becoming factories of sedition (Refer to
Handout on Education Reforms).
● Indian Official Secrets Amendment Act (1904):
● Reduced freedom of the press.

Partition of Bengal, October 1905

● (For positives of Curzon, refer, to the Education Reforms Handout).

● The goal was to divide Indians on basis of religion.
● As Bengal was to be partitioned to create a new province of East Bengal and
Assam, as a Muslim Majority Province.
● The goal was to weaken INM and INC in Bengal as Bengalis would become a
linguistic minority in West Bengal.
● And Hindus a minority in EB and A.
● INM and INC in Bengal were dominated by upper caste Hindu Bengali
‘Bhadralok’.
● And their support base would be disrupted in both provinces after partition.
British Justification:

● Better administration as undivided Bengal had the highest population and

huge area.
● The size of Assam would increase and it would become an LG province with
its own civil services cadre improving admin in Assam.
● Assam Bengal Railways will come under single administration of EBA.
● Cheaper Maritime Outlet via Chittagong port for Assam Tea Gardens.

Indian Stand: (3:02 PM)

● The best administrative decision would have been to divide Bengal on a

linguistic basis.
● Instead of a religious basis.
● Therefore primary purpose was to decrease the linguistic unity of Bengalis
and to weaken INM and INC in Bengal.
● Therefore it was the policy of divide and rule by dividing Bengalis, and by
dividing Hindus, and Muslims.
● And also an act of appeasement of elite Muslims.
● Events:
● Indians came to know about the ‘intent’ of partition via Risley Papers 1903.
● Risley: Home Secretary of the Central Government which had Curzon’s
Minute on Territorial Redistribution.
● Which had details about partition.
● Actual partition in October 1905.
● And SOS for India Brodrick accepted partition without proper discussion in
British Parliament.
● (*Recall GOI 1858: SoS: Director of Policy on India).

Moderate Phase against Bengal Partition: (3:11 PM)

● Led by Surendranath Banerjee, and CR Das, via press campaigns in

Bengalee, Sanjeewani, and Hitabadi; failed by 1905.
● Moderates of Bengal initiated Swadeshi Movement (led by Extremists).
● When SNB gave a call for a boycott in 1905, by passing a resolution for the
boycott of British Goods and institutions at Calcutta Townhall.
● (Swadeshi Movement was by Extremists)

Barisal Conference: (3:19 PM)

● Hail SNB and Aurobindo Ghosh.

● Distributed badges of Bande Mataram, and it was brutally repressed by
Police.
● (Bankim Chand Chatterjee 1838-94: in his novel Anand Math 1882, gave the
idea of mother Goddess as Bharat Mata and composed Bande Mataram)
 ● Constructive Swadeshi was also a method from 1903.
● And it led to mobilization at the village level.
● For example,
● Shanti Niketan Ashram 1901.
● And Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Ashwini Kumar Dutta engaged in
constructive Swadeshi.
● Focus on Swadeshi courts, Swadeshi education, Swadeshi goods, skilling,
spirituality, and community unity, with the goal of Atma Shakti or self-reliance.

Extremist Politics (1905 onwards): 3:25 PM

● Criticized constructive swadeshi and moderate methods as not enough.

● Wanted spread of movement outside Bengal.
● Gave goal of Swaraj, therefore Swadeshi movement was not the limited goal
of annulment of the Bengal Partition.
● Methods:
● Gave call for the boycott of British Goods and institutions (NC)
● Picketing of liquor shops (CW)
● Violation of unjust laws (CD)
● Continuation of constructive Swadeshi (CW).
● As it acted as a recruitment tool for extremists.
● Labour strikes in foreign-owned
● (Hurt supply of British goods and not just demand)
● Violent agitations if oppression.
● There was high use of religion for mobilizing the masses.
● Samities were formed for mass mobilization.
● And they also did constructive swadeshi.
● Therefore raising awareness, cultural nationalism, and increased participation
in the movement.
● For example, Swadesh Bandhav Samiti worked among poor Muslim Ryots.
● Therefore contributed to Muslim participation.
● Picketing of liquor shops and shops selling British Goods. Here women also
participated.
● Processions in form of Prabhat Pheris. (Morning Fairs).
● Jatras (plays/theater) to increase awareness.
● Strikes by workers led by CR Das, BC Pal, and Liyaqat Hussain in
foreign-owned enterprises.
● Promotion of national/swadeshi education.
● For example, Bengal National College was set up with Aurobindo as
principal.
● And Swadeshi enterprises were set up.
● The extremist Phase failed to start (1905-1907) a proper mass
movement.
● Because of:
 ● The problem of supply, therefore prices of high for Swadeshi goods.
● Therefore no participation by poor sections.
● For example, lower castes, rural Muslims, tenants, and blue-collar workers.
● A low number of Swadeshi institutions.
● Jatras depicted Muslims as being in favor of Partition and as pro-British.
● Leading to communal violence, and low Muslim participation.
● And high use of Hindu religious symbolism.
● For example, Tilaks, Worship of Kali, contributed to low Muslim participation.
● Muslim League 1906 (ML 1906) of elite Muslims, like Nawab Salimullah of
Dacca, supported partition.
● MN 1906 sought the support of Ulamas who had control over rural masses.
● Use of force and social boycott against lower castes and Muslims to make
them participate.
● High-caste leadership also contributed to low lower-caste participation.
● White-collar workers participated more than blue-collar workers in strikes.
● Therefore overall mass mobilization failed.
● And the import of British goods was not impacted.
● Therefore boycott failed.

Surat Split 1907 (3:51 PM)

● Bombay Moderates were opposed to extremist methods.

● Calcutta Session 1906 under Dadabhai Naoroji (respected by both,
Moderates and Extremists)
● Extremists were successful in INC passing 4 resolutions on Swaraj,
Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Agitation.
● Partition was condemned.
● Nationalist party/Extremist party was set up under Tilak within INC, with the
goal of changing INC from within.

Surat Session: 1907

● Was to be held in Poona and Nagpur.

● But they were strongholds of extremists.
● Therefore venue was shifted to Surat by Bombay Moderates.
● Fight over presidency: LL Rai vs. Rash Bihari Ghosh.
● LL Rai withdrew to prevent a split.
● But now extremists demanded the readoption of the 4 Calcutta Resolutions.
● Morley’s Budget speech of 1906 had hinted at future Council Reforms.
● Therefore a divide-and-rule tactic deployed by the British made Moderates
oppose the Extremists.
● Shoes were hurled and chairs were broken over the issue of the presidency
and 4 Calcutta Resolutions.
● Leading to the split and removal of Extremists from INC.
● 1908 Allahabad Convention: aka Mehta Congress after Pherozshah Mehta.
 ● Where INC declared “We are loyals to the Raj”.
● INC State divided until 1920.

Topic for the next class: Revolutionaries.

Modern Indian History Class 24 [13:00:00]

A brief overview of the background of the previous class

Revolutionaries [13:12:00]

● After the surat split in 1907 British repressed extremists making the swadeshi
movement leaderless and now there was the rise of revolutionary activities
● Revolutionary had two options
● a). Start a popular mass revolt and cause disaffection in the army i.e. repeat
the 1857 revolt
● b). Individual heroic actions by assassinating hated senior British officials to
inspire nationalism.
● Since the first option was tough it was chosen as a long-term goal and the
second was chosen as an immediate method, therefore, inspired by Irish
nationalists they aimed to assassinate unpopular British officials and traitor
informers to cause terror among the British, to remove the fear of British and
to do propaganda in court in the case of trial.
● Also dacoities for funds to buy arms
● From 1905 revolutionaries had begun propaganda in newspapers in favor of
armed struggle. Example- Weekly Yugantar [setup by Brother of Aurobindo
ghosh] wrote after the repression of the Barisal conference [1906]- "30 crore
Indians should raise their 60 crore hands to end oppression"
● Some revolutionaries like Veer Savarkar and Madam Cama set up
revolutionary societies abroad.
● 1907- Attempt on the life of Lieutenant Governor of Bengal- failed
● 1908- Barrah dacoity- looted Zamindar of Barrah.
● Muzaffarpur conspiracy case, 1908- Where a failed attempt on the life of a
hated magistrate Kingsford, by throwing a bomb, by Prafulla chaki and
Khudiram Bose. Here by mistake, two Englishwomen were killed
● Alipore conspiracy case, 1908- Result of Muzaffarpur conspiracy case,
which led to many arrests in Alipore including of Aurobindo Ghosh. He was
defended by C.R.Das in court. On acquittal, Aurobindo Ghosh retired from
politics to pursue Spiritualism in Pondicherry.
● Tilak in his publication Kesari condemned the violence, however, defended
Prafulla chaki and Khudi ram, Bose, on grounds that British oppression would
naturally lead to violence. He was charged on grounds of sedition and
 imprisoned for six years in Mandalay, Burma [1908-1914]. It was Jinnah who
defended him in court.
● Nasik conspiracy case, 1909- Mastermind= Veer Savarkar + District
Magistrate Jackson shot dead by Kanhere+ Savarkar sent to Andaman for
life
● Result = Repressed by the British but they gave back Pride of manhood to
Indians and many felt that Morley-Minto reforms, in 1909 were the result of
fear of the spread of revolutionary activities.
● [* Repression of Extremists-Post 1907- Alipore conspiracy case- to Aurobindo
retiring+ B.C. Pal temporarily retiring; Forced deportations e.g Tilak to Burma
+ Lala Lajpat Rai went abroad (to London and then to the USA),
LAL-BAL-PAL + Aurobindo= extremists repressed]
● In 1911, Bengal partitioned annulled and Delhi made capital which led to the
end of the domination of Bengal in INM. Therefore, Curzon succeeded
ultimately
● Delhi conspiracy case 1912- Bomb attack on Viceroy Hardinge [1910-1916]
during a procession in Chandni Chauk, Delhi, for the celebration of the shift of
capital from Calcutta to Delhi. Hardinge was on an elephant and Ras Behari
Bose threw a bomb from the balcony. Hardinge survived and Ras Behari Bose
escaped. He later provided leadership in the Ghadar movement in 1913-15
and then escaped to Japan. Later, provided leadership to INA [1942] until
1943 when Netaji Bose took over in Singapore

Overall Impact of the Swadeshi Movement [1905-11] or of Curzonian

administration [13:40:00]

● Rise of nationalism which never came down.

● Laid foundations of mass politics. [Involving the common man in the decision
of political question] + Working class movements [For the first time workers
are participating in strikes] and also of revolutionary activity.
● People became aware of the economic aspect of British rule due to the Focus
on the Boycott of British Goods + Boycotts became a major tool of INM going
forward. [* Moderates gave Drain theory, but it was extremists' focus on
Swadeshi goods and Boycotts by masses that explained the Drain theory to
the masses]
● Nationalistic Symbols came into prominence. For example- Vande Matram
became the anthem of INM later + Tagore's Amar Sonar Bangla later
became the National anthem of Bangladesh.
● New methods were developed in INM. i.e method of passive resistance with
Non-cooperation and Civil Disobedience + Method of Constructive work + Use
of plays i.e. Jatras + Prabhat pheris+ Picketing of liquor shops, therefore, we
moved away from petitions to mass actions and there was a shift in the
leadership of INM [* not INC] away from moderates.
 ● However, there was the birth of the Muslim League in 1906 and therefore
formal and organized beginning of communal politics.

Muslim politics and Muslim League (1906) [14:00:00]

● Muslim population was roughly 20% + were in majority in Punjab and roughly
50% in Bengal [As per census 1872]
● Contribution of census= Led to politicization on the basis of religion as led to a
consciousness of a homogenous religion[no diversity] religious identity in
otherwise heterogeneous Muslim community + Consciousness that Hindus
and Muslims are two separate communities
● British published reports giving statistics on education, employment, and
poverty religion-wise, therefore, causing a sense of relative deprivation among
Muslims.
● Therefore census became a tool for divide and rule
● There was low growth in western education among Muslims because-
● a). Education was not free and therefore unaffordable for poor Muslim ryots.
● b). Control of Ulemas over rural Muslim Masses
● c). Elite Muslims were landlords, therefore, little attracted to middle-class
professions.
● d). Desire to preserve the Persian culture
● Therefore, Hindus benefitted more from government jobs and middle-class
professions due to greater acceptance of western education by them
● Hunter's book 1871-argued that neglect of Muslims by the British contributed
to the Faraizi movement of the 1830s and 1870s. Therefore, the British would
favor Muslims in Education, jobs, etc [* LInk Census 1872]
● Muslim Organisation of western educated Muslims also began demanding
special status. For Example- Mohammaden Association (1855) criticized the
1857 revolt and was pro-British, to secure benefits for Muslims.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan [1817-98]

● A social reformer who supported widow remarriage women's education +

opposed purdah, polygamy, triple talaq, and child marriage.
● However, argued that Indian is not a summation of One people but of Qaums.
Therefore Hindu Qaum is different from Muslim Quam + Muslim Quam
should have special status being a Qaum that ruled India before the British.
And to achieve this Western Education is a must.
● He believed in the unity of Qaums
● Set up Mohammedan Anglo oriental college 1875 [* this later became
AMU] with the goal of developing unity among Muslim Qaums+ western
Education without giving up religious beliefs of Islam
● Set up Mohammedan Educational Congress,1886 as a rival to INC, as
believed that INC is a Hindu Organisation
 ● Set up Indian Patriotic Association 1888 with Theodore Beck [* principal of
AMU] to oppose INC and to plead for Muslim Appeasement.
● Post 1883, There was a rise in Hindu revivalism, and in 1893 cow killing riots
● Hindi-Urdu controversy in North-west provinces in Awadh where Madan
Mohan Malviya led the demand for official status to the Hindi language like
Urdu. Successful by the 1900s but now Hindi got associated with Hindus and
Urdu with Muslims
● Reservation in Government Jobs for Muslims brought in 1897.

Partition of Bengal 1905 [14:54:00]

● Partition of Bengal= Divide and rule tactic of the British where they wanted
to counter Hindu nationalism by appeasing Elite Muslims + In the Bengal
partition Ulamas were co-opted by Elite Muslims to mobilize Muslims in favor
of partition. [* Ulamas/Maulawi controlled local anjumans] and to counter the
swadeshi movement + Hindu Revivalism during swadeshi made Muslims feel
that it is a movement against Muslims.
● Shimla deputation, 1906 of Elite Muslim leaders led by Aga Khan met
Viceroy Minto [1905-1910] in Shimla
● a). They Demanded proportional representation [reservation in proportion to
the percentage of Population] in legislative councils and in government jobs +
demanded separate electorates [* i.e. only Muslim votes in seats reserved for
Muslims] based on the idea that Muslims are separate Qaum,
● b). Therefore, the Two-nation theory: i.e. Only Muslims have the right to elect
a Muslim & only such person will protect Muslim interests and that he will
represent only Muslim interests as voters are only Muslim i.e. Hindus should
not have any say] + demanded to not reverse partition of Bengal+ argued that
Muslims are separate Qaum and having separate interests and a minority,
therefore need special protection
● All India Muslim League 1906 [Muslim League 1906]-
● 1). So, the British don't go back to promises made on Shimla deputation, Elite
Muslims set up Muslim League in 1906 in Dacca with Goals of
● a). Promoting loyalty to British
● b). To secure Muslim Interest
● 2). Constitution of Muslim League 1906 by Mohsin-Ul-Mulk of the Aligarh
Movement
● 3). 1907-09- Provincial's Muslim league [INC set up Provincial branches in
1920, so ML was ahead of INC] was set up
● 4). 1908- London Branch of the Muslim League was set up and played an
important role in influencing Indian Council Act 1909 that brought a separate
electorate for Muslims, therefore, laid the foundation for partition

Morley-Minto Reforms [15:13:00]

 ● [* Always remember this structure- Members===> official and non official
===> and Non- official in two parts- Nominated & elected===>and elected in
two parts- Directly elected & Indirectly elected ]
● Reasons= Swadeshi movement [1905-11] + Rise of extremist
politics[1905-07] + Revolutionary activities [1908+] + as a divide and rule
tactic to divide moderates & extremists and Hindus & Muslims.
● Morley's Budget speech of 1906 hinted at future council reforms
● Provisions:-
● 1). Brought limited self-government [* Goal of INC until 1906 and goal of
Moderates from 1885 to 1906] {* Notice lag between Indian demand and
British Fulfillment}
● 2). First-time proper indirect election [*Indian council Act 1892- Selection and
fake election]
● 3). First-time non-official majority in PLCs [Provincial legislative councils ]
however, not elected majority in PLCs.
● 4). In ILC [Imperial legislative council] official majority continued as 27 of 60
members were indirectly elected.
● 5). The first-time separate electorate in ILC, PLC, and local bodies for
Muslims.
● 6). In ILC, 8 of 27 elected members were to be Muslims, Therefore,
reservations were greater than the percentage in the population. [* 29.62% ]
● 7). Seats were reserved for businesses and landlords and middle-class
professionals
● 8). The first-time one Indian was in Viceroy Executive council /Imperial
legislative council [* minister]
● 9). Right to vote linked with income criteria and lower income criteria for
Muslims
● 10). Morley stated "No intent of Responsible government by Indian council Act
1909"
● [* Responsible government= Executive is responsible to Legislature +
Ministers from legislature + Legislature should be true legislture i.e Universal
adult franchise & Direct elections ===> Important pillar of Democracy, Head of
the government i.e Viceroy is not responsible]

Powers [15:34:00]

● Government could disqualify any candidate thought to be politically

dangerous.
● Executive to be not responsible to legislature and powers of viceroy continued
● Powers of legislatures-
● 1). Can Vote on individual items of the Budget [* Indian Council Act 1892 -
budget could be discussed but no voting]
● 2). Supplementary questions could now be asked
 ● 3). Members could initiate and pass resolutions but not mandatory and only
recommendatory for the Government. [* ICA 1892- no resolution by the
opposition]
● 4). Satyendra Prasanna Sinha also known as Satyendra prasad Sinha or
S.P.Sinha became the first Indian to join Viceroy executive council as a law
member

Impact [15:40:00]

● Indian Council Act 1909 was the most short-lived council reform [* 1861- (after
30 years)- 1892 ( after 17 years)- 1909 (10 years)- 1919 (16 years)- 1935]
● It failed to satisfy any group [* moderates, extremists- same goal- 1906-
self-rule under the British empire ]
● Laid foundation of partition of separate electorates
● Benevolent Despotism since no responsible government

Ghadar Movement [1913-1915]

● Revolutionary movement by Punjabi NRIs and Bengal revolutionary to

overthrow British Rule
● Goal = Repeat the 1857 revolt i.e. Sepoy Mutiny + Civil rebellion to establish
a secular republic of India
● Reason= Were inspired by the swadeshi movement 1905-11 and especially
by the Delhi conspiracy case of 1912
● Also British restricted the entry of Indians into the cananda+ US didn't allow
Indians to buy land. This was because the British didn't want exposure to
ideas of liberty, democracy, and socialism to Indians. For Example- Allow
Indians to enter Canada only if a direct journey was made

Events [16:00:00]

● Lal Hardayal in the US set up a weekly called 'The Ghadar' where he praised
the attack on viceroy Hardinge [1910-1916] and then began the propaganda
against British colonialism
● Each Issue of Ghadar, on frontpage had an expose of British colonialism or
"Angrezi Raaz ka kaccha Chitta"
● It had a summary of the nationalist demands and grievances of INM so far
and then it gave the call that 31 crore Indians should rise against 1.2 lakh
British and repeat the 1857 revolt.
● It Published Veer Savarkar's Indian war of independence 1909 in parts
● Poets titled "Ghadar di Goonj" raised nationalist Fervor and promoted the
unity of all religions
● Loyalist role of Punjab in the 1857 revolt was criticized
 ● Komagat Maru incident,1914, this ship had Indians who reached Canada via
Singapore + not allowed to enter Canada + sent back to Bengal, India.
Therefore causing huge anger among Punjabi NRIs
● WW I (1914-1919) was seen as an opportunity by ghadarites and following
events
● a). Zimmerman Plan of Germans - Get arms from Germany to India and start
an armed revolt
● b). Caused dis-affection in the army+ NRIs to come to India and enlist the
support of Indians, therefore starting a civil rebellion
● Result= Bagha Jatin Mukherjee tried to smuggle arms from Germany. Died in
a gun battle as the British had informers
● Ras Behari Bose took leadership but failed because not much response from
sepoys. In 1915 he escaped to Japan
● Mahants of Gurudwaras took the pro-British stand, therefore low response
from Punjabis
● Defense of India Act 1915, gave draconian powers to the British, therefore
leading to repression.
● Greatly increased nationalism among the Indian diaspora
● India lost a whole generation of Deeply secular and nationalistic Indians.

The Topic for the next class:- Home rule league movement [1916-18]

Home Rule League: (1:12 PM)

● HRL (1916-18)
● Not led by INC but by Tilak and Annie Besant.
● HRLs did not involve methods of passive resistance such as NC and CD. And
were limited to educated propaganda for Home Rule or Swaraj within British
Empire (HR= Swaraj, my home my right).
● Context:
● When Tilak Returned to India from Mandalay, Burma in 1914, INM was in a
dull phase.
● Post-1907: Surat Split, Extremists were repressed, and INM became
leaderless.
● Revolutionaries were crushed. And even ICA 1909 was a disappointment,
hence even moderates were no more relevant.
● Therefore Tilak wanted to revive INM and hence followed a mild approach,
whereby:
● Wanted the reentry of extremists into INC.
● Did not want the British to repress extremists.
● Therefore declared Swaraj means ‘self-rule’ within British Empire.
● And his goal is not of overthrowing British Rule.
● And violence has hurt INM’s progress.
● He is loyal to the crown and all Indias should support the British war efforts.
● In 1914, Annie Besant joined INC. (Head of Theosophical Society based in
Madras and was an Irish lady, who was inspired by the Home Rule Movement
in Ireland and wanted democratic reforms in India).
● She campaigned within INC for the reentry of extremists but failed in 1914
due to opposition by Bombay moderates led by Pherozshah Mehta.
● In the 1915 INC Bombay Session, INC decided to allow the reentry of
extremists as PM Mehta.
● But INC didn’t agree to support the idea of HRLs.
● Therefore Tilak and Besant decided to set up their separate Leagues outside
INC.
● April 1916:
● Tilak set up India HRL, and
● September 1916:
● Besant set up All India HRL.
● (Since Tilak= Indian, hence Indian HRL of Tilak.)
● Both Home Rule Leagues cooperated, but not one league to prevent conflict
among each other’s followers.
● The goal was educative propaganda for the promotion of the idea of Home
Rule.
● Tilak also demanded:
● Education in Vernaculars
● Linguistic reorganization of provinces.
● (Could strengthen the INM as linguistic unity would lead to better organization
of masses and of mass-based movements.)
● And will improve the functioning/effectiveness of INC at the provincial level.
● End to untouchability (he stated in courts if God tolerates untouchability then
would not recognize as God).
● Lord Ganpati was worshiped by all castes, therefore, since the beginning,
Tilak favored caste unity: Ganpati Festival (1893)
● Tilak argued that there needs to be self-rule, not because the British were
Christians (the 1857 Revolt recalled that Hindustan is for Hindus and
Muslims) but because India and Britain have divergent/incompatible national
interests.
● Because of Colonialism, where, the role of the colony is to serve colonial
power.
● Therefore less role of Hindu nationalism or revivalism in the HRL movement.
● Tilak Jinnah and Besant’s efforts led to Lucknow Pact 1916 between INC and
ML 1906.
● Tilak and Besant promoted INC in villages.
● In 1917, Besant was arrested and this energized HRL Movement.
● And now even Moderates joined HRLs.
● Iyer gave up a knighthood in protest of Annie Besant’s arrest.
● Besant was released and then made INC president of the 1917 Calcutta
session.
 ● However, Montague's Statement in 1917 was deployed as a divide-and-rule
tactic by the British.
● (We will give Swaraj Gradually).
● A program for Passive Resistance was suggested by extremists in the 1917
Calcutta Session, while Moderates opposed it.
● Besant finally decided in favor of Moderates, and therefore Leagues became
defunct.
● And educative propaganda could not be converted into a mass movement.
● (2nd-time failure of Extremists).
● Swadeshi was also not a mass movement.

Result/Impacts: (2:04 PM)

● Negatives:
● By 1917-18 British successfully repressed HRLs.
● HRLs failed to develop a mass movement.
● In Madras, lower castes did not support All India HRL due to Brahmin
Leadership.
● Second-time failure of extremists to capture INC.
● And Moderates and Extremists failed to unite.
● Positives:
● 60 thousand members joined the HRLs.
● Brought Gujarat, Sindh, United Provinces, Bihar, and South India into INM.
● Link: Western Education's uneven growth, leading to uneven growth of INM
until now.
● It prepared leadership for future Gandhian struggles:
● Nehru joined Besant’s league.
● It created an organizational network for later use in INM.
● It permanently decreased the influence of Moderates in INM.

Lucknow Pact 1916: (2:17 PM)

● (Background:
● Muslim League vs. British:
● Annulment of Bengal Partition 1911:
● Italy took over Libya of the Ottoman Empire whose political head was Khalifa
also the religious head of the Muslim world.
● And the British did not help.
● 1912: First Balkan War where Montenegro, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria took
over Ottoman territories in Balkan Peninsula, and the British did not help.
● 1912 Calcutta Session of ML: Muslim League declared its goal as
self-government within British Empire (1906 Calcutta INC Session).

1914, WW1: Ottoman vs. British (2:27 PM)

 ● British had promised Indian Muslims fair treatment of Khalifa post-war, in
return for support in the War effort.
● However, the Treaty of Sevres, in 1920 reduced a vast Ottoman Empire to a
small Turkey.
● And Arabs of the Ottoman Empire were not given independence as Syria took
over by France, and the British took over Iraq, Palestine, France, and Jorden.
● Therefore denying self-determination.
● And many Turks now live in Greece.
● As it got Eastern Thrace and Smyrna of Turkey.
● In 1917: Balfour Declaration by the British.
● Declared intent to create Israel in the future.

Lucknow Pact 1916: (2:47 PM)

● Provisions:
● Between INC 1885 and ML 1906.
● Gave joint demands for constitutional reforms.
● Separate electorates and expansion of councils with the elected majority.
● ICA 1909 only non-official majority, only in PLCs.
● (ICA 1909 brought limited Self-government, and now the goal of ML and INC
is self-government).
● At least half of Indias are in the Imperial Executive Council/PECs.
● Universal adult franchise.
● Self-government: Equal status with self-governing dominions at an early date.
● Positive: Led to INC and ML unity.
● That was later used by MG in Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement.
● This led to Montague's Statement 1917 as LP 1916 created pressure.
● Negative:
● A major landmark in Two Nation Theory.
● As INC agreed to the continuation of Separate Electorates in future council
reforms.
● Montague Statement 1917: Henceforth, British policy in India is to be a
gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the
progressive realization of responsible government in India within the British
Empire.
● (Imaging UPSC question with Elaborate/Discuss).
● Swaraj gradually.
● (Propaganda by Allied Powers during WW1 that democracies are fighting
against absolute monarchies, therefore moral pressure for self-government in
India as well).
● Therefore demand of Swaraj, no more seditious.

GOI Act, 1919 or Montague Chelmsford Reforms: (3:09 PM)

 ● Bicameral legislature at Center, i.e. CLA: Central Legislative Assembly
(Lower House).
● And CoS: Council of States (Upper House) for British India.
● Narendra Mandal: Chamber of Princes as an advisory body having nominees
of princes.
● This was a reward for support by Indian rulers in WW1.
● Therefore now had some say/advisory role in British policy in India.
● Elected majority in CLA, COS, and Provincial legislative assemblies (PLAs).
● Direct elections were the first time in COS and PLAs but indirect elections are
in CLA.
● Women got the right to vote.
● No universal adult franchise as the Right to vote was linked with the Income
criterion.
● Separate electorates to Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and Anglo-Indians.
● For depressed classes not separate electorates, but reservation of nominated
seats in all legislatures.
● Subjects were divided between the Center and Provinces, but it was not a
federal distribution.
● That is Center could take away a subject or additionally legislate upon it.
● (That is, it is not my car, but Papa’s car given to me).
● Provincial Budget was separated from Central Budget for the first time, and
sources of revenue were divided.
● For example, LR to provinces, and Income Tax and customs to the Center.
● Viceroy’s Executive Council is not to be responsible to the legislature.
● Viceroy had veto powers over bills.
● And power to approve rejected bills.
● And ordinance power.
● And power to restore cuts in grants.
● The whole budget could still not be voted upon.
● 75% of budget items are still non-votable.
● However, adjournment motions could now be passed.
● 3 of 6 Indians in the Viceroy’s Executive Council (ICA 1909, one Indian)

Dyarchy in provinces (3:41 PM)

● Subjects were divided at the provincial level as reserved and transferred

subjects.
● Transferred subjects to be legislated upon by PLA, and to be administered by
popular ministers responsible to PLA.
● Reserved subjects were to be legislated upon by senior officials and also to
be administered by senior officials: Not responsible to PLA, and only
responsible to Governer.
● Therefore, the partially responsible government is brought to the provincial
level.
 ● Transferred Subjects were less politically important, e.g. health, education,
agriculture, local government, etc.
● While, reserved subjects: law and order, finance, control of officials, LR, etc.
● The idea was to hurt the legitimacy of popular Indian ministers.
● As they would not be able to effectively administer, due to a lack of control
over officials and finances, therefore making them unpopular among the
masses.
● In case of failure of Constitutional machinery, the governor could take over
executive and legislative powers over transferred subjects.
● Popular ministers could be overruled by the governor in many matters.
● INM leaders were dissatisfied with GOI 1919 because
● No Universal Adult Franchise.
● Dissatisfacotry division of subjects, between Center and provinces and
between Reserved and Transferred subjects.
● Not fully responsible government in provinces and no responsible government
at the Center.
● Provinces were allocated seats in CLA and COS not as per the population of
provinces, but as per their importance.
● For example, the commercial importance of Bombay, and the military
importance of Punjab.

Gandhiji in South Africa: (3:57 PM)

● Grievances of Indians in SA:

● The government disenfranchised Indians, i.e. no right to vote.
● Those indentured laborers, who had overstayed tenure of their contracts were
given a choice:
● Leave South Africa.
● Get Reindentured.
● Pay a fine in form of pole tax.
● Transvaal banned the immigration of Indians from other provinces/states
which hurt the employment opportunities of Indians, who were mainly based
in Natal.
● Registration Certificates (RCs) that had fingerprints: were made mandatory.
● And were to be carried at all times.
● If not, then a fine or even imprisonment.
● Later, Supreme Court invalidated all marriages not done as per Christianity.
● From 1896-1906, MG adopted Moderate Methods of sending petitions and
writing articles in Indian Opinion, etc.
● From 1906-14: MG adopted methods of extra-constitutional non-violent
struggle.
● Satyagrah: NC+CDM+Spirituality or morality of Satyagrahi.
● Satyagrahi= Truthful + Non-violent, fearless, ready to accept suffering+ Loves
evil doers, + Hate to be alien to his nature, and therefore morally superior.
 ● MG hated the breach of promise.
● Utility: With high morality, a Satyagrahi got the confidence of resisting a much
more physically powerful and oppressive government.
● Allowed greater participation, including by women.
● Decreased chances of repression because of non-violence.
● Indian workers/merchants and women all joined MG’s movement.
● Gopal Krishna Gokhale raised awareness in India after his return from a visit
to South Africa.
● Hardinge 1016 then criticized the Government of South Africa.
● Result:
● The government agreed to MG’s demands on the poll tax, RCs, and validation
of Indian marriages.
● MG came to India in January 1915.

MG Ideology:

● Hind Swaraj by MG, 1909= Most authentic work on MG’s ideology.

● Inclusive Approach= As MG was fully aware of the plural nature of Indian
society.
● Never clearly defined Swaraj which meant different things for different
sections.
● Deployed cultural nationalism.
● His simple attire, use of Hindi, and Symbols like Ram-Rajya, Sita, and
Draupadi made him one of us.
● Rejected the concept of classes and favored Varnashram, as the former led
to hatred in society due to class conflict, while Varnashram was an ancient
Indian way of organizing society.

Topic for the next class: Explanation of Gandhiji in SA.

Gandhi in South Africa: (1:17 PM)

● The interest of capitalists is inversely proportional to the interest of the

working class.
● Used religion to mobilize the masses as religion was stronger than class.
● But with a focus on the morality of religion and not revivalism.
● 1848: Communist Manifesto: Marx: proletariat of the world rise.
● Criticized modern civilizations: There is nothing to learn from Godless
Western civilization based solely on industrial capitalism. With a prime focus
on the profit motive. And no regard for morality.
● Indians are responsible for their own enslavement as accepted capitalism of
the West, and now doctors, lawyers, and railways are looting the country.
● (not because doctors give medical help, but because his motive is profit
motive.)
● Use this if anyone attacks MG for being anti-modernization.
● India is a nation since ancient times, and the basis of nationality= is an
ancient civilization and not just one language/religion/race like the West.
● Stateless society and village republics.
● Like Marx believed in a stateless society, for Marx, the state was an agent of
the middle class.
● And it should be replaced by the rule of the working class.
● But MG wanted a stateless society due to their belief in the liberty of each
individual.
● Therefore for MG swaraj meant the self-rule of each individual, and not of the
home rule, or class rule of Marx.
● Total liberty to each individual.
● However, MG wanted enlightened anarchy, not anarchy. That is morality
instead of law should guide behavior.
● Therefore morality is a replacement for the law.
● And not lawlessness/anarchy.
● Until such high morality is achieved in society, MG favored parliamentary
democracy.
● But with as weak a state as possible.
● Village republics instead of a strong state-led parliamentary democracy lead
to not the will of the people but of political parties, and party discipline hurts
the independence of a parliamentarian. (Blockchain+Internet revolution can
lead to direct democracy, and convert central government into a panchayat).
● Instead of the capitalist economy, MG wanted a village-based self-sufficient of
ancient times.
● For MG, democracy= is a system that gives equal opportunity to the weak.
● Did not favor forceful land redistribution.
● But wanted Landlords to give up their lands voluntarily on basis of morality.
● The Bhodaan Movement 1951 of Vinoba Bhave in Telangana was inspired
by this ideal.
● The idea of trusteeship: to resolve disputes between capitalists and the
working class.
● That is capitalists should act as a trustee working for the interests of workers
and not for profit motives.
● The idea of arbitration:
● That is to reveal the truth with help of mediation and transparency and arrive
at a win-win compromise solution.
● Favored universal disarmament, and against selective disarmament of Indians
while colonial states stayed armed. Therefore MG opposed the Arms Act of
1878.
● Non-violent satyagraha attracted moderates and extremists due to passive
resistance.
● Therefore MG could unite both in 1920.
● Nonviolence had the utility of allowing greater participation by the masses
including women.
 ● And decreased chances of repression.
● MG wanted to control mass movement.
● Strict adherence to programs.
● MG’s gradualist approach of Struggle-Truce-Struggle.
● As masses developed fatigue after a period of struggle.
● MG did not want to take benefit of the weakness of opponents, and MG
always took a stand on side of justice.
● For example, did not participate in HRL 1916-18. As the British were
fighting WW1.
● And wanted Indians to join the army as Allied powers were victims of the
aggression of central powers.
● Pilot projects of MG in Champaran, Ahemdabad, and Kheda.

Champaran 1917: (3:09 PM)

● First Passive Resistance and first Civil Disobedience.

● MG violated the order to leave Champaran.
● Grievance:
● Tinkathiya System of Indigo Plantation.
● Result:
● An inquiry committee was set up, leading to the end of the Tinkathiya
System.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike: 1918

● First Hunger Strike.

● In favor of workers whose Plague Bonus was discontinued by Mill owners.
● MG demanded a 35% increase in wages.
● An Arbitration Board was set up, and finally, wages increased by 27.5%.
● This led to the foundation of the Working Class movement in Ahemadabad.
● And the formation of the Textile Labour Association in 1920.

Kheda Satyagraha: 1918

● First Non-cooperation.
● MG asked peasants to withhold LR payments, as they were entitled to low LR
in case of crop failure.
● But the government was demanding full LR.
● Result:
● Government asked only those to pay who can pay.
● (MG came to India and cut CAKe)

Rowlatt Satyagrah: 1919

● Was solely led by MG and not by INC.

 ● Against Rowlatt’s Acts passed by ILC in February 1919 (GOI Act 1919 set
up CLA and COS in December 1919).
● For MG, it was a breach of the promise of self-government, of the Montague
Statement of 1917 and Montford Reforms.
● These two Acts brought on the suggestion of a committee headed by Justice
S. A. T. Rowlatt, the British wanted to continue having draconian powers of
the Defence of India Act, of 1915, which was only for the period of war.
● MG Action:
● First Mass strike, and the first all-India movement.
● As MG asked Indians to go on a nationwide non-violent strike.
● MG's arrest led to widespread violence.
● Especially in Punjab, leading to LG O’Dwyer of Punjab applying Martial Law.
● 13th of April 1919, Jaliawalah Bagh Massacre by General Dyer.
● And after this MG withdrew from the movement because overwhelmed by
violence.
● (Martial Law barred gathering of people and peaceful gatherings and 379
were killed.)
● Result:
● High participation in urban areas by workers, but not in rural areas.
● Importance:
● First all-India movement, beginning of the mass politics.
● MG realized that he needed control over INC for a controlled mass
movement.
● That Indians need training in non-violent satyagraha.

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement: (3:42 PM)

● Khilafat: 1920-24
● NCM: 1920-22.
● Reasons:
● Khilafat Issue: Harsh Treaty of Sevres 1920, signed with Ottoman Empire,
post-WW1, 1914-19.
● Huge Ottoman Empire ruled by Khalifa, the religious head of the Muslim
World, was reduced to a small Turkey, which was a breach of promise, as the
British had promised fair treatment of Khalifa, in return for support by Indian
Muslims, during WW1.
● Also, Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire were colonized by Britain and
France.
● Many Turks now lived in Greece.
● And Balfour Declaration 1917 for the creation of Isreal in the future by the
British.

General Grievances: (3:48 PM)

● Dissatisfaction with GOI Act 1919.

 ● War-related inflation and Spanish Flu. (Corona Virus @WW1).
● Rowlatt Act 1919 and consequent Jaliahwala Bagh Massacre.

Action:

● Khilafat Committee set up by Ali Brother: Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali:
1919.
● It demanded:
● The dignity of Khalifa is maintained by giving him suitable territories.
● And religious Muslim places to be under Khalifa.
● And Arabs are not to be under non-Muslims.
● Requested MG to take over leadership.
● 1920: Khilafat Committee launched Non-Cooperation Movement by giving a
call for the boycott of titles, civil services, and the army.
● And no-tax campaign.
● MG saw the opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity, and therefore convinced INC
to also begin NCM.
● He convinced leaders like CR Das, who were more inclined towards Council
Work to oppose the British. (GOI 1919 allowed adjournment motions).
● (link: End or Mend Councils Resolution of 1922 post-withdrawal of NCM).
● (Tilak died in August 1920).

Special Calcutta Session, September 1920: (4:03 PM)

● Started NCM by INC.

● With the goal of:
● Undo the Punjab wrongs.
● Undo Khilafat wrongs.
● Give Swaraj.
● And the method of Noncooperation of 1 year, after which a CDM, if Swaraj is
not achieved in 1 year.

INC decided that in the first phase of NCM, (the 2nd Phase was to be of CDM):

● Leave titles and honors.

● Boycott Councils. (Don’t participate in elections, don’t stand, and don’t vote).
● Boycott British Courts and use Khadi.
● Picketing of Liquor Shops.
● Anti-untouchability campaign.
● Promotion of Hindu-Muslim Unity.
● (Constructive work elements).

Nagpur Session, 1920:

● INC taken over by MG.

● INC decided that goal =
 ● Swaraj by peaceful means.
● As against constitutional means.
● Therefore INC adopted the method of non-violent extra-constitutional struggle.
● As against constitutional methods.
● Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members was set up.
● Hence, movements are carried on, even if important leaders are arrested.
● (CWC: Cabinet, All India Congress Committee: Parliament of congress)
● Provincial Congress Committees (PCCs) set up on linguistic lines.
● 4 Anna annual fee. (1 anna: 1/16 of rupees)
● Therefore MG strengthened the INC organization.
● INC to use Hindi as far as possible. (moving from class politics to mass
politics).
● 2nd Phase of CDM: if swaraj is not in 1 year: to include:
● No tax campaign.
● Resignation from government services.

Topic for the next class: Events of Non-Cooperation Movement.

Non-Cooperation Movement (In continuation) (05:03 PM)

Events related to Non-Cooperation Movement:

● Gandhi- Reading Talk (1921):

● It failed because Viceroy Reading wanted MG to criticise those parts of the
speech by the Ali Brothers which supported violence.
● Ali Brothers had also stated that it is unislamic to be part of the British Indian
Army.
● Therefore, MG defeated the British divide-and-rule tactic.
● Visit of Prince of Wales (November 1921):
● It led to nationwide, strikes by workers.
● However, there was violence against Christians, Parsis and landlords who
supported the visit.
● Therefore now MG decided- No CDM at the All India level and CDM only in
Bardoli via No tax campaign.
● Chauri-Chaura Incident (1922):
● Here 22 police personnel were burnt alive after police repression of protestors
protesting the illegal sale of liquor etc.
● Now MG decided to withdraw NCM plus suspended CDM in Bardoli.
● Bardoli Resolution:
● It held that the constructive must be before the next movement.

Outcomes of NCM:

● Negatives:
● Revolutionaries had joined enthusiastically but were highly disappointed with
the withdrawal in 1922.
● Low participation by the middle class at the rate of a boycott of institutions +
low participation by capitalists.
● Khadi was expensive and there were not enough national educational
institutions.
● Anti-untouchability was a priority for only MG and not for other INC leaders.
● The movement turned violent.
● Communal violence due to increased religiosity and the high role of Ulamas in
mobilizing Muslims.
● Example - Mappila revolt in Malabar 1921 and communal violence in different
parts from 1922-24. Therefore, H-M unity (Hindu-Muslim) was temporary.
● The Khilafat movement ended when the people of Turkey themselves rejected
the rule of Khalifa and set up a republic under Mustafa Kemal in 1924.
● Positives:
● Stronger worker participation.
● Example - Strikes in Assam led by J M Sengupta in tea plantations, steamer
services, railways etc + worker's strike during the visit of Prince of Wales
(November 1921).
● Even revolutionaries joined NCM.
● Such inspiration by Mahatma Gandhi that even if temporarily revolutionaries
gave up arms struggle in favour of the mass movement.
● Great show of Hindu-Muslim unity until 1922 except in Malabar.
● Strong peasant participation, peasant movements like Awadh Kisan Sabha
Movement, 1920 and Eka movement, 1921- in UP- merged into INM- NCM.
● Tribals participated, for example, in Andhra, they violated forest laws etc.
● Strong lower caste participation and first-time untouchability became part of
the mainstream politics and INC agenda (1920- Nagpur session of INC).
● First time new regions participated. Examples - Rajasthan, Gujarat, Sindh,
United Provinces, and South India. (*HRL 191618 energised the mind while
NCM led to the action in these areas).
● In the Akali movement 1920-25, for the reclamation of Gurudwaras from
pro-British Udasi Sikh Mahants, Akali supported NCM from 1921 and there
was Hindu-Muslim- Sikh unity and a rise of nationalism in Punjab. Therefore,
Punjab shed its loyalist image and the leadership of the elites was replaced by
the middle class. (Noticed the utility of religion/culture in political nationalism
and therefore western education led to the rise of modern nationalism among
the middle class while religion led to the participation of religious masses and
middle-class leaders channelised religious energy for the spread of nationalist
ideas).
● Strong regional leadership developed in form of leaders like Bose, Nehru, and
Patel.
● Therefore, INC was strengthened by NCM.
 ● The economic boycott was a great success as British imports decreased by
half.
● Boycott of the Council was a great success as only 5% voted in the 1920
elections to CLA.
● Anti-liquor campaign - a great success. It also led to women's participation.
● CR Das left legal practice and this acted as a great inspiration.
● After the death of Tilak in August 1920, MG started Tilak Swaraj Fund which
was oversubscribed.

Akali Movement (1920-25) (06:03 PM)

● To take control of Gurudwaras from Udasi Sikh Mahants who were corrupt
and also pro-British.
● For Example - they opposed Ghadrites who arrived in Punjab; they asked the
masses not to support Ghadrites.
● Trigger - They decorated/honoured General Dyer after the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre of 13th April 1919 and this triggered the Akali movement.
● In 1921, it merged with NCM and therefore supported the goal of Swaraj and
methods of non-violence and non-cooperation.

Events:

● British gave control of the Golden Temple easily, however, Toshkhana

(treasury) continued under British control.
● Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) was formed for the
management of the Golden Temple in 1920.
● Shiromani Akali Dal 1920 - set up for further protests for getting control of
other Gurudwaras.
● Three Important Events:
● Nankana tragedy 1921 -
● Here, Mahant used a private Army against the Akalis and hundreds were
killed.
● However, Akalis took control finally.
● It was now that Akalis gave a call for supporting NCM and declared the goals
and methods of NCM as their own goals and methods as well.
● Keys Affair:
● Here Baba Khadak Singh, a moderate among Akalis campaigned for SGPC to
get the keys of Toshkhana of Golden Temple from the British.
● British accepted the demand as they wanted to deploy the 'Divide and Rule'
tactic between moderates and extremists among Akalis by giving carrots to
Moderates and using sticks against extremists.
● Guru ka Bagh Incident: (*after Chauri Chaura incident):
● Here, Gurudwaras were taken over by Akalis but the land around Gurudwara
was still under Mahant.
 ● With NCM withdrawn, the British wanted to restore their image and hence
supported Mahants and therefore, did brutal repression of Akalis.
● However, when the movement spread, the British agreed to Akalis' demands
due to fear of disaffection among Punjabi soldiers who dominated the British
Indian army since 1857.

Positives of the Akali Movement:

● Gurudwara Reform Act 1925 - SGPC and elected body of Sikhs got control
over all Gurudwaras.
● Educated Middle Class took over leadership of the Sikh/Punjabi community
from pro-British feudal elements.
● The politicization of Punjab's peasantry. Since the movement was a religious
issue, therefore masses participated and since it merged into NCM, therefore
it strengthened the NCM and INM.
● Rural-Urban unity was there + Hindus and Muslims actively participated,
therefore H-M-S unity was there.
● The movement also led to the growth of nationalistic sentiments in the
Princely state of Punjab (* Because of geography).

Negatives of the Akali Movement:

● Masses got religiously charged and this later encouraged communalism.

● Akalis got split post-1925 into
● Gandhians and Leftists - They formed Kiriti Kisan Party
● Communal elements continued as Akali Dal.
● Loyalists to the British formed Unionist Party.

Peasant movements of the 1920s: (06:41 PM)

UP Kisan Sabha movement 1918:

● Grievance = Oppression of tenants by big landlords that is high rents, illegal

abwabs, disrespecting occupancy rights via Bedakhali/ forced evictions,
forced labour that is Begar and Hari.
● The movement was led by Madan Mohan Malviya, a moderate.
● There was a general grievance about war inflation (WWI 1914-19) as well.
● The HRL movement politicized peasants and this contributed to peasant
movements.
● During NCM, Kisan sabha got split between those who supported moderate
methods of Malviya and those who supported methods of NC of MG.
● The Gandhians formed Awadh Kisan Sabha in 1920 which merged into NCM,
therefore, strengthening NCM.
● Nehru played a leadership role in Awadh Kisan Sabha.
 ● Result = Finally there was violence which led to repression in 1921. However,
the British also brought Awadh rent amendment Act that brought relief.

Eka movement in Awadh, 1921-

● Same grievances and Oppression by rent collectors.

● Adopted the same methods of NC as Awadh Kisan Sabha which is
non-payment of rent + refusing begar and Hari, abwabs + resisting Bedakhali,
however, lower caste leader Madari Pasi did not believe in MG's non-violence,
therefore, the movement turned violent and was repressed by the British.

Moplah revolt 1921:

● Muslim ryots that are Moplahs participated in the Khilafat movement under
INC leaders.
● Ryots who were Muslims had grievances against the oppression by
Janmis/landlords who were Hindus.
● After arresting of INC leaders, the movement became leaderless and now
communal riots broke out as Moplahs were religiously charged due to the
Khilafat issue.
● Result= British repressed the movement and it broke Hindu-Muslim unity
otherwise strong during NCM.

Borsad Satyagraha in Gujarat (1922-24) :

● Led by Patel who organized peasants for non-violent Satyagraha.

● Grievance = Collusion between Police and Dacoits.
● The government deployed additional police forces and applied additional
taxes to pay for these forces.
● Action = Patel started a no-tax campaign against additional tax (*MG style -
oppose only unjust aspects; exceptions were movements where the goal was
Swaraj and therefore the spirit of anti WR (no taxation without representation)
applied).
● The movement forced the Governor of Bombay to order an enquiry and
therefore led to the withdrawal of additional tax and resolution of additional
grievances. (MG ideology- method of arbitration forced upon the British via
independent enquiry to reveal the truth)
● Patel showed great organizational skills. Example - organized villages into
volunteer corps who alerted villagers when officials came to seize their
property.
● The villages used to escape and return later.

Bardoli Satyagraha 1928 in Gujarat (07:26 PM):

● Here below noticed MG style:

● Community training in Satyagraha+ Community unity- by constructive work.
 ● Focus on organised struggle, organised masses, use the press, clear
planning, build tempo gradually and then launch a big movement.
● The goal of a dispute resolution by revealing truth and arbitration.
● Grievance = 30% increase in LR by the government (*Ryotwari).
● Preparations were done for the CDM phase of NCM since November 1921
(*that is CDM only in Bardoli = decision of MG post violence @ Prince of
Wales visit), in form of constructive work with a focus on unity between
Ujaliparaj (Upper Caste) and Kaliparaj (Lower Caste).
● The focus was also on anti-untouchability and anti-liquor campaigns.
● Events:
● Patel took leadership and
● Highlighted an unjust increase in LR and asked peasants to pay LR only at
old rates.
● Demanded an independent tribunal to decide the issue (*MG style - reveal the
truth and arbitration).
● Organised peasants including women into Chhavnis which implemented a
no-tax campaign and social boycott of non-tax supporters.
● Raised awareness via Bardoli Patrika.
● Simultaneously MG raised issues in Young India and Nav Jivan.
● PLA members resigned next and MG reached Bardoli in 1928.
● Finally, under pressure, the British set up an independent tribunal which
decided a 6.03% increase in LR as against 30% earlier.
● Women and peasants of Bardoli gave the title of Sardar to Vallabhbhai Patel
and MG gave dignity to lower castes by renaming Kaliparaj as Raniparaj, that
is people of forests.

Swarajists/Pro changers v/s No changers - Passive Phase - 07:45 PM

● Swarajists or Pro-Changers like CR Das, Motilal Nehru, and Madan Mohan

Malviya proposed a resolution of ending or mending the councils at the Gaya
session 1922 that stops the boycott of councils and fights the 1923 elections
to CLA.
● Arguments by Swarajists:
● Fill the political void created after NCM withdrawal.
● Fill empty newspapers by doing propaganda in councils.
● They will use councils for political struggle by either not allowing the council to
function (*using the adjournment power of GOI 1919) or by forcing the British
to bring constitutional reforms, that is, end the councils or mend councils.
● If INC does not enter Councils, then non-INC forces will become strong and if
voters participate, then INC will lose the phase and the British will claim the
success of 1919 reforms.
● No Changers were Gandhians like Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C
Rajagopalachari, etc.
 ● They wanted a continuation of the Council's boycott and constructive work
because -
● Council entry will lead to neglect of CW important for preventing another
Chauri Chaura + loss of revolutionary zeal + political corruption, therefore,
continue CW and NCM in the form of a council boycott at the INC level and
wait for the re-launch of CDM.
● Failure to end or mend the council resolution led to the pro-changers
resigning from official posts of INC and setting up the Congress khilafat
Swaraj party within INC and fighting the 1923 elections.
● MG prevented a split in INC as
● Unlike Surat split in 1907, MG was a commonly respected leader of both
factions.
● MG maintained deep respect and did not question the nationalism of
Swarajists and in fact took a pro-Swarajist stand when the British repressed
Bengali Swarajists who had the support of revolutionaries in elections and
therefore MG defeated the DNR tactic of the British.
● In 1924, when MG was released from Jail, Council entry had already taken
place and therefore no utility in resigning.
● MG praised good work in Councils.
● Swarajists demanded a new constitution in the first session of CLA itself +
argued against repressive laws + argued for Indian capitalists and therefore
did great work.

The topic of the next class is the negatives of Swarajists.

Negatives of Swarajists: (1:23 PM)

● Council works not followed up by action on streets.

● Therefore ineffective.
● CR Das died in 1925, and this was a big blow to Swarajists.
● They did not support Muslim tenants in Bengal and therefore lost the support
of ML 1906.
● Riots in 1924 led to division among Swarajists.
● Those who now positively responded to the British by allowing councils to
function and supported the government, therefore opposing the idea of ending
or mending councils were called responsivists, e.g. LL Rai and Madan
Mohan Malviya.
● They wanted protection for Hindus from the British in the context of riots.
● Some responsivists like NC Kelkar and Jaykar joined Executive Council in
provinces.
● Therefore INC decided to withdraw from Councils in 1926.
● By 1930, all members withdrew, after the 1929 Lahore Session, where INC
adopted the goal of Poorna Swaraj.

Positives of No-Changers (Constructive Work):

 ● CW gave work to the party cadre in the passive phase (1922-27).
● It increased caste unity and rural-urban unity.
● Increased INC Membership.
● CW Boosted Nationalism due to Swadeshi education in CW.
● Gandhiji set up his base at Sabarmati Ashram 1917 in 1924, where he made
Charkha famous as a symbol of Swadeshi.
● The announcement of the Simon Commission/Indian Statutory Commission in
1927 ended the passive phase 1922-27.

Revolutionaries (post-1922): 1:48 PM

● Revolutionaries joined NCM with enthusiasm but were disappointed by the

withdrawal of 1922.
● They were neither interested in the Parliamentary politics of Swarajists nor the
CW of MG.
● Therefore now revived revolutionary activities.
● Due to RR1917 (Russian Revolution), there was a rise of Communism and
Socialism worldwide.

Communism:

● For E.g. CPI was set up in Tashkent in 1920 by MN Roy, and then again set
up in 1925 in India.
● Revolutionaries got attracted to Marxist ideas, i.e. they believed not just in
political independence but also in independence from the oppression of the
poor by the rich.
● They were also deeply secular.

Hindustan Republican Army/Association (HRA), 1924: (2:09 PM)

● Ram Prashad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Sachin Sanyal, Jogesh

Chatterjee, and Chandrashekhar Azad set up HRA 1924 with the goal of
United States of India with a universal adult franchise.
● In 1925, Kakori Robbery Case, HRA looted cash from the train, but many
were arrested and Bismil and AFQ Khan were hanged, and HRA, therefore,
went defunct.
● Azad was not caught.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Army/Association (HSRA), 1928:

● HRA was revived as HSRA by Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh.

● It had all revolutionaries of North India.
● For example, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, etc.

In Lahore Conspiracy Case 1928:

 ● Bhagat Singh took revenge for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, during anti-Simon
protests in November 1928.
● John Saunders instead of SP James Scott who had ordered a lathi charge
against LL Rai.
● 1929 Bomb in CLA by Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt.
● CLA was deliberating upon Public Safety Bill and Trades Dispute Bill, aimed
at curbing liberty and the working-class movement.
● Public Safety Bill provided for deportation out of India.
● British feared rising communist influence in India.
● The bomb was harmless and leaflets with the slogan ‘To Make the Deaf Hear’
was thrown in CLA.
● And Bhagat Singh and BK Dutta courted arrest.
● Then Bhagat Singh did propaganda in Court to inspire nationalism among the
masses.
● While in Jail, he set up a library as he believed more in the power of the pen.
● He also started a hunger strike against the inhuman living conditions of
prisoners.
● Jatin Das died on the 64th day of the fast due to force-feeding that damaged
his lungs.
● Bhagat Singh stated that I have acted like a terrorist but I am not a terrorist.
● He did not want youth to follow the path of Revolutionary activities but to join
INC and INM.
● Therefore only wanted to inspire nationalism by personal sacrifice among the
youth.
● He had also formed organizations like Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha to
educate youth about mass politics (That is, street action and not revolutionary
action).
● He stated that communalism is as big an enemy as colonialism, therefore was
deeply secular.
● Quotes ‘Philosophy of Bomb’ written by Bhagwati Charan Vohra and
Chandrashekhar Azad define revolution as independence: Social, economic,
and political, and detailed ideology of revolutionaries.
● Therefore this time, they were more politically aware and ideologically
stronger.
● Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were hanged on 23rd March 1931, in
Lahore Conspiracy Case 1928.
● Azad shot himself during an encounter in 1931.

Chittagong Armory Raid (2:45 PM)

● In East Bengal.
● While MG was leading CDM 1930-34, revolutionaries in East Bengal started
an armed struggle with Chittagong Armory Raid under a teacher named Surya
Sen.
 ● Set up Indian Republican Army and mobilized even women in it, for armed
struggle.
● IRA raided Chittagong Armory to secure arms.
● And declared a provisional revolutionary government.
● They cut off Chittagong from the rest of Bengal by destroying communication
systems and railway lines.
● By 1933 they were crushed, but they greatly inspired INM.
● For the first time after 1857, there was a group action in armed struggle.
● Many Muslims were part of the IRA, and women fought and died, Preeti Lata
Wadedar died fighting and Kalpana Dutta got life imprisonment.
● Schoolgirls Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Chaudhari shot dead the DM 1931.
● Bina Das shot at the governor during the convocation ceremony.
● 1933, Nehru was arrested on sedition charges when he supported
Revolutionaries.
● In 1934, Surya Sen was captured and hanged and the revolutionary
movement that started post-1922 came to an end.

Simon Commission: (3:01 PM)

● 1927: Seven Member Indian Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon.
● Appointed under GOI Act 1919.
● In which there was a provision for review of reforms after 10 years.
● Therefore appointed 2 years in advance.
● INC opposed it as Simon Commission had no Indian.
● Therefore against the principle of Self-government promised by Montague
Statement 1917.
● And Indians were not given any say in their future constitution.
● SOS Berkinhead in British Parliament challenged Indians to draft a
constitution, as he did not believe that Indian leaders could overcome their
differences and act unitedly.

1927, INC Madras Session:

● INC decided to boycott Simon Commission and to set up APC (All Party
Conference) for drafting a constitution.
● There were Anti-Simon Commission agitations when it arrived in India in
October 1928, here LL Rai died in November 1928.

Muslim League, Partition and Muhammad Ali Jinnah: (3:13 PM)

● Protection of rights of minority Muslims.

● Separate electorates.
● (If only Muslims vote, then ML will win in seats reserved for Muslims).
● Reservation:
● Of ⅓ seats in the Central Legislature, i.e. greater than % in the population.
 ● In Central Executive.
● In non-Muslim majority provinces as per % of the population.
● Even in Muslim-majority provinces in proportion to population.
● In local bodies, therefore reservations in all elected bodies.
● In bureaucracy and the army.
● More Muslim Majority provinces.
● Weak Center and strong provinces.
● Provincial Autonomy:
● Federal distribution of subjects, i.e. non-interference by the Center.
● Confederation or federation, but not unitary structure.
● More subjects in provincial lists.
● No change in the constitution without the consent of states.
● No state reorganizations negatively affect the Muslim majority status in every
province.

Partition without full Independence: (3:46 PM)

● One state, but 2 nations. (Cabinet Mission Plan 1946)

● Full partition, i.e. two states for two nations. (Mountbatten Plan).

Four Delhi Proposals, December 1927:

● From ML 1906 to Motilal Nehru and accepted by INC but rejected by APC.
● ⅓ reservations for Muslims in Central Legislature.
● Create 3 new Muslim Majority provinces, by separating Sindh from Bombay,
and giving the status of a full province to NWFP and Balochistan.
● Reservation in proportion to the Muslim population in Muslim majority
provinces of Punjab and Bengal.
● If the above is met, then ready for Joint Electorates.
● Therefore for first and last time, ML 1906 accepted idea of joint electorates.

Nehru Report Agust 1928: (3:56 PM)

● APC (All Party Conference) under MA Ansari was set up in Delhi in 1928.
● And a committee under it was set up under Motilal Nehru for drafting
principles of the Constitution in May 1928.
● Recommendations of Nehru Report:
● Dominion Status for India. (That is maximum self-government without leaving
British Empire. Sovereignty with the British Crown and the British can change
the Constitution, and the British are responsible for defense and foreign
policy. And Self government to Indians in all other spheres.)
● A union of India, having British India and 565 PS. And federal relations
between British India and 565 PS.
● Linguistic organization of provinces of British India. (Tilak’s Demand at HRL
1916).
 ● A Supreme Court with an independent judiciary.
● Unitary structure for British India.
● Residuary powers with Center in British India.
● GG to function on aid and advice of the executive council. (i.e. president of
COI).
● Bicameral legislature at the Center with a 7-year term for the upper house,
and a 5-year term for the lower house.
● Universal adult franchise.
● DPSPs.
● 19 Fundamental Rights with a focus on the Rights of Liberty, education,
workers, women, and lower caste, and minorities.

Communal Aspects: (4:06 PM)

● No separate electorates.
● NWFP and Balochistan as full provinces.
● Separation of Sindh from Bombay but only after Dominion Status was
achieved, and only if financially viable.
● No reservation for Muslims in Muslim-majority provinces.
● Reservation in Muslim minority provinces, and at the Center in proportion to
population.(not ⅓)
● Reservation to non-Muslim minorities in Sindh and NWFP.
● Reservation only for 10 years, and to be reviewed after 10 years.
● No state religion, but protection of the culture of minorities.

3 Calcutta Amendments:

● APC met in Calcutta, and here Jinahh proposed 3 Calcutta Amendments,

December 1928 to the Nehru Report.
● One-third reservation in CLA.
● Reservation in Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal, in proportion
to the population, until UAF was implemented.
● Residual powers to provinces and not to Center.
● All three were rejected.

Topic for the next class: INC Calcutta Session December 1928, 14 Points
Demand.

Calcutta Session December 1928: (1:22 PM)

● INC approved Nehru Report.

● Netaji Bose’s resolution for the goal of Poorna Swaraj failed.
● INC decided that if dominion status was not given in one year then the goal of
INC would be Poorna Swaraj, and INC will start a CDM for it.
 ● 1928 CW Resolution passed, as MG wanted to prepare masses for
non-violent CDM.

Constructive Work Resolution: (1:30 PM)

● Focus on the boycott of foreign cloth and promotion of Khadi.

● Anti-liquor campaign.
● Anti-untouchability.
● Awareness about women empowerment.
● Focus on self-reliance, Non-violent Satyagrah, and organizational work for
INC

Jinnah’s 14 Point Demands, March 1929:

● A summary of all the communal demands ever made by any Muslim

organization.
● And this became the blueprint for all future actions of ML 1906.
● Demands:
● Continuation of separate electorate.
● Veto power on Bills if 3/4th of Minority members are against it.
● One-third of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
● Minimum ⅓ reservation in Cabinet for Muslims at the Center and in provinces.
● Reservation in all elected bodies even if Muslims are in majority.
● Reservation in government services.
● Reservation even in Muslim-majority provinces.
● New Muslim majority provinces: Sindh, NWFP, Baluchistan.
● Federal constitution instead of unitary.
● Residual powers to provinces.
● Provincial autonomy: Federal distribution of subjects.
● No Constitutional amendment without the concurrence of provinces.
● No territorial reorganization to negatively affect the Muslim majority status in
any province.
● Protection of the culture of Muslims.

Diwali Declaration/Irwin Statement (1:39 PM)

● 31st of October 1929.

● Dominion Status is implicit in Montague Statement 1917.
● And it is the intent of the British to give Dominion State at future date.
● And for this purpose, the British will hold Round Table Conferences (RTCs) in
London.
● Therefore, there was no decision, only intent, and no timeline and only in the
future.
● Therefore INC responded with Delhi Manifesto November 1929.
● A meeting of national leaders of INC passed it.
 ● RTC should act as a CA (Constituent Assembly).
● Drafting the constitution with dominion status for India.
● The majority of Indians in RTC should be from INC.
● Amnesty in the case of Bomb in CLA 1929, not the Lahore Conspiracy Case
and Meerut Conspiracy Case 1929 (Here many communists including
foreigners were arrested.).
● Irwin 2631 rejected Delhi Manifesto.
● Therefore in Lahor Session in 1929, with JL Nehru as president:
● INC decided the goal of Poorna Swaraj.
● 26th January 1930 to be celebrated as independence day by taking
Independence Pledge.
● INC rejected RTC (3 RTCs: 1930,31,32).
● INC decided to withdraw from legislatures immediately.
● All India Congress Committee (AICC) to launch CDM at an appropriate time.
● On one hand, high pressure on MG to launch CDM, and on other hand some
sections oppose CDM.
● For example, Muslims of INC wanted INC-ML unity before a CDM.
● And middle classes were unsure about the economic impact of CDM.
● Especially when Great Depression 1929 (GD1929) had begun in October
1929.
● ML 1906 called CDM a ploy of INC to establish Hindu Raj.
● Sikhs, Hindu Mahasabha, and Justice Party of Madras (a party of
Non-Brahmins, that saw INC as a Brahmin organization and had opposed
NCM in the past): were against CDM.
● CPI 1925 due to directions from Comintern took an anti-INC stand and
declared INC as a party of the Bourgeoisie (Capitalist) and Bose and Nehru
as agents of the Bourgeoisie.
● Therefore MG gave 11 Point Demands in 1930 instead of launching CDM.

Mahatma Gandhi’s 11 Point Demands: (2:16 PM)

● Middle-class issues:
● Exchange rates favorable to Indian businesses, tariffs favorable to Indian
businesses.
● And promote Indian Shipping
● Peasant issues:
● Decrease LR by 50%.
● Make LR a transferred subject. (recall GOI 1919: Dyarchy at provinces)

General Issues: (2:25 PM)

● Decrease military expenditure and salaries.

● Prohibition on liquor.
● Release prisoners.
● Bring CID under popular control. (as a transferred subject).
 ● Decrease taxes.
● Abolish salt tax and end government salt monopoly.
● Recall demands of BrIA 1851, BoA 1852, and MNA 1852.
● Before Charter 1853.
● Salt had the potential to unite Indias and therefore became the primary focus.
● (all religions, castes, classes, genders, and parties eat salt.).
● View the above demands in the context of GD 1929.

CDM 1930-34: (2:38 PM)

● Reasons:
● Trigger: the rejection of MG’s 11 Point Demands.
● Economic grievances generated by the GD 1929.
● g. crash in prices of Jute and Cotton crops.
● Prices of wheat and rice decreased.
● Therefore farm income decreased, while LR stayed constant.
● Moneylenders stopped lending.
● And demanded repayment of old loans.
● Therefore peasants had to sell their lands.
● And workers were also impacted. Due to a decrease in wages and
unemployment.
● Therefore masses were restless, and this contributed to the launch of CDM.

Events:

● CDM took place in two phases: 1930-31 and 1932-34.

● 2nd RTC 1931, where INC participated after Gandhi Irwin Pact 2631 Pact
1931.
● That suspended CDM.
● Relaunch after 2nd RTC 1931.
● 2 stage plan of MG:
● In the First stage: Marches by leaders in coastal areas for illegal
manufacturing of salt.
● Boycott of British institutions and goods.
● In the Second stage: No revenue campaign in the Ryotwari and Mahalwari
Areas, and non-payment of Chaukidari Tax in Permanent Settlement 1793
areas. (Logic: Indians vs. British needed, and not Indian vs. Indian).
● (In PS 1793 masses: tenants, therefore, no-rent campaign ideal, but this will
hurt unity among Indians.)
● Violation of forest laws in Central Provinces.

Implementation: (2:51 PM)

● Dandi March in March 1930.

● From Sabarmati Ashram, 1917 to Dandi Coast for breaking of Salt Law.
 ● Similar Marches by regional leaders in coastal areas.
● For example, K Kelappan in Malabar, and C Rajagopalachari in Madras.
● And boycott began.

Dharsana Satyagrah:

● May 1930 in Gujarat.

● MG gave prior warning to the British about the peaceful raid on Dharsana Salt
Works.
● (link fearlessness, truthfulness of MG ideology).
● Led to arrest of MG and now raid was led by Manilal, son of MG and Sarojini
Naidu.
● Huge repression of Satyagrahis by the British.
● In Assam, protest against Cunningham Circular. (1930-31)
● That forced parents to give assurance of good behavior to their children.
● After arresting of MG, in May 1930, the second stage began.

Impact of Civil Disobedience:

● Positives:
● Initial violence did not influence MG to withdraw from the movement.
● Therefore MG showed more radicalism.
● CD happened at all-India levels, and not just NC.
● Therefore masses were ready for imprisonment at the British repression.
● Therefore this was important progress in INM.
● The first-time massive participation of the capitalist class, especially traders
who stop importing British clothes.
● There was a decline of 50% in the import of foreign cloth. In NCM also, a 50%
decline. But imports were not impacted during Swadeshi 1905-11.
● GD 1929 also contributed to a decrease in imports but still, traders played an
important role.
● First-time large-scale women participation in rural and urban areas both.
● People were shocked to see huge women's gatherings.
● Therefore MG’s morality decreased the inhibition of Indian men, and MG’s
focus on women's empowerment brought women into mainstream politics.
● Rural and urban areas were both impacted.

Negatives of CDM: (3:41 PM)

● No major workers’ participation, except in Sholapur and Nagpur. Because CPI

boycotted CDM.
● MG was also not much in favor of involving workers due to fear of movement
turning violent. Due to communist influence on workers.
● (Communist method: armed struggle).
 ● Middle-class youth was not attracted to non-violent methods. Because were
inspired by revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh.
● The lack of Hindu-Muslim unity due to the lack of INC-ML unity contributed to
low Muslim participation. (LP 1916 led to high participation in NCM). (Hindu
symbolism and lack of INC-ML unity led to low participation in Swadeshi).
● Government repression led to a decline in movement after September 1930.
● Financial losses decreased capitalist participation. (fatigue developing)
● Decreased peasant participation due to confiscation of property. (fatigue
developing).
● GD 1929 led to a decline in prices. This led to no-rent campaigns by tenant
ryots that could have hurt unity among Indians, and this made MG cautious.
● (notice, MG never started a no-rent campaign).
● Therefore CDM was suspended under Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931.
● And the main reason for the suspension was rising violence.
● For example, Chittagong Armory Raid 1930-33.
● Violence after the arrest of Frontier Gandhi/Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan in
NWFP/Peshawar.
● In Sholapur huge violence among workers after MG's arrest in May 1930.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931: (3:55 PM)

● CDM suspended, INC to participate in RTC 1932.

● The right to make salt for personal use was given.
● Right to picketing of liquor shops.
● Withdrawal of emergency ordinances.
● Release of political prisoners not charged with violence.
● Canceled fines and returned confiscated lands of peasants.
● However, Irwin rejected the commutation of the death sentence to Bhagat
Singh.

Special Karachi Session 1931: (4:02 PM)

● INC approved Gandhi Irwin Pact and passed the resolution on Fundamental
Rights, and a resolution on National Economic Program, which was
influenced by pro-poor socialist ideology.
● To be part of future reforms, at the rate RTC.

Second RTC, September-December 1931:

● Failed because of deadlock over minorities pact.

● As all minorities demanded separate electorates.
● And INC opposed.
● Especially BR Ambedkar demanding separate electorates for Dalits.
● And the British rejected the demand of Poorna Swaraj.
● And this led to the resumption of CDM's Second phase: 1932-34.
 ● Communal Award 1932/MacDonald’s Award: British brought Communal
Award 1932 as a consensus could not be reached by Indians, in favor of joint
electorates.
● It gave separate electorates to depressed classes/Dalits as well.
● INC neither accepted nor rejected. As it was being demanded by the
depressed classes themselves.

Poona Pact: (4:10 PM)

● MG was against separate electorates as they would divide Hindus

permanently.
● And make untouchability permanent.
● However, he was not against greater reservation.
● The Pact was between MG and BR Ambedkar.
● And was signed after fast unto death by MG.
● The Pact rejected the Communal Awarded, and reservation for depressed
classes was proposed to be increased from 71 to 147 seats in PLAs, and 18%
reservation in CLA.
● Now MG launched a campaign against untouchability by setting up Harijan
Sewak Sangh in 1932.
● MG: is an organization man.
● Harijan Magazine 1933, and Harijan Sevak Fund, 20,000 km March, and 2
fasts for raising awareness.

Result of CDM Second Phase:

● Lower response due to demoralization post-CDM suspension, via Gandhi

Irwin Pact 1931.
● Neither upper castes nor lower castes were enthusiastic about Harijan
Campaign, as LC was becoming more radical, and less interested in social
reconciliation.
● Government repression did the rest.
● Therefore CDM ended in 1934.
● The Second Phase was a failure, but INC benefitted with great results in the
1937 elections, held under GOI Act 1935.

Topic for the next class: GOI Act, 1935 (Dictation)

Government of India Act, 1935: (1:09 PM)

● It was the best way to maintain British control over India in given
circumstances.
● Viceroy Linlithghgow implemented GOI in 1935.
● Simon Commission Report 1930, and Nehru Report August 1928, 3 RTCs
(1930,31,32)= basis.
Context/Bases:

● Simon Report June 1930 recommended replacing dyarchy with fully

responsible government in provinces.
● With some emergency powers with the governor.
● And did not want any change at the center.
● Separate Burma from India.
● Create NWFP and Sindh as full provinces.

First RTC 1930:

● Princely States and non-INC parties

● And the latter demanded a federal government of India.
● That is. a union having British India and the Princely States.

Second RTC 1931:

● Indian demands of the federation and responsible government were rejected.

Third RTC 1932:

● Unimportant and just a formality.

● Due to very low participation.
● Simon Commission had no Indians and INC did not participate in the 1st and
3rd RTCs and the 2nd RTC was a failure, therefore GOI 1935 was not a
product of Indian participation and self-government.
● And therefore opposed by Indians.

Features:

At Center:

● Provided for federal structure for the whole of India.

● That is, India is a union of British India and 565 Princely States with federal
relations between British India and the Princely States. (Nehru Report
August 1928)
● But this needed the signing of an Instrument of Accession (IOA) by at least
half of the princes, which was never done.
● (Section 6 of GOI 1935).
● Therefore Central level provisions never came into force.
● 565 PS did not agree because paramountcy was not abolished by GOI 1935,
therefore did not want another authority over them in form of a Union
Government, and there was a fear of losing financial autonomy to the Union
government. (3 Union Subjects of Defense, Communication, foreign affairs.
As the union government can raise money for these subjects.).
● Fear of democracy if became part of the Union, as then INC could launch
movements even in the Princely States due to freedom of movement.
● And smaller Princely States were unhappy with low representation at the
Center.
● Bicameral legislature at Center:
● Federal Assembly + Council of States.
● And ⅓ rd members in FA to be nominees of princes. This eliminated chances
of INC getting the majority at the Center.
● Life of COS = Permanent with 1/3rd members retiring every year + Life of 5
years for FA.
● Direct elections to COS but Indirect elections to FA.
● Right to vote to more Indians but still, only 10 percent got voting rights due to
income criteria.
● The intent was to prevent voting rights to support the base of INC.
● That is, poor peasants and workers.
● Separate electorate (Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-India).
● Reservation of SC in all legislative bodies.
● And also for women and laborers.
● First-time federal distribution of subjects into Federal, Provincial and
Concurrent Lists.
● 80% budget is still not votable, and Viceory could restore cuts in grants.
● Residual powers with Viceroy.
● Viceroy had veto power, ordinance power, power to certify rejected bills.
● Dyarchy at center.
● That is, reserved and transferred subjects.
● Reserved:
● Under total control of Viceroy.
● For example, defense, internal security, foreign affairs, church, and tribal
areas.
● Transferred:
● Legislated upon by Central legislature and to be administered by ministers
responsible to the legislature.
● And viceroy to function on aid and advice of these ministers in transferred
subjects.
● Fiscal autonomy to the government of India:
● Transfer of financial control of British India from SOS to Viceroy.
● Therefore GOI 1935 reduced the powers of SOS and increased the powers of
the Viceroy.
● And JL Nehru termed this as the only major change brought about by GOI
1935.
● At Provinces:
● Provincial autonomy as now federal distribution of subjects, and end of
dyarchy.
● Therefore bringing fully responsible government at provinces.
 ● As now, all subjects were transferred subjects. Under the control of popular
ministers responsible to PLA.
● Direct Elections with Separate electorates continued.
● However 40% budget was non-voteable.
● Council of Ministers headed by Primer (Chief Minister): Responsible to
PLA.
● Governor is still too powerful.
● As he had discretionary powers to summon legislature and veto power over
bills, and ordinance power, admin of tribal regions, and special powers to
protect the rights of minorities, British business interests, privileges of civil
servants.
● And also the power to take over the government and run it indefinitely.
● No mention of dominion status. The goal was to have strong control over the
Center and Get INC busy in provinces.
● Government formation by regional leaders will make them autonomous power
centers, independent of Central INC leadership.
● Therefore weaken INC at all India levels.
● INC opposed the representation of 565 PS by nominees of princes. I.e.
demanded elections in 565 PS.
● ML had fear of the Hindu majority at the center.
● As very few Muslim-majority centers.
● And indirect elections to the federal assembly.
● Demanded Constituent Assembly elected by adult franchise.

Congress Minister 28 Month’s Rule (1937 +)

● INC formed a government in many provinces after the elections after GOI
1935.
● The goal of INC for fighting elections was to prevent non-INC forces from
coming to power.
● Just like the logic of Swarajists.
● Would be able to promote CW better.
● INC got a majority in all provinces except.
● It was the largest party in Bengal, Assam, and NWFP.
● And formed a coalition government in Assam and NWFP.
● Congress ministries boosted the morale of peasants and workers and
strengthened the peasant and working-class movement.
● INC gained important experience in governance due to fully responsible
government and the end of the dyarchy.
● However, some Right Wing leaders, like KM Munshi, used CID to spy upon
left-wing leaders which created tension in INC.
● WW2 (1939-45) and INM:
● (will be covered subsequently).
August Offer 1940: (3:02 PM)

● Context:
● 1939 INC stand at WW2:
● Majority of INC Leaders favored allied victory as Axis Powers were
aggressors and dictatorships.
● After WW1: 1914-19 victorious powers took over colonies of losing powers,
therefore if Axis powers won and colonize India, then all INM progress would
be lost.
● However, the British dragged India into war without our consent, therefore we
were unwilling participants.
● Therefore, in return for support in the war effort INC demanded:
● Immediate responsible government at the Center.
● (GOI 1919 operated at Center, i.e. no responsible government at Center, i.e.
no transferred subjects and demand= All subjects be made transferred
subjects with Viceroy acting only on aid and advice of Indian CoM).
● Constituent Assembly post-war.
● Declare war aims with respect to the Indian future.
● Therefore INC wanted an official commitment to the independence of India.
● MG's stand was: Give unconditional support to the British.
● As justice was on the side of the Allied Powers, and one should not benefit
from the weakness of the British.
● Netaji Bose Stand: Take advantage of the War and start CDM.
● Nehru Stand: No cooperation until actual No advantage to be taken of war.
● Therefore INC demands are not equal to MG/Bose/Nehru.
● Linlithgow 3643 rejected INC demands and stated that the British will set up
an advisory committee of politicians from British India and representatives of
Indian princes to advise the British in war efforts. (complaint of being an
unwilling participant in WW2).

1939 Wardha Meet of CWC: (3:22)

● Refused war support.

● Decided to withdraw from PLAs.
● Therefore resignation of Congress ministries.
● Linlithgow panicked and promised Dominion Status after the war.
● ML 1906 saw an opportunity and passed Lahore Resolution/Pakistan
Resolution 1940.

Provisions of August Offer 1940:

● By Linlithgow, 3643.
● Will expand VEC (Viceroy’s Executive Council) to have more Indians
(transfer of power: ToP)
● Will set up an advisory war council. (unwilling participants in WW2).
 ● Will set up CA after the war. (1939 INC Demand) where mainly Indians (not
solely) will frame the constitution for India with dominion status.
● Therefore for the first time, the British recognized the rights of Indians to draft
their own constitution.
● (recall Simon, 1927).
● (First time promised dominion status explicitly with definite timeline; Irwin
Statement 1929: Dominion Status is implicit in Montague Statement 1917,
only intent, at future date.)
● ‘No future constitution without the consent of minorities’.
● Therefore gave veto power to ML regarding the framing of the constitution.
● (imagine in the CA meeting Article 1 proposed, unity of India and ML votes
‘No’, then Article won’t be part of COI).
● Result:
● Rejected by INC at Wardha Session, 1940. As accepting AO 1940: Accepting
partition of India.
● Since 1939: the INC goal is equal to Poorna Swaraj, not Dominion Status.
● ML rejected AO 1940 as no mention of 2 CAs, and of Pakistan/Partition.

Individual Satyagrah 1940: (3:45 PM)

● Under pressure to launch CDM, MG launched instead of Individual Satyagrah.

● With the goal of freedom of speech (not Poorna Swaraj).
● Vinobh Bhave, Brahm Dutta, and JL Nehru became the first 3 satyagrahis.
● Satyagrahis now launched the ‘Delhi Chalo Movement’ and ‘Jail Bharo
Movement’,e. made demands for Freedom of Speech, got arrested, and if
not, then kept marching towards Delhi until arrested.
● VEC expansion 1941:
● From 3 of 8 Indians to 8 by 12 Indians.
● But without defense, home, and finance portfolio to Indians, therefore
first-time Indian minister in the majority at Center (at ToP)
● (GoI 1919: 3 of 6 Indians.)

Cripps Mission 1942: 3:52 PM

● Context:
● (Stafford Cripps, Cabinet Minister).
● In June 1941, Germany attacked USSR, and in December 1941, Japan
attacked the US.
● Therefore increased fear of Japan invading India.
● December 1941, INC overrides the objection of MG and Nehru and offers
cooperation if:
● Poorna Swaraj post-WW2 and immediate Transfer of Power.
● Fear of Japan increased when it occupied Burma leading to the arrival of the
Cripps Mission in 1942.
● Provisions of Cripps Mission:
 ● Dominion Status post-war.
● And, foreign policy to be with Indians.
● CA post-war had solely Indians.
● CA to have members nominated by princes, and elected members from PLAs
after elections in provinces as per GOI 1935.
● Option to provinces of British India and to each PS to not join the Union frame
own constitution or to set up own union. If any province/PS is not in
agreement with Constitution framed by CA.
● (Therefore step 1: Framing of CoI by majority vote.
● step 2: CoI Framed, unlike August Offer 1940
● Step 3: MPLAs of Punjab/Bengal pass a resolution that they don’t agree with
the CoI framed.
● Step 4: Now Punjab can be a separate dominion with its own constitution or
Punjab and Bengal can set up Pakistan as a dominion.
● Therefore technically 565+11 = 576 dominions legally possible.)
● If the Transfer of Power during the war, then defense to continue under the
viceroy, and no dilution of the Viceroy’s Powers.
● Result:
● MG called Cripps Mission a ‘Post-dated cheque’.
● INC wanted Poorna Swaraj after war and wanted 565 PS to be represented
by elected members.
● No right to secede to any province or PS.
● INC wanted immediate ToP and Viceroy as the constitutional head. Talks
broke down on this point, i.e. Veto Powers of the Viceroy. ML opposed, as
wanted 2 CAs and Pakistan.
● Negative:
● INC agreed to the autonomy of Muslim majority provinces, i.e. Article 370 for
All Muslim majority provinces.

Topic for the next class: Quit India Movement 1942.

Quit India Movement: (1:08 PM)

● Goal: Immediate Poorna Swaraj.

● Reasons:
● 1. Failure of Cripps Mission 1942.
● 2. Fear of Japanese invasion.
● 3. British did not do enough to protect the people of colonies in South East
Asia when Japan invaded.
● Therefore MG wanted Indians to be high on the spirit of nationalism if the
Japanese invaded and the British escaped.
● Rising anger due to war inflation.

Events: (1:24 PM)

 ● Step 1: QIM Resolution passed by INC in special Bombay Session 8th of
August 1942.
● Step 2: MG Speech at Gowalia Tank 8th of August 192.
● Step 3: Therefore people knew only those parts of the Plan which were
revealed in MG’s speech as the QIM Resolution could not be made public as
INC Leadership was arrested on the 9th of August 1942.
● Therefore, QIM 1942 was partially spontaneous as it was leaderless (top
leaders were in jail).
● However, was led by local INC leaders and people themselves.

MG Speech:

● 1. Asked government servants and soldiers to not resign but declare loyalty to
INC and the people of India. (to not weaken the British against Japs, and to
better fight Japs if the British leave).
● 2. Asked princes to accept the idea of democracy, and to not support the
British.
● 3. Asked people of 565 PS to support the prince if he is anti-British, and also
declare that they are part of India.
● 4. Asked students to leave their studies.

QIM Resolution (unknown to the public):

● 1. Asked peasants to not pay LR.

● 2. Asked tenants to pay only fair rents. And only if zamindar is anti-British.
Else ‘no rent campaign’.
● 3. Stated that INC believes that land belongs to the actual cultivator. (i.e.
wants fresh Ryotwari at all India level).
● 4. MG gave the slogan of ‘Do or Die’ although asked people to be
non-violent.
● 5. QIM was totally violent. Because INC leadership was in jail.
● And increased radicalism of MG represented by the slogan ‘Do or Die’.
● However, not totally leaderless. Since the 1920 Nagpur Session, MG
strengthened the INC organization at the local level.
● And due to INM and CW (Constructive Work), the masses were trained in
the mass movement.
● (On the external front: Pro-British, on the internal front: Anti-British).

Phases of QIM: (1:51 PM)

● First Phase:
● Mass struggle of six weeks.
● Second Phase:
● Underground activity until 1945, Shimla Conference.
● Participation in QIM:
 ● 1. People faced the harshest repression, to date in INM in QIM. British burnt
villages and used airplane-mounted guns.
● 2. Rural and urban areas both participated.
● 3. Maximum participation was of peasants with a total focus on the British and
no violence against zamindars and moneylenders. (recall positives of
pre-1857 Revolts, clear political goal, link MG’s morality of not taking benefit
of weakness).
● 4. Big zamindars stayed neutral and small zamindars actively participated.
(first time).
● 5. CPI 1925 did not support QIM, since USSR was part of Allied Power
since June 1941.
● Therefore for CPI, WW2 = People’s war. But still, many strikes by workers and
100s of communists participated.
● 6. School and college girls played an important role by acting as couriers
during the second phase. (Pistols, etc.)
● 7. Aruna Asaf Ali and Sucheta Kriplani were active organsiaters in Second
Phase.
● 8. Usha Mehta started Congress Radio for coordination of the Second Phase
activity.
● 9. Achyut Patwardhan used Congress Radio frequently.
● 10. Netaji Bose from Germany tried to encourage the masses during QIM, via
Azad Hind radio in 1942.
● 11. Students led processions in First Phase and acted as couriers in Second
Phase.
● 12. Muslim participation was low, because ML did not support the QIM, as
success would imply Hindu Raj for ML. But even ML supports gave food and
shelter and did not act as informers in Second Phase.
● Total absence of Communal violence.
● British crushed the First Phase in 6 weeks, and then underground activity
began where leadership was provided by many leaders of the Congress
Socialist Party (CSP 1934).

Highlights of Second Phase: (2:21 PM)

● Government officials leaked info about raids.

● Businessmen donated generously.
● For example, Sumati Morarji gave different cars each day to Achyut
Patwardhan.
● Pilots and trained drivers delivered arms and bombs.
● British wanted MG to condemn violence.
● Instead, he started fast unto death (1943) against British violence and now:
● 1. New energy to masses that led to fresh mass upsurge.
● 2. Indian members of VEC resigned as did not want blame for MG’s death.
 ● 3. Even those against QIM demanded MG’s release. Therefore the fast
increased the Unity.
● 4. International media, now criticized British repression.
● Parallel Governments were set up in different parts as British rule collapsed
in these parts.
● For example, Balia, Eastern UP under Chittu Pandey, Midenapur, Bengal:
Called Jatiya Sarkar, Satara, Maharashtra: Called Prati Sarkar headed by
Nana Patil, got guidance from YB Chavan, Achyut Patwardhan and was most
successful.
● These parallel governments collected their own taxes, set up their own courts,
set up libraries, promoted education, and worked against untouchability and
for prohibition.
● And set up their own police, and did relief work by giving food and shelter, e.g.
in the context of the Bengal Famine in 1943, and the cyclone.
● With the end of WW2, all INC leaders were released in June 1945, to
participate in Shimla Conference, and this ended QIM 1942.
● Also, Churchill wanted a solution for India before the elections in Britain.

Bengal Famine of 1943: (2:58 PM)

● 4-5 million Indians died.

● There was no actual food shortage.
● Therefore it was a man-made famine.
● As food supplies were diverted to Europe and for British War Efforts.
● Also, Burma is under Japan, therefore no import of Rice from Burma.
● Poor logistics management.

Impact: (3:06 PM)

● Led to huge distrust of the British among Indians.

● And Churchill is criticized as Hitler like in Britain.
● Therefore European lives were prioritized above Indian lives.
● Also, British opinion shifted more in favor of Indian independence.

Rajaji Formula/CR Formula/C Rajagopalachari Formula, 1944: (3:08 PM)

● Goal:
● Ensure territorial integrity of India by having unity between INC and ML.
● (like LP 1916)
● ML should support Poorna Swaraj.
● INC-ML coalition government at the center.
● Plebiscite post-war, in Muslim majority regions, on the question of partition.
● And if the vote is in favor of partition, then a weak common center, and strong
provinces.
● Result: Gandhi-Jinnah talks failed as Jinnah wanted:
 ● 1. Voting is based on separate electorates, i.e. only Muslims to vote on
questions of partition.
● 2. Not a weak common center but an independent Pakistan.
● 3. Implement the above before the British leave.

Desai-Liaquat Pact, 1945: (3:20 PM)

● Bhulabhai Desai (leader of INC in CLA), and Liaquat Ali (leader of ML in

CLA).
● Goal:
● 1. Unity of India, via INC-ML unity. By giving the following joint demands to the
British:
● Viceroy’s Executive Council to have:

All Indians except Governor General and Commander in Chief.

50% INC Members 50% ML Members.

● Federal Assembly to have:

20% of minorities, especially Dalits and Sikhs.

50% INC Members 50% ML Members.

● Jinnah refused knowledge of this Pact, therefore failed.

Wavell Plan, 1945: (3:29 PM)

● Viceroy’s Executive Council to have all Indians except GG and Commander

in Chief, 50% Hindu and 50% Muslim ministers.
● Product of Shimla Conference 1945, after the end of WW2.
● Based on Desai Liaquat Pact 1945.
● Failed because ML wanted Muslim ministers to be only from ML.
● While INC argued that it is not a Hindu organization.
● Failure meant: Veto to ML as Wavell announced failure, because ML could not
be convinced.
● And therefore gave an implicit veto to ML increasing its prestige and ML did
well in December 1945 elections.
INA/Azad Hind Fauz 1942: (3:37 PM)

● 1942: INA set up under Mohan Singh.

● Mohan Singh was arrested, as he wanted a greater role for POWs.
● Ras Bihari Bose then took leadership of INA.
● July 1943: Netaji Bose took over leadership from an agent RB Bose.
● And expanded INA, raised huge funds from among NRIs for INA.
● And raised Rani Jhansi regiment of women.
● Also there existed the Gandhi regiment and Nehru regiment.
● He also set up a provisional government of free India, on 21st October 1943.
● 1943: Andaman and Nicobar Islands were liberated.
● INA failed in Kohima and Imphal: in 1944.
● 1944 plus: Clement Atlee came to power in July 1945.
● INA trials of POWs began at Red Fort, with trials of Prem Sehgal, Shah
Nawaz, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon. (HMS).
● Helped in communal unity during INA 1945-46.
● December 1945 elections in India.
● Cabinet Mission: February 1946, and strike by Naval ratings, February 1946.

The topic for the next class: Dictation of INA Trials.

Modern Indian History Class 32 [13:00:00]

INA trials and INA agitation 1945-46 [13:02:00]

● There was a mass upsurge all across India among all Indian sections and it
was supported by all political parties, therefore, maximum unity during INM
was seen during INA agitations. The British said- There has been no issue in
the past that generated so much sympathy among Indians, therefore INA
truly unified India.
● INC made INA agitations part of the election campaign i.e. demanded the
release of INA men.
● INC leaders fought cases for INA men in courts [* Bhula Bhai Desai led + Tez
Bahadur Sapru, J L Nehru etc]
● INC set up an INA relief committee which raised funds and gave money to
INA men on release and tried rehabilitation.
● First time, some government officials openly supported a movement.
Example- gave money for INA trials.
● During INA agitations, there was mutiny in the Indian navy as naval ratings
went on strike in Bombay in February 1946.
● Grievances= Fear of loss of jobs after the war ended + poor service
conditions and racial discrimination+ had supported INA agitations and were
inspired by INA (Contributed money for INA trials)
● Actions=
 ● 1). Revolted and raised the tricolor flag. Flags of INC and Muslim League on
ships+ wrote Quit India on HMIS Talwar
● 2). Went around Bombay in lorries/trucks with pictures of Netaji Bose
● 3). Got the support of communists and now workers in Bombay went on mass
strike
● 4). Were advised by Aruna Asaf Ali, who coordinated their movement despite
the opposition from Mahatma Gandhi
● 5). Naval ratings in Karachi and airforce men went on sympathetic strikes
● 6). The mutiny ended due to British repression and a lack of support from INC
and the Muslim League.
● 7). Patel and Jinnah calmed down ratings by holding meetings [** since
cabinet mission 1946]
● Impact =
● After QIM 1942 + INA 1942+ INA agitation 1945-46 + naval rating strike-
British realized that if cabinet mission 1946 fails then the next movement by
Indians will overthrow them violently as they no more had confidence in British
Indian armed forces

December 1945 Elections [13:25:00]

● INC got majority everywhere except Punjab, Sindh, Bengal

● INC formed a coalition government in Punjab with Akalis and unionists
● Muslim League 1906 did very well in seats reserved for Muslims and got a
majority in Bengal and Sindh [* INC got a majority in NWFP, Assam+ coalition
in Punjab @ Muslim majority provinces]

Cabinet Mission 1946 [13:29:00]

● Proposed a united India [British India + 565 Princely states]

● The only proposal where the British offered poorna swaraj and where the
British wanted a United India.
● Atlee's anti-partition statement march 1946- "A minority won't be allowed a
veto over majority" [* Later compare with Atlee's statement February 1947]
● Cabinet mission proposed
● 1). No two constituent assemblies and no veto to the Muslim league.
● 2). However British won't accept the constitution not based on the INC-
Muslim League consensus
● Reasons=
● British had realized that independence is inevitable + British were weakened
by two world wars, WW I 1914-1919, the Great Depression 1929, and WW II
1939-45, In a span of three decades, therefore, economically weakened +
They hoped for a friendly India, therefore wanted a strong and united India + a
diplomatic failure if India got partitioned.
● Goal of the cabinet mission
 ● Goal of the cabinet mission was the peaceful transfer of power and setting up
a constituent assembly for an Independent India.
● Provided a one-state solution regarding the issue of partition [i.e. one state
but two nations]
● A weak common center having subjects of defense, foreign affairs,
communication
● Provincial autonomy over all subjects other than 3 union subjects and residual
powers with provinces
● Provinces to be divided into three sections- Section A= Hindu majority
provinces + Section B= Muslim majrity provinces of west + Section C= Muslim
majority provinces of East
● Each section would frame its group's constitution i.e. section A will frame
group A constitution, Section B - group B's constitution, Section C- Group C's
constitution [* Section & Group are synonymous]
● Union constitution on three subjects to be framed by a Constituent assembly
having nominated representatives of 565 princely states and members from
PLAs [Provincial legislative assemblies] [*Constituent Assembly= Group A+
group B + group C + nominees of 565 princely states]
● After the general election, a province may come out of a group [* Therefore
group constitution won't be binding on the province which comes out of a
group]
● Future changes to the constitutions of each group and to the union
constitution only after 10 years.
● Immediate transfer of power to an interim government [* Permanent
government formed after the general independence under enacted
constitution]
● Full independence once the constitution is drafted
● Constituent assembly to be constituted via indirect elections by August 1946 +
nominees of princes

Debates @ Cabinet mission 1946 [14:03:00]

● Muslim league wanted the right to question the union constitution immediately
instead of after 10 years [* Constitution Of India implies united India]
● INC stand= Grouping is not compulsory i.e. choice to a province to join a
group or not [* Assam NWFP- INC in power, therefore, didn't want to be in
Group C, B. ]
● INC stand= Elected representatives instead of nominees from 565 princely
states in the constituent assembly
● Muslim league argued that grouping is compulsory and therefore, the partition
is implicit in Cabinet mission 1946 [* i.e. one state two nations is the idea of
cabinet mission 1946]
● And if this is correct Muslim league will accept the cabinet mission 1946 plan
else rejects it
 ● INC decided that NWFP and Assam won't join group B and group C and
therefore Muslims rejected the cabinet mission 1946 plan + did not join the
constituent assembly + did not join the interim government. Later joined the
interim government as didn't want executive powers with INC. Muslim league
got the finance ministry, therefore, making government functioning impossible.
[* Nehru headed the interim government]
● Muslim League gave a call for direct action for the creation of Pakistan on
16th August 1946 leading to communal riots in Calcutta where 5000 died in a
week

Atlee's statement February 1947 [Compare with march 1946 statement ]

[14:19:00]

● Pro-Balkanisation statement [* like Cripps Mission 1942]

● By June 30th, 1948 British will leave India even if there is no constitution i.e.
in one year, therefore wanted to force the Muslim league and INC into a
compromise using fear of Anarchy.
● Princely states not to be under any future government of India [Therefore 565
independent princely states possible]
● Partition of British India as he stated that power will be transferred to an
interim government at the center [* Under Nehru] and also to provincial
governments of provinces for whom constituent assembly was not
representative [* Muslim league dominated provinces]
● Mountbatten will replace Wavell (1943-47)
● Imapct= Now there was widespread violence and a coalition government of
Punjab was overthrown by Muslim League via violence.

Mountbatten gave 2 plans- the 3rd June plan and Plan Balkan

Plan Balkan/ Ismay plan [Ismay - a member of committee]/ Dickey bird plan
April 1947 [14:31:00]

● Give independence to each province + option to them to join or not join

Constituent assembly [Voluntary union]
● Nehru opposed and Mountbatten canceled it and then came the 3rd June plan

3rd June plan/ Mountbatten plan/Partition [14:46:00]

● Context = Mountbatten was given a deadline of October 1947 to explore

options of unity and partition and within two months realized that cabinet
mission 1946 was a dead horse
● Partition could have been avoided if the British had cracked down on
communal violence but they played a passive role of mediators between INC
and the Muslim League
 ● British were working in their national interest of securing influence in South
Asia after departure i.e. if they could not have a friendly united India then
better to have two friendly dominions instead of risking an unfriendly future
Pakistan
● Mountbatten's plan focus was to divide India while retaining maximum unity +
informally no right to secede to 565 Princely states + strong center in both
dominions. This was because since INC agreed to partition, therefore, all
other demands of INC agreed by Mountbatten
● The 3rd June plan was to exit India in 72 days i.e By 15th august 1947,
therefore Mountbatten promised early transfer of power in return for INC-ML
agreeing to dominion status that allowed Britain to keep India in the
Commonwealth.
● Commonwealth was important for trade and business, therefore, dominion
status would be a political success for the British government among the
British people

Provisions [14:58:00]

● In Punjab and Bengal- A simple majority of either Hindu or Muslim members

of the Provincial legislative assembly in favor of partition would lead to
partition
● Plebiscite in Sindh+ voting by political leaders in Baluchistan+ Referendums
in NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal
● If the vote is in favor of partition then two Constituent assemblies and two
dominions and transfer of power to two centers by 15th August 1947
● INC and ML both accepted the Mountbatten plan + votes in all regions came
out in favor of partition
● Two boundary commissions both headed by Radcliffe set up for demarcating
boundaries in Punjab, Bengal, and Assam i.e. West and east

Why Partition? [15:06:00]

● As per Bipin chandra

● 1). INC failed to bring Muslims into INM for decades and failed to curb Muslim
communal forces, especially after 1937
● 2). Proof = Muslim league won 90% of Muslim seats in 1945 elections+ by
June 1947, INC had given up on United India due to communal violence+
failure of the Interim government due to Muslim league and Muslim League
not joining the Constituent assembly made partition look inevitable+ even
Bengal government of Muslim league was complicit in communal violence,
Therefore 3rd June plan minimized the damage as it prevented Balkanisation
of India
● Other aspects
● 1). Hunter's book 1871 argued that neglect of Muslims is the reason for the
Faraizi movement
● 2). 1872 census brought religious identity into the public domain and
governance as a religion-based report published on education, employment,
poverty, etc. Until then Muslims and Hindus were not a homogenous group
● 3). Muslim organizations example led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan demanded
special benefits for Muslims + He labeled INC as a Hindu organization and
argued for special status For Muslim Quam and that Hindus and Muslims as
two separate Quams
● 4). Rise of Hindu revivalism in 1880-90 + cow killing riots 1893 + shuddhi
movement in late 19th century
● 5). Madan Mohan Malviya led the Hindu-Urdu controversy in NWP and Awadh
where he wanted official status for Hindi [late 1880-1900s]. Now Hindi got
associated with Hindus and Urdu with Muslims
● 6). INC did not condemn cow killing riots in 1893 and very low Muslim
participation post-1893 in INC
● 7). Moderates decided in 1886 to not take up social issues, therefore,
● 8). Bengal partition 1905, by British to appease elite Muslim leaders + Positive
response by Minto (1905-1910) to Shimla deputation 1906+ separate
electorate in ICA 1909.
● 9). Formation of the Muslim League as a communal organization 1906
● 10). High use of Hindu symbolism in the swadeshi movement 1905-1911
● 11). Lahore Pact 1916 where INC accepted separate electorates + High use
of religion in the Khilafat movement
● 12). No major agitation when Sikhs were given Separate electorates by GOI
1919
● 13). In Cripps Mission 1942 INC agreed to Provincial autonomy for
Muslim-majority Provinces
● 14). In Gandhi-Jinnah talks on the Rajaji formula 1944, INC agreed, to a
plebiscite for partition [Without full independence]
● 15). Therefore there is some agreement in INC on right to self-determination
for Muslim-majority provinces
● 16). In the cabinet mission plan 1946, INC only opposed compulsory grouping
and not the idea of grouping itself
● 17). INC officially referred to partition for the first time in March 1947 when it
stated that Punjab and Bengal would have to be partitioned if the country was
divided
● Therefore, acceptance of partition under the Mountbatten plan was the
culmination of a long process
● False belief that partition will be temporary and two counties will reunite once
communal violence comes down. Example - Mahatma Gandhi To INC "Don't
accept partition in your hearts"
● False belief that appeasement of the Muslim league will weaken
communalism as appeasing would remove the fear of the majority. Instead, it
led to rising in prestige and strength of the Muslim League, and with each
concession by INC, the Muslim league moved closer to the goal of Pakistan
 ● Mahatma Gandhi was helpless, not because of the lack of support of Nehru
and Patel, but due to the communalisation of Indians
● Mahatma Gandhi stated that Khalsa and Hindus desired partition + Muslims
already hated Mahatma Gandhi and Hindus and Sikhs abandoned him that's
why Mahatma Gandhi could not start a movement against the partition

Responsibility for communal violence during partition [15:36:00]

● Mountbatten's decision of British existing India, one year in advance led to

poor preparations for partition. Example- Punjab governor Jenkins "Peaceful
division will take years not 72 days" + Commander In Chief Lockhart "Punjab
tragedy won't have happened if Partition had been delayed by one year"
● Delay in announcing the Boundary commissions award which was ready
before 15th august but announced after 15th august, so that responsibility for
violence was not on the British, therefore on 15th of August People didn't
know if they are on the right side of the Border leading to last minute anxiety
and rush

Indian Independence Act 1947 [15:40:00]

● Gave legal stattus to Mountbatten Plan

● Partitioned British India into two dominions on an appointed date i.e 15th
August 1947
● Constituent Assembly of two dominions can pass constitutions that end
dominion status
● End of Jurisdiction of the British parliament on British India and end of
paramountcy over 565 Princely states on 15th August.
● Till passage of constitutions, GOI 1935 to apply
● Territory of India and Pakistan to be determined before or after 15th August by
Boundary commission set up By Governor-General/Viceroy
● Paramountcy won't be transferred to British India

Integration of Princely states [15:45:00]

● Status of India
● British India
● 565 princely states
● Pondicherry (French) - Got from France via negotiation in 1954
● Goa, Daman, and Diu (Portuguese)- movement for independence in Goa, but
India did not intervene until 1961 when a popular movement demanded
India's help. In Operation Vijay - the Portuguese surrendered without a fight [*
12th CAA] and Goa, Daman, and Diu became part of India

Princely states [15:48:00]

 ● Instrument of accession (IOA) had a legal basis in section 6 of the GOI Act
1935. The Instrument of accession (IOA) gave defense, foreign affairs, and
communication to the union government while the rest subjects were to
remain with princely states + also only ruler signatures to be valid for the
Instrument of accession (IOA) to be valid.
● Merger agreement - was signed after signing the Instrument of accession
(IOA) and now all subjects with the union government unless decided
otherwise by the constitution of India.
● Cabinet Mission 1946-
● 1). Paramountcy was not to be transferred to any GOI (Government of India)
unless the Instrument of accession (IOA) is signed by princely states + the
same position as prescribed by the Indian Independence Act 1947+
Paramountcy was to come to an end on 15th August 1947 as per the Indian
Independence Act 1947.
● 2). Therefore Net legal status = possible for each princely state to be a fully
independent country.
● 3). However, the Mountbatten plan unofficially promised no right of
independence to 565 princely states.
● State department- Created on 13th June 1947+ had two wings, one each for
India and Pakistan + Minister on the Indian side was Patel and the secretary
was V P Menon + Role = Manage all issues relating to partition and
negotiations with 565 princely states

The strategy of Patel [16:02:00]

● 1). The option was given to Accede to the union of India with respect to 3
subjects by signing the instrument of accession (IOA) - [defense, foreign
affairs, communication]
● 2). Otherwise, India won't be able to control the people of the princely states
after the 15th of august, Therefore, persuasion and the implied threat of
anarchy were made to these princely states
● 3). Then Patel brought Mountbatten on board, who made a speech in
Narendra Mandal/chamber of princes 1920 to convince princes to sign IOA.
Therefore most princely states acceded within 3 weeks of 13th June 1947.
● 4). Princes agreed due to -
● a). Persuasion and fear of Patel + Mountbatten were viewed as a friend and
he had influence as he was from the royal family.
● 5). "BhoTMajo"- Travancore, jodhpur, Bhopal, Manipur + Hyderabad, J&k, and
Junagarh did not sign IOA.
● [**BhoTMaJo signed before 15th August and Hyderabad, J& K and Junagarh
signed post 15th August]
● 6). Pakistan was luring princely states, especially of border areas by
promising blank cheques of AUTONOMY.
Bhopal [16:13:00]

● Majority population was Hindu while Ruler Habibullah was Muslim, who
resisted signing IOA
● Pressure by Patel and communists finally led to the signing of IOA before the
15th of august 1947

Travancore [16:15:00]

● Ruler = Thirunal but the real power center was DIWAN/PM C P Ramaswamy
Aiyar, who proposed that Travancore would follow the American model i.e.
idea of voluntary union, and therefore he stated that Travancore would stay
independent.
● PUNNAPRA VAYALAR movement, October 1946 - under CPI with the
method of armed struggle by peasants and workers for their rights and also
for uniting with India + Now gave the slogan "GO INTO THE ARABIAN SEA
WITH YOUR AMERICAN MODEL"
● June 1947- Negotiation by Patel failed
● July 1947- Attack on the life of Diwan who now fled away and Travancore
signed IOA

Manipur [16:20:00]

● On the 11th of august 1947, Maharaja Bodh Chandra signed IOA on

assurance of autonomy.
● The first elections in independent India in Manipur in June 1948, after public
pressure for democracy. Therefore, a constitutional monarchy with a popular
legislative assembly set up
● Problem = State people's congress (SPC for different states) was in favor of
signing the merger agreement but other parties were not.
● GOI convinced Maharaja to sign the merger agreement but he signed without
consulting the legislative assembly. And this contributed to the separatist
movement later

Hyderabad [16:25:00]

● On Indian mainland + Largest Princely states+ Hindu majority+ Muslim ruler

Nizam Mir-Osman-Ali
● Problem= Real ruler was Qasim Rizvi, an advisor to nizam + MIM, a political
party- they both opposed signing IOA; Qasim Rizvi was an anti-Hindu radical
desperate for independence and gave threat of security of Hindus; Rule of
nizam was unjust + Muslims only 25% of the population but dominated all
bureaucratic posts.
● On the 12th of June 1947, Hyderabad declared independence.
● Solution =
 ● a). GOI offered local autonomy + 20000 personal troops for Nizam but
rejected
● b). Now a people's movement started by communists and the state people's
congress of Hyderabad + Nizam now unleashed Violence by Razakars (his
private army)
● c). Negotiations led to a standstill agreement between GOI and Hyderabad.
However, violence by Razakar continued. Finally in Operation POLO/
operation CATERPILLAR the Indian army entered Hyderabad in September
1948 + Qasim Rizvi was imprisoned until 1957, after which he was sent to
Pakistan + MIM was banned + Hyderabad merged into India with Nizam as
governor

Junagarh

● Nawab was Mohabbat Khan

● Geography - No border with Pakistan + small state on Saurashtra coast =
surrounded by Indian territory+ majority population was Hindu who wanted
integration with India
● Problem= Announced accession to Pakistan and Shah Nawaz Bhutto of the
Muslim League joined the government of the Princely state.
● Solution= A popular movement began that forced Mohabbat khan to flee
[*With his dogs, forgot some wife]+ Now Shah Nawaz Bhutto requested
military help from Pakistan but Jinnah refused as his main focus was J&K and
Junagarh was only a bargaining chip + Indian troops entered Junagarh and a
plebiscite in 1948 led to a merger with India.

Jodhpur [Addition]

● Was important because had a border with Pakistan

● Pressure by Patel on the young king finally led to the signing of IOA before
the 15th of august 1947

Jammu and Kashmir [Addition]

● Important players -
● Raja Hari Singh who wanted independence
● Sheik Abdulla = Anti-Pakistan + Anti-monarchy + Pro-socialism + had good
relations with Nehru
● India and Pakistan - both wanted J&K
● Hari Singh offered standstill agremment to India and pakistan. India did not
sign while Pakistan did therefore Pakistan became anxious and in October
1947 Pashtuns invaded Kashmir. Hari Singh sought the help of Mountbatten
and India. However, India gave a condition that J&K must sign IOA and Sheik
Abdullah be made head of administration i.e. PM.
 ● IOA was signed and Abdullah became PM + Indian army entered J&K but
before Pakistanis could be pushed back completely, Mountbatten convinced
Nehru to take the issue to the UN.
● Nehru announced a Plebiscite to be held under UN + on 1st January 1948,
and a ceasefire was signed between India and Pakistan under a UNSC
resolution. The ceasefire line became the DE-FACTO border and now POK=
Gilgit + Baltistan= Azad Kashmir + UN mission was set up to monitor the
ceasefire.
● A UN resolution in 1951 decided in favor of a plebiscite if Pakistan withdraws
from POK. till now no plebiscite because Pakistan never withdrew
● 1948 onwards the USA and Britain sided with Pakistan in the UN and hence
today India is against any third-party interference in Kashmir

The Topic for the next class- is J&K, the Working class movement, and Many
voices of a nation.

AISPC-All India States' People's Congress(1:11:17 PM):

● Princely states are similar to dominion states.

● INC doesn't have any branches in princely states.
● 1939 SC Bose head of INC.
● Popular movements to integrate the princely states into the national
movement.
● Dictation:
● SPC or Praja Mandal was an organization set up by the people of the PS for
their grievance and for their democratic reforms plus had a goal of integrating
with India.
● The main active centers were Hyderabad, Mysore, and Gujarat.
● Relation with INC:
● 1)1920 Nagpur session- INC opened membership for people of 565 PS but
they were not allowed any political activity in name of INC because:
● -States' people were not politically trained in mass agitations.
● -In case of repression, INC won't be able to protect them.
● -Absence of colonial rule in the domestic sphere as the ruler was Indian.
● Swaraj minus democracy in PS.
● AI SPC setup.
● Nehru stated that people of states cant be excluded from the freedom
movement.
● However, INC continued with the 1920 stand.
● 1937-39:
● 28 months of INC rule in provinces.
● the prestige of INC increased in 565 PS.
● The states' people are motivated to set up more SPC and strengthen existing
SPCs.
 ● 1938-Haripura session with Bose as president.
● 1920 stand was maintained but INC declared that 565 PS are an integral part
of India and Poorna Swaraj is a goal for the whole of India.
● 1939 tripuri session-
● with Bose as president, finally, a change in policy regarding the 565 PS and
INC declared that future movements of INC will involve people of Princely
states.
● In the Ludhiana session 1939 of AISPC- Nehru was appointed as president of
AISPC.
● QIM 1942 was the first movement in which the people of states participated
and they demanded:
● - integration with India.
● -Democracy in PS.
● -Poorna Swaraj.
● Therefore QIM 1942 made the voice of the people of states part of INM and
laid the ground for the territorial integrity of India.
● later important role in the integration of those states which refused to accede
to India.

Working Class Movement:(1:36:04 PM):

● Modern workers appeared in India in the second half of the 19th century with
the growth of modern industry.
● Examples like railways, roadways, telegraphs, etc.
● Emergence as an organized class is linked with the growth of INM and the
inclusion of workers in INM.
● The educated middle class (MC) began associating with workers at end of the
19th century.
● Before this, there were strikes by workers but unorganized and only for
short-term goals.
● 1870-Working men's club plus a monthly journal Bharat shramjeevi setup by
Sasipada Bannerjee, a Brahmo samaj reformer
● 1880-Narayan Lokhande started anglo Marathi weekly Deenbandu.
● Plus started the Bombay mills and millhands Association in 1890.
● An attitude of moderates:
● 1)paid little attention to the question of WC plus supported workers of
Foreign-owned enterprises but not of Indian owned.
● The reason is that it did not want class division and class conflict among
Indians when INM itself was in the early stages.
● Therefore 1886 INC session under Dadabhai Naoroji made a rule that INC will
take up only political questions and only those questions which are common
to all Indians.
● Plus Indian industry was at a nascent stage and under high competition from
British imports and British businesses.
● Eg- there was no import duty until WW1.
● Therefore wanted protection for Indian Capitalists.
● Moderates opposed the factory acts of 1881 and 1891 as they decreased
working hours and therefore could have hurt the interests of Indian factory
owners.
● However, gave huge support to workers of Assam tea plantations in 1881-82
as here employer was a foreigner.
● 1899- First organized strike is the Signallers strike in GIP railways/ Great
Indian peninsular railways, and INC supported as the employer was a
foreigner
● Due to the increase in members of WC, extremists of INC like Lal-Bal-Pal,
Aurobindo, and CR Das argued that INC should take up issues of all workers
for strengthening INM.
● Swadeshi movement- BC Pal, Liaqat Hussein, and CR Das led important
strikes by workers in foreign enterprises plus the first attempt at forming the
All India Union of workers made during the swadeshi movement but failed.
● The Russian revolution of 1905 helped Russian workers play an important
role and this inspired extremists to include workers in INM.
● Therefore it was through the Swadeshi movement that workers became part
of INM and caused exposed wider political questions instead of just WC
questions.
● During the Muzzarfur conspiracy case in 1908, there was the trial of Tilak on
sedition charges when he wrote an article in Kesari in favor of Prafulla Chaki
and Khudiram Bose.
● There was one of the biggest WC demonstrations in support of Tilak.
● With the decline in INM after the surat split in 1907, there was a decline in the
WC movement.
● WC movement now arose during and after WW1.
● Workers participated enthusiastically in the HRL movement.
● Plus Ahmedabad mill strike under MG led to the textile labor association 1920
in Ahmedabad.
● Workers were the main participants in Rowlett satyagraha in 1919.
● workers@ NCM 1920-22- Assam strikes by JM Sengupta in steamer services,
Railways, etc.
● Strikes during the visit of the prince of wales Nov 1921.
● War inflation and low wages contributed to anger among workers.
● The most important development was the formation of AITUC in 1920 under
LL Rai and Tilak.
● AITUC 1920 represented India at ILO.
● Now stronger and longer strikes by workers by the 1920s.
● LL Rai was the first Indian to link imperialism to capitalism and therefore
highlighted the important role of WC in fighting the combo of Capitalism and
imperialism.
 ● Finally, in the Gaya session in 1922, the context- USSR was the first
communist state and the rise in the popularity of communism plus the
withdrawal of NCM.
● INC welcomed the formation of AITUC.
● CR Das successfully argued that workers' and peasants' issues must be
taken up by INC and made part of INM demands else they will start
independent class movements leading to disunity among Indians.
● After 1922, INC decided that it would take up issues of peasants and all
workers.
● Also, MG gave the idea of trusteeship and arbitration to prevent class conflict.

Communist party of India:(2:54:46 PM):

● After the October revolution in 1917 in Russia, there was a spread of

communism, and communist parties formed in different parts of the world.
● CPI was first formed in 1920 in Tashkent under MN Ray, then in 1925 in India.
● There was also the emergence of Left-wing socialists within INC in form of
leaders like Nehru and Bose.
● (Difference between socialists and communists.)
● Workers and peasant parties(WPPs) were set up at the Provincial level within
INCs by early 1927 under SA Dange.
● Plus 1928 All India WPP setup.
● Communist influence increased in INC.
● 1928- High participation of workers in anti-Simon protests.
● Set back to communists and the WC movement.
● Public Safety Bill 1929 and trade disputes bill 1929 aimed at curbing the
Freedom of workers plus the Merrut conspiracy case 1929 led to many arrests
of communist leaders.
● PS bill failed but the Trade disputes bill passed.
● In the Meerut conspiracy case, many communists including foreigners were
arrested.
● Therefore British repression hurt communists and the WC movement.
● Self-inflicted damage-When CPI took an anti-CPI stand due to directions from
the 6th world congress of communist international/ Comintern.
● 6th world congress of communist international/ Comintern 1928 directed all
communist parties to oppose all non-communist forces.
● Therefore CPI declared INC as the party of the bourgeoisie.
● Also declared the goal of poorna swaraj a sham.
● Also opposed CDM of INC plus argued Gandhi Irwin pact 1931 is proof of INC
betraying the goal of Poorna Swaraj.
● Therefore CPI alienated itself from INC ( Link Surat split 1907).
● This is called leftist deviation.
● In 1934, WPPs were ended by communists.
● Without INC they were easily repressed by the British.
 ● The great depression of 1929 hurt capitalist economies.
● However, CDM INC declared that workers and peasants are the hands and
feet of INC.
● Workers participated in CDM but were not up to their potential.
● Violent strikes by Sholapur workers after MG's arrest in May 1930.
● British had to declare martial law plus GIP railwaymen satyagraha where
workers lay on tracks to stop trains.
● Congress socialist party 1934 was formed within INC by younger socialist
leaders like JP Narayan, Minoo Masani, and Acharya Narendra Dev as they
disagreed with MG withdrawing CDM. And also disagreed with CPI's stand of
opposing INC.
● Therefore to change INC from within, set up CSP 1934.
● The 7th world congress of Comintern 1935 gave directions that communist
parties should join hands with all anti-fascist forces due to the rise of Hitler.
● Communists started joining INC to change it from within under PC Joshi.
● From 1936 to 42 communists led powerful peasant movements in Kerala,
Andhra, and Bengal Punjab and regained popular image.
● In 1936- All India Kisan sabha under Swami Shajanand in Bihar, 28-month
congress rule boosted the WC movement.
● Communists supported USSR and therefore Britain in WW2after august 1941
when Germany attacked USSR.
● CPI declared it a people's war.
● Boycotted QIM 1942.
● Still, many communists and workers participated.
● Dec 1945-poor performance by small parties and results dominated by
congress and ML.
● Huge workers participated in INA participation in 1945 and Bombay strikes
after a mutiny by naval ratings in 1946.
● Played an important role in popular agitations in those PS who refused to join
India which helped in the integration of princely states who did not sign IOA
immediately.
● Mini Voices of Nation-Reference from the notes.

Syllabus Completed