HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 1 Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492

1. Early Americas
- Beringia 9,000-15,000 years ago
- Around 40,000-32,000 B.C.E., the Bering Sea Strait froze during an ice age and allowed for
Siberian migrations into the Americas. This land bridge was a thousand miles wide, connecting
eastern Asia with Alaska.
Siberians/Asians → Americans
- Mongolian bloodlines (migration) – Mexican/Mayan
The Olmecs
The Mayas built their civilization after inheriting ideas from the Olmecs peoples
− Olmecs lived in the jungle areas on the east coast of Mexico. They reached their peak
around 1200 and 400 B.C.E.
− Society was primarily agricultural, but also had elements of hunting and gathering. One
notable contribution was aqueducts to transport water into their cities and irrigate their
fields.
• Farming allowed the Olmecs to build permanent settlements.
− Included trade routes that stretched hundreds of miles.
• By 1400 B.C.E. the Olmecs had a capital city that boasted palaces, temples, and monuments.
• They were the FIRST Mesoamericans to develop large religious and ceremonial centers.
− Ceremonial Centers - a large plaza in a city center, surrounded by temples and palaces,
where religious rituals and other public ceremonies took place.
• The Olmecs were the foundational culture for the region.
− Developed math, built huge edifices, created a calendar, predicted eclipses/solstices, and
directed harvesting of crops.
Incan Society

• The Inca Empire was a complex society that developed in the Andes Mountains of South
America.
• Empire arose in present-day Peru around 1400’s C.E. Lasted until 1532 C.E.
• Their lands stretched for over 2,500 miles!
• Chasquis - special runners that would run extremely long distances to communicate within the
empire.
− Would carry important messages from the emperor.
− Would hand you a set of strings called quipu. These were knots tied at different places to
represent numbers. He would also give you a verbal message.
• We will discuss how the Incas grew and managed their large empire.
• Will also learn about Incas’ class structure, family life, religion, and relations with neighbors.

2. Rise of European Exploration and Colonization Models

• Age of Exploration - a period of European exploration and discovery that lasted from about 1418
to 1620 C.E.
• Motives to Explore:
− Find new trade routes to Asia.
• New goods came into Europe from Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Demand
for these goods increased.
− Trade was expensive due to long voyages and empires raising prices as goods moved
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

through many lands from Asia to Europe. Solution was to find a new sea route directly
to Asia!
• New Knowledge
− Explorers saw this as an opportunity to earn fame, glory, and wealth. They wanted to
claim new lands and their riches for themselves.
• Cartography - the science and art of making maps.
− 1400 C.E. “Guide to Geography” translated from Greek into Latin, beginning of
mapmaking used by Egyptian Ptolemy translated into European map making!
Portuguese Exploration

• Age of Exploration BEGAN in Portugal, a small country on the coast of the Iberian Peninsula,
or modern-day Spain.
• Prince Henry (in test)
− Nicknamed “the Navigator.” He was not an explorer, but encourage exploration and
planned and directed many expeditions. They are expensive and he provided the money!
− In 1418 C.E. he sent explorers to sea almost every year.
− Started a navigation school where sailors and map makers could learn their trades.
− His early expeditions focused on coast of Africa.Wanted to find gold, continue the
Crusades against Muslims, and begin trade with Asia.
• Bartolomeu Dias - 1488, first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa.
• Pedro Cabral - 1500, sailed for India but found present-day Brazil. Claimed it for Portugal, and
sailed back to Europe around Africa.
Spain’s Early Exploration

• Late 1400’s, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain wanted to make Spain a powerful
force in Europe. Sponsored exploration!
• Christopher Columbus
− They sponsored his voyage when all others denied him.
− Italian-born Columbus thought that the Indies, or eastern Asia, was on the other side of
the Atlantic Ocean.
− 1492 three ships left from Spain on this new voyage, found the Americas in the
Caribbean Sea! Claimed it for Spain.
− Thinking this was the Indies, called the local people “Indians.”
− 1493 Columbus came back to Spain, proudly reported he reached Asia.
• Ferdinand Magellan - 1519-1521 C.E. Sailed around South America, Asia, and Africa to get
back to Europe. Proved sailing around the world was possible!
− South American tip of continent now called Strait of Magellan.
Later Spanish Exploration/Conquest

• Spain was eager to claim land in the New World, they would call it “New Spain.”
• Sent out Spanish explorers called conquistadors, or conquerors.
• Were allowed to establish settlements, seize wealth of natives, and report back to the Spanish
government what they found.
• Hernan Cortes - 1519 he sailed with conquistadors to present-day Mexico, met the Aztec
Empire.
− With help of Malinche, a native woman, Cortes and his men reached the Aztec capital of
Tenochtitlan.
− The Aztec ruler welcomed the Spanish with great honors.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Cortes wanted to break the power of the Aztecs, took the king hostage.
− Controlled the Aztec capital, but they naturally revolted. After bitter fighting, the Aztec
Empire fell once their capital fell.
Fall of Incan Empire

• Francisco Pizarro - a Spanish explorer emboldened by Cortes’s conquests in the Aztec Empire.
• Word spread that the empires in the Americas carried vast wealth. Spain wanted to conquer and
control it.
• 1520s Pizarro sailed to the Inca Empire in South America.
• Civil war had weakened the empire before his arrival.
• 1532 the Incan emperor, Atahualpa, greeted the Spanish as guests.
• Following Cortes’s example, Pizarro launched a surprise attack and kidnapped the emperor.
• Although the Incas paid them handsomely in gold and silver in ransom, the Spanish quickly killed
Atahualpa.
• Incan empire quickly fell after.
North America Exploration

• John Cabot - an Italian sailor made England’s first voyage.

• 1497 he landed in modern-day Canada. Believing he reached the coast of Asia, he claimed the
region for England.
• Giovanni da Verrazano - sailed for the French in 1524. Explored the Atlantic coast from North
Carolina to Canada. Gave France its first claims in the Americas.
• Henry Hudson - English explorer sailing to North America in 1609. Landed in present-day New
York State, and gave the Dutch claims to the region. Ultimately opened up English claims to
Canada.

Exploration’s Impact on Europe

• As a result of exploration, gave access to more goods, raw materials, and trade routes to newly
discovered lands.
• By 1700s, Europeans sailed the entire globe!
• Capitalism - an economic system based on investment of money for profit.
− Merchants gained wealth by trading and selling goods from around the world. Many of
them began trading companies, shared profits with owners, and was an early form of
capitalism.
• Market Economy - an economy in which prices are determined by the buying and selling
decisions of individuals in the marketplace.
• Cottage Industry - a small-scale business in which people produce goods at home.
• Mercantilism - an economic policy by which nations try to gather wealth by establishing
colonies and controlling trade.
3. Native American Society
Native American Worldviews

• Most Native Americans were polytheistic.

− Polytheism - the worship and belief in many gods.
− Still acknowledged a great, omnipotent, spiritual force throughout the universe. AKA the
Great Spirit.
• Navajo believed that human beings emerged from four subterranean underworlds.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Iroquois believed that life on earth began when the wife and daughter of the Great Spirit fell out
of the sky and were rescued by a water bird that placed them on a giant turtle (Earth.)
• Most Native Americans did not live in permanent, static settlements. Instead, most lived a
nomadic lifestyle and ranged in different geographical areas based on the seasons/climate.
− Led to a belief that their homeland, and all nature, was a manifestation of the sacred.
− Contradicts European view that nature is to be conquered, exploited for riches, and used
by the glory of God.
• Opposing N.A.’s would either be subjugated or converted.
• Grand Canyon native Havasupai believe their Blue Lake is sacred as an example.
Origins of Slavery

• Slavery - an institutionalized system of obtaining persons without their consent to become legal
property of another and forcibly obeying commands.
− Humanity is absolutely stripped from the individual.
− Is treated like chattel, or an item of property.
• With European demand of tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton growing, commercial production
required larger amounts of cheap labor.
− Indentured servants were not a great option. Still retained freedoms, were lawful-free
citizens after a number of years, no incentive to work back-breaking labor.
− If indentured servants escaped, very difficult to find them mixed in with the white
population.
− Native Americans too susceptible to European diseases.
− No sane freed person would enlist in plantation work.
• Needed a slave workforce that can be easily identifiable in the population and immune to
European diseases. → Africa.
Atlantic Slave Trade (Middle Passage)

• 1443 C.E., Portuguese were the first ones to begin the slave trade. Supplied Brazil with needed
labor for sugar plantations.
• By the late 17th century, Britain established the Royal African Company to supply North
America and the Caribbean.
• Three Stages of Middle Passage:
1) Capture of slaves in African interior.
• Usually captured by fellow-African tribes for additional income and influence.
• Received payment from Europeans: rum, cotton, guns, gunpowder, pig iron, etc.
2) Moving captives to coast for sale.
3) Transporting captives to destination for sale and work.
• Horrible, dark, damp conditions. Packed very tightly, no exercise, horrible diets,
no sanitation facilities, deaths in the millions.
• Some estimate 20 million slaves were taken from Africa. Upward of 40% died in
sea transit. That would be around 8 million perished!
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 2 Portuguese Exploration and Spanish

Conquest
1. Rise of Portugal & Slave Trade
Portuguese Exploration

• Prince Henry, “the Navigator,” was responsible for spearheading the country’s exploration of
Africa and the Atlantic in the 1400s.
− Atlantic holdings: Canary, Cape Verde, Azores Islands, and Madeira.
• Portugal spread its empire down the western coast of Africa to the Congo, along the coasts of
India, Brazil, and even trading posts in Japan.
− Although their empire did not rule over a large land mass, they held almost unparalleled
control over maritime trade during the 1400s.
− Small but effective!
• Slave Trade
− Seeing the profit available in the African slave trade, and the growing need of labor in
sugar fields on Atlantic islands, the Portuguese began this endeavor.
− Exported African slaves, ivory, and gold.
Elmina Castle

• Elmina Castle - erected by the Portuguese in 1482 as Castelo de São Jorge da Mina, also known
as Castelo da Mina or simply Mina in present-day Elmina, Ghana. It was the first trading post
built on the Gulf of Guinea, and the oldest European building in existence south of the Sahara.
− Originally built as a fortified trading post, it had mounted canons to thwart any naval
attacks or land attacks.
− Portuguese traders later used this as a dungeon to hold African slaves on their way to
being sold in either Europe or the Atlantic.
− Slaves could be in the dungeons for weeks or months until transport ships arrived.
Spanish Exploration

• During the 15th century, Spain hoped to overtake its rial for naval supremacy, Portugal.
• 1469, King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile unified the Catholic Church in
Spain.
− Allowed for a unified populace.
− Much of Spain had previously been under Islamic law/control, so they were seen as the
defenders of the Church.
• Reconquista - the period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula (711-1492 C.E.) where Christian
rulers in northern Spain took up arms against Muslims Moors.
− Led to conquest of Toledo, Spain’s second-largest city.
− Slow and gradual pushing back of Muslims from Spain and into Africa.
− Mosques converted to cathedrals, Moors tried in courts, and some brutal massacres.
• Al-Andalus - Muslim Iberia, or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural
domain that in its early period included most of Iberia.
Spanish Exploration Pt. II

• Once King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain unified the nation, they began to invest heavily
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

into Atlantic exploration missions.

• Christopher Columbus - an Italian explorer and colonizer who completed four voyages across
the Atlantic Ocean that opened the New World for conquest and permanent European
colonization of the Americas.
− Believed that using calculations on other mariners’ journeys, he could chart a westward
path to India.
− Starting in 1485, he approached Genoese, Venetian, Portuguese, English, and Spanish
monarchs. He asked for ships, funding, and supplies for his westward journey.
− ALL refused him, including Ferdinand and Isabella too. Their nautical experts believed
his calculations of the Atlantic Ocean were too low.
− After three years of the Reconquista, Spain agreed to give the funding.
• Columbus’s Voyage - embarking upon the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria, the Spanish
monarchs knew Columbus needed to succeed. Portuguese would soon reach Asia.
• Columbian Exchange - the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations,
technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas, West Africa, and the Old World in the 15th
and 16th centuries.
Spanish Exploration Pt. III

• Hispaniola - an island in the Caribbean archipelago known as the Greater Antilles. It is the most
populous island in the West Indies and the region's second largest after Cuba.
− On October 12, 1492, he made landfall on this Bahamas island located in present-day
Dominican Republic and Haiti.
− He believed he landed in the West Indies, therefore calling the native Tainos people
Indios, or Indians. This term would be used for any native of the New World.
• Probanza de merito - proof of merit: a letter written by a Spanish explorer to the crown to gain
royal patronage.
− Columbus wrote a letter to the crown, describing his discovery of the New World. Sent
ripples through Europe!
− Important Note: While these are primary source documents, they must be read within
context.
• Amerigo Vespucci - an Italian explorer, financier, navigator, and cartographer from the Republic
of Florence. Sailing for Portugal around 1501–1502, Vespucci demonstrated that Brazil and the
West Indies were not Asia's eastern outskirts but a separate continent described as the "New
World."
Competing Claims

• After 1492 with Columbus’s discovery of the Americas, the rivalry between Spain and Portugal
intensified.
• 1480s, Pope Sixtus IV granted Portugal the right to all land south of the Cape Verde islands,
leading the Portuguese king to claim that lands discovered by Columbus belonged to Portugal,
NOT Spain.
− Spain’s monarchs later turned to the Spanish-born Pope Alexander VI, who issued two
papal decrees:
• 1) Spain’s Atlantic claims were legitimate.
• 2) Treaty of Tordesillas drew north-to-south line through South America. Spain
controlled western territory while Portugal retained eastern lands (Brazil).
Later Spanish Exploration/Conquest
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Spain was eager to claim land in the New World, they would call it “New Spain.”
• Sent out Spanish explorers called conquistadors, or conquerors.
• Were allowed to establish settlements, seize wealth of natives, and report back to the Spanish
government what they found.
• Hernan Cortes - 1519 he sailed with conquistadors to present-day Mexico, met the Aztec
Empire.
− With help of Malinche, a native woman, Cortes and his men reached the Aztec capital of
Tenochtitlan.
− The Aztec ruler welcomed the Spanish with great honors.
− Cortes wanted to break the power of the Aztecs, took the king hostage.
− Controlled the Aztec capital, but they naturally revolted. After bitter fighting, the Aztec
Empire fell once their capital fell.
2. European Religious Upheaval Influences Exploration
Catholic Church Weakens

• By the Late Middle Ages, two problems weakened the Church.

− 1) Worldliness and Corruption
− 2) Pope vs. Monarchs
• During the Middle Ages, the Church united Christians in Europe under a single faith. Also acted
as a political institution just as much as a religious one.
• By the 1300s, many people felt the Church had become too powerful. Focused more on worldly
pursuits instead of spiritual ones, and became corrupt.
− Ex’s: Men and women of the cloth swore vows of celibacy, broke them. Other ignored
Christian values. Church leaders often behaved like royalty instead of God’s servants.
Catholic Church Weakens: Part II

• Indulgences - a grant by the Catholic Church that released a person from punishment for sins.
− Church charged money for this, angered many people.
− Suggested that people could BUY their way into forgiveness.
• The Church granted indulgences in return for gifts to the Church and good works.
• Over time, popes and bishops began selling indulgences as a way of raising money, many
Catholic were deeply disturbed by this.
• Simony - the selling and buying of positions in the Catholic Church
− Instead of being appointed based on merit, people paid for their jobs.
− Buying office could be worthwhile since it could lead to a source of income.
• People also questioned Church practices, charging pilgrims to see holy items, paying taxes to
Church, etc.
Political Conflicts

• The Middle Ages saw the Pope as a powerful political figure, accumulating vast amounts of
wealth and influence.
• All of this power and influence led to problems with monarchs because the Church claimed they
were independent of political rulers’ control.
• As monarchs tried to increase their own power, the Church often tried to stifle it.
• Quarreled between each other over appointments and policy.
• King Philip IV, France, 1301 C.E.
− King tried to tax French clergy, pope threatened to force him out of the Church. In
response, king’s soldiers kidnapped the pope. He died a few weeks later.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Pope Clement V, 1309 C.E.

− Conflict ended when the pope moved the Papal Office to France, appointed many French
clergy, etc. Many thought that France now controlled the Papacy, lost respect.
• The Great Schism
− Pope Gregory XI moved papacy back to Rome in 1377. After he died, an Italian was
elected pope. France in response elected their own pope, and a third was later elected by a
Church council. Each claimed to be the Head of the Church. Chaos!
Early Calls for Reform

• By the 1300s, the Church was losing its moral and social standing. Catholics challenged the
pope’s authority now.
• Reformers wanted to purify the Church, not destroy it.
− Paved the way for the Reformation.
• Reformation - a religious reform movement from the early 1500s to the 1600s that led to the
formation of new Christian groups.
• Protestant - a Christian who separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation.
• John Wycliffe (1330-1384)
− English scholar. Challenged the Church’s right to money it demanded from the
government.
− He believed the Bible, NOT the Church, was the supreme source of religious authority.
− He had the Bible translated from Latin into English so the common people could read it.
• Pope accused him of heresy. His followers were persecuted, some burned to death.
Martin Luther Breaks Away from Church

• Early 1500s in Germany, a priest named Martin Luther had a dispute with Church authorities.
− Martin Luther - a German priest who broke away from the Catholic Church to start his
own religion, Lutheranism. His posting of the Ninety-Five Theses started the
Reformation.
• Condemned by the Church, he began the first Protestant church, which BEGAN the Reformation.
• Joined the Church as a young man due to a horrific thunderstorm!
• His belief:
− Luther believed that NO ONE could earn salvation. Instead, salvation was a gift from
God that people received in faith. People were saved by their faith, not their good works.
• Ninety-Five Theses: a list of arguments against indulgences and Church abuses nailed to a
church door in Wittenberg.
− 1517 Pope Leo X needed money to finish building St. Peter’s Basilica, sold pardons of all
sins to people who would buy it. Outraged Luther!
− He argued that the Bible was the supreme source of religious authority.
− Pope excommunicated him. Luther went into hiding.
Luther Starts His Own Church

• Many Germans saw Luther as a hero for his ideas and standing up to corruption in the Church.
• As his ideas spread, he organized a new Christian denomination known as Lutheranism.
− Denomination - a particular religious group within a larger faith. For example,
Lutheranism is one denomination within Christianity.
• This new church emphasized study of the Bible. Translated it into German.
• Luther looked to German princes to support his church.
• Several princes supported him, due to his support of them crushing rebellion uprisings.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Tens of thousands of peasants were brutally killed.

− Peasants asked Luther for help, but he strategically chose the princes.
• Over the next 30 years, Lutheranism spread!
• Many Germans saw Luther as a hero for his ideas and standing up to corruption in the Church.
• As his ideas spread, he organized a new Christian denomination known as Lutheranism.
− Denomination - a particular religious group within a larger faith. For example,
Lutheranism is one denomination within Christianity.
• This new church emphasized study of the Bible. Translated it into German.
• Luther looked to German princes to support his church.
• Several princes supported him, due to his support of them crushing rebellion uprisings.
− Tens of thousands of peasants were brutally killed.
− Peasants asked Luther for help, but he strategically chose the princes.
• Over the next 30 years, Lutheranism spread!
Calvinism

• Calvinism - a Protestant denomination of Christian faith founded by John Calvin.

• Founded by John Calvin, a French humanist who worked in Switzerland. In 1541 he took over
the leadership of the reform movement in Switzerland.
• His Beliefs:
− Only through God could one be saved.
− No one deserved salvation. No one could force God to grant it.
− Religious faith with God wa the only salvation. Everyone else was doomed to hell.
• Predestination - belief that God knew from the beginning who would be condemned or not.
Predestined, fate, destiny. You could not change it.
• Performing good works was to honor God, not buy one’s way into salvation.
• Ultimate authority is the Bible.
• Theocracy - a government or state in which God is the supreme ruler, and religious officials
govern in God’s name.
Anglicanism

• Anglicanism - a Protestant denomination of Christian faith founded by Henry VIII in England.

• Founded by King Henry VIII in 1534, he broke away from the Catholic Church for political and
personal reasons.
− His wife could not produce a male heir, so he wanted to remarry.
− Also did not want to share power with the Church and share in tax revenue.
− Became the head of his church.
• His Beliefs:
− Baptism washed away original sin.
− To go to heaven, people needed only to believe in God, regret their sin, and receive God’s
mercy.
− Ultimate authority is the Bible.
− The King was the head of the Church, and interpreted God’s will.
Fighting Spread of Protestantism

• Catholic Church wanted to limit Protestantism, so condemned its beliefs and called its followers
heretics.
• To deal with heretics, Catholic Church started the Inquisition.
− Inquisition - an active policy by the Church to fight heretics, stop spread of false beliefs,
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

and reestablish the Catholic Church in people’s lives.

• King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain used the Spanish Inquisition to persecute Jews.
− Also fought spread of Protestantism.
− Sought to condemn people whose views were considered dangerous
Rise of Nationalism and Democratic Practices

• Spread of Protestantism led to the growth of nationalism

• Nationalism - the identification with, and devotion to, the interests of one’s nation.
− Ex: Allegiance to France, Britain, Germany, Spain, etc.
• More people now identified with their nation, rather than with their local lord.
• Official state religions strengthened national unity.
• Monarchies also grew stronger.
• This age called the Age of Monarchs. 17-18th centuries.
− Monarchs revived the old ideas of the divine right of kings.
− Rulers received religious authority directly from God.
• Absolute Monarchs - a monarchy in which the ruler’s power is unlimited.
• Puritans - English Protestants who wanted to “purify” the Anglican Church of Catholic elements.
− Such ideas about religious freedom and church government paved the way for
democracy.
3. European Break-away Peoples Forming Life in Americas
Spanish Class Structure

• Spanish implemented a racial and socio-economic hierarchy system within Mexican society.
• Order of class structure:
− 1) White European families, mixture of peninsulares (Spain born residing in New
World) and criollos (Person of pure Spanish descent)
− 2) Mestizos, offspring of Spanish and Indian parents.
− 3) Indians and black slaves, peons (person with little authority assigned difficult tasks),
and encomienda laborers.
• During the 1500s, mixture between Spanish men and Native American women gradually
increased, leading to the 1600s having a flourishing mestizo working-class population.
− Worked as domestic servants, unskilled construction workers, hacienda overseers,
cowboys, sheepherders, miners, tradesmen, soldiers, etc.
Land Restructuring

• Encomienda - a feudal covenant where Spaniards provided military protection and religious
instruction to Native Americans in return for work. Typically hard manual labor.
− Reasons for establishing this system: The three G’s! God, Gold, and Glory
• Spread Spanish Catholicism (civilize)
• Labor usage from native populace with farms, mines, etc.
• For the glorification of Spain and to increase global reputation
• Haciendas - agricultural/land estates, replaced encomiendas due to disease ravaging the Native
American populations.
− Necessary change from a labor-intensive system to an agricultural/economic system.
English Rivals

• During the Portuguese and Spanish exploration years, England was in a chaotic mess…
− King Henry VIII created the Protestant Church of England, 1530s
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Queen Mary returned to Catholicism in the 1550s

− Queen Elizabeth restored Protestantism shortly after
− Left little energy for exploration.
• John Cabot - an Italian navigator and explorer. His 1497 discovery of the coast of North America
under the commission of Henry VII of England is the earliest known European exploration of
coastal North America since the Norse visits to Vinland in the eleventh century.
• Privateers - a private person or ship that engages in maritime warfare under a commission of
war.
− Commissioned by England to raid the enemy at will. England could not yet commit many
ships to exploration and colonization, but could raid others.
• Yielded around £100,000 from Spain each year
• Sir Francis Drake made a name for himself here, personally plundeirng £40,000
Early Colony

• Roanoke - an island in Dare County on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, United States. It was
named after the historical Roanoke Carolina Algonquian people who inhabited the area in the
16th century at the time of English exploration.
− Sanctioned by Queen Elizabeth in 1584, one of the earliest attempts at a colony by
England in North America.
− Governor John White left for England for three years. Upon return, no colonists were
found. Rumors of a Native American attack or a natural disaster.
• Only trace of English colonists left behind was the word Croatoan carved into a nearby fence.
− Perhaps they relocated to a nearby island?
− Perhaps tragedy befell them?
• Named the “Lost Colony.”
Better Colonies

• Joint Stock Companies - a business whose capital is held in transferable shares of stocks by its
joint owners.
− Used to limit negative impacts on investments. Spread amongst the investors.
− Many stockholders would split the cost of expensive exploration endeavors. Less risk but
high reward if they return with goods.
• Virginia Company - refers collectively to two joint-stock companies chartered under James I on
April 10, 1606 with the goal of establishing settlements on the coast of America.
− Named for Elizabeth the “virgin queen.”
− Gained royal approval to establish a colony on the east coast of North America.
− 1606, sent 144 men and boys to the New World.
• Jamestown - a historic site in east Virginia. Historic Jamestowne is home to the ruins of the first
permanent English settlement in North America.
− Early 1607, the group of men sailed up the Chesapeake Bay area and settled this town.
Named it in honor of their new king, James I.
• These colonies were an opportunity for England to catch up with the Spanish Empire, which now
spanned the globe and grew immensely rich through colonization.
• Headright System - a legal grant of land to settlers. Headrights are most notable for their role in
the expansion of the thirteen British colonies in North America; the Virginia Company of London
gave headrights to settlers, and the Plymouth Company followed suit.
Colonists
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Pilgrims - were the English settlers who established the Plymouth Colony in Plymouth,
Massachusetts.
− These religious migrants dreamed of creating a world free of England’s corruption.
− Separatists - the advocacy of a state of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial,
governmental or gender separation from the larger group. While it often refers to full
political secession, separatist groups may seek nothing more than greater autonomy.
• Known as separatists for getting away from England.
• The Mayflower - an English ship that transported the first English Puritans, known today as the
Pilgrims, from Plymouth, England to the New World in 1620. There were 102 passengers, and the
crew is estimated to have been about 30, but the exact number is unknown.
French Exploration

• Like Spain, France was also Catholic and wanted to spread Catholicism around the globe.
• Jacques Cartier - a Breton explorer who claimed what is now Canada for France. Jacques
Cartier was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of
the Saint Lawrence .
− Named the North American territory “New France.”
− Made exaggerated claims of mineral wealth in America.
− Could not establish permanent settlement due to lack of planning.
• Samuel de Champlain - a French colonist, navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer,
geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He made between 21 and 29 trips across the
Atlantic Ocean, and founded Quebec, and New France, on 3 July 1608.
− Began the French tradition of establishing good relations with natives.
− Champlain made alliances with native confederacies to fight enemy ones.
• Main Point: Beginning of French trading networks in New France. (Main goal of France vs.
others)
Dutch Colonies

• Dutch East & West India Companies - mega corporations founded by a government-directed
amalgamation of several rival Dutch trading companies in the early 17th century.
− Allowed for the Dutch to attain massive wealth, and invest in exploration as well.
− Dominated the seas as commercial leaders. Especially in the Indian Ocean.
• Henry Hudson - an English sea explorer and navigator during the early 17th century, best known
for his explorations of present-day Canada and parts of the northeastern United States.
− Sailed up the New York Harbor and the Hudson River.
− Allowed for new colonies to be established throughout the New Netherlands and the
Caribbean.
• Amsterdam became the trading hub of the Atlantic due to their growing naval power.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 3 Creating New Social Orders: Colonial

Societies, 1500-1700
1. Spanish Exploration & Colonial Society
St. Augustine, Florida

• St. Augustine was claimed in 1513 by Juan Ponce de Leon in the name of the Spanish crown.
− Spain needed a foothold in the Caribbean. Colonized Puerto Rico and sailed north.
− Mythology of the Fountain of Youth formed here → water hole turned into myth.
• King Philip II authorized Pedro Menendez, a Spanish nobleman, led an attack on Fort Caroline to
wrest it away form French hands.
− 1) Reduced danger from French privateers (pirates).
− 2) Eradicated French threat to Spain’s claim in the area.
• St. Augustine - a city on the northeast coast of Florida. It lays claim to being the oldest city in the
U.S., and is known for its Spanish colonial architecture as well as Atlantic Ocean beaches.
− Spanish displaced the local Timucua Indians from their ancient town of Seloy.
− People suffered greatly under rampage of diseases.
• Pre-European contact population: Around 50,000+ in 1590.
• Post-European contact population: Around 1,000 in 1700.
− As their number declined, Catholic priests began heavy conversion to Catholicism.
Sante Fe Interactions

• Spain was also expanding north on the mainland, entering into modern-day Sante Fe, New
Mexico.
• Here, they encountered the Pueblo Native Americans.
− Pueblo, which means "village" in Spanish, was a term originating with the Colonial
Spanish, who used it to refer to the people's particular style of dwelling.
• Spaniards hoped New Mexico would yield gold and silver, but the land did not have those
resources they sought.
• Instead, they sought for Catholic conversions of the local population.
− Priests would have native discard their “old ways,” focus on converting the young
children by taking them away from their parents, and preach the ways of God.
• Spanish = Trouble?
− The Pueblos believed the Spanish were a harbinger of doom. Soon after their coming,
they experienced droughts and attacks by the Apache and Navajo in the 1670s.
Sante Fe Interactions: Pt. II

• Pueblo Revolt of 1680 - also known as Popé's Rebellion or Popay's Rebellion– was an uprising
of most of the indigenous Pueblo people against the Spanish colonizers in the province of Santa
Fe de Nuevo México, larger than present-day New Mexico.
− Angered at the Spanish presence, their leader, Popé began to demand a return to their
native ways, thus expelling the Spaniards.
− “when Jesus came, the Corn Mothers went away.”
− He and others thought that ridding the land of the Spanish would appease the gods, and
bring life back to their communities.
• Overview of the Rebellion:
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Very coordinated attack against the Spanish.

− Killed over 400 Spaniards and drove the rest of the settlers out, estimates of 2,000+
− However, this caused the Spanish to also consider counterattacks.
− In 1692 the Spanish returned to regain their foothold in the region. Explained that the
1680 rebellion was the work of the Devil and that Satan had told the Pueblo to take up
arms against God’s chosen people.
2. Colonial Rivalries: Dutch v. French
New Netherland Furs

• The Dutch Republic emerged as a major commercial center in the 1600s.

− Controlled major fleets throughout the Atlantic.
− Amsterdam was an immense trading hub, but sought to expand into North America.
• Peter Stuyvesant, a Dutch director-general in North America, expanded the New Netherland
trading region.
− Served in his position from 1647-1664.
− Expanded the outpost of New Netherland east toward present-day Long Island.
− Colony emerged as a fur-trading post, with Dutch West India Company controlling all
commerce.
− Fort Amsterdam protected the new growing city, this city would become known as New
York City.
• New Amsterdam - a 17th-century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan
Island that served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland. In 1664 the English
took over New Amsterdam and renamed it New York City after the Duke of York.
Building New Amsterdam

• New Netherland failed to attract many Dutch colonists. By 1664 there were only 9,000 people or
so living there.
• Native conflicts also contributed to slow population growth, which also resulted in the Dutch
West India Company becoming dissatisfied with the entire endeavor.
• Shortage of Labor → Immigration Boom
− Due to a rising shortage of labor in the colony, the Dutch began to welcome non-Dutch
immigrants to their shores. Protestants from all over: Germany, Sweden, Denmark,
England, etc.
− Diversity resulted in embracing freedom of religion and tolerance, even allowing
Jewish immigrants starting in 1650s.
• This city-building was expensive though, resulting in a new invention…
• Patroonships - large tracts of land and the right to govern the tenants there.
− Dutch merchants who received large land grants promised to import 30+ Dutch farmers,
thereby raising population.
− Quickly turned into a wealth gap between the tenants and wealthy patroons.
New France

• Jacques Cartier - a Breton explorer who claimed what is now Canada for France. Jacques
Cartier was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of
the Saint Lawrence.
− After his discoveries in the 1530s, France showed little interest in establishing permanent
settlements.
− Saw North America as lucrative for fur-trading outposts, BUT also saw Canada as an
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

inhospitable frozen wasteland.

• Involved diplomatically with native peoples for trade and solving military conflicts.
− French supplied firearms to continue ongoing wars between tribes.
− Escalated native wars and supported different sides for additional trade and profit.
• These wars nicknamed the “Beaver Wars” due to the lucrative trade of beaver
pelts in the region.
• Jesuits - members of the Society of Jesus, an elite Catholic religious order founded in the 1540s
to spread Catholicism and to combat the spread of Protestantism.
− Traveled to Quebec to convert local inhabitants starting in the 1620s.
− Although they tried to convert these “savages,” they never saw them as their equals.
3. English Settlements in America
New England vs. Chesapeake Colonies

• New England: Religious Goals

− 1630s, religion motivated Puritans for crossing Atlantic with their families and children.\
− Followed teachings of John Calvin & other Protestant reformers. Wanted a better
“purified” version of the Church of England.
− Envisioned New England as a reformed land to thrive, grow, and build a Christian
paradise.
− Built churches where each congregation decided its own path. (Freedom of religious
worship!)
• Chesapeake-Bay: Commercial Goals
− Hoped to turn profit in new markets.
− Spread Protestantism.
− Quickly found that tobacco cash crop was the only profitable business here.
− Growing colonies brought in many hopeful Puritans. Thousands of unmarried,
unemployed, and impatient young Englishmen, along with some women, came here for a
better life. Envisioned a Puritan land “beyond the seas” to raise families.
− Built profitable tobacco fields and grew businesses.
• Interesting Future Connection:
− These dividing lines and culture differences is the beginning of North v. South!
Plymouth: First Puritan Colony

• Plymouth - site of the first Pilgrim settlement, founded in 1620. Plymouth Rock, a boulder in
Pilgrim Memorial State Park, marks the place where settlers are thought to have landed on shore
via the Mayflower.
− These immigrants insisted on a complete separation from the Church of England, seeking
religious freedom.
− Became concerned that their children were becoming more “Dutch” and losing English
heritage over time.
− 1620, moved to create the Plymouth Colony from their previous Dutch settlement.
• Values Held to High Esteem
− Puritan values expanded young people to work diligently, for all members of their
families to share the workload, and live honestly.
− Emphasized literacy to read the Bible, so that each person could read God’s words
themselves. Completely against Catholic tradition of leaving literacy to priesthood.
4. Impact of Colonization
Origins of Slavery
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Headright System - a system in which parcels of land were granted to settlers who could pay
their own way to Virginia. Virginia Company gave 50 acres plus another 50 for each
servant/family member brought.
• Indentured Servant - an employee within a system of unfree labor who is bound by a signed or
forced contract to work without pay for the owner of the indenture for a period of time.
• Slavery - an institutionalized system of obtaining persons without their consent to become legal
property of another and forcibly obeying commands.
− Humanity is absolutely stripped from the individual.
− Is treated like chattel, or an item of property.
• With European demand of tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton growing, commercial production
required larger amounts of cheap labor.
− Indentured servants were not a great option. Still retained freedoms, were lawful-free
citizens after a number of years, no incentive to work back-breaking labor.
− If indentured servants escaped, very difficult to find them mixed in with the white
population.
− Native Americans too susceptible to European diseases.
− No sane freed person would enlist in plantation work.
• Needed a slave workforce that can be easily identifiable in the population and immune to
European diseases. → Africa.
European-African Cultures

• While thinking of invading Africa to exploit the natural resources, and being the enslavement of
the indigenous population, European analyzed culture.
• African Culture: (From a Eurocentric perspective)
− Color black has always been steeped in mysticism, fear, dirty, and evil-worship.
− Home life, clothes, language, and sexual practices were too different from European
customs.
− 16th century Protestants also understood African peoples to be predestined to go to hell,
heathens in their ways.
• Worshiped magic, idols, ancestors, and false-gods.
• Gave Europeans all of the justification they needed to begin one of the largest slave operations
throughout world history.
Slavery in Colonial America

• Charter Generation: Africans who participated in the Atlantic economy as businessmen and
traders before being enslaved.
− 1619 C.E., first Africans arrived in Virginia through Dutch slave traders.
− Spoke few African languages as well as English and other European languages.
− Educated and brought to colonies during early-plantation rules/system.
− Many worked hard on plantations, but bought their own freedom early on.
• Plantation Generation: Africans who either came to colonies during this time, or were born and
grew up on plantations.
− Between 1619-1660, laws became more strict and gradually developed into a full-scale
slave institution.
• Prohibiting interracial sex, possession of firearms, lifetime servants inheriting
parents’ legal status, hereditary servitude.
− Lifetime service meant plantation owners eliminated labor turnover and protected their
investments. However, came at a cost.
• Social insecurity, underlying danger proposition, paranoia.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1609-1614)

• Anglo-Pawhatan Wars - three wars fought between settlers of the Virginia Colony and
Algonquin Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy in the early seventeenth century.
− Chesapeake migrants unknowingly placed themselves deep into Powhatan Empire
territory.
• Powhatan Empire - Powhatan had inherited rulership of an empire of six tribes from his father.
After succeeding his father, Powhatan brought about two dozen other tribes into the empire that
was named for him; at the peak of his power, he is estimated to have ruled between 13,000 and
34,000 people
− How the story goes…
− English actions infuriated and insulted the Powhatans (no gifts, intruding on land, etc.)
− By 1613 settlers captured some, including Pocahontas (matoaka), the daughter of
Powhatan.
− Gave her in marriage to an Englishman John Rolfe. Union helped to ease war tensions.
− Pocahontas converted to Christianity, became Rebecca, sailed to England and was
introduced to King James I. (Good example of native converts!)
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 4 Rule Britannia! The English Empire

1. Charles II and the Restoration Colonies
Switch from England to Great Britain

• Great Britain - island lying off the western coast of Europe and consisting of England, Scotland,
and Wales. The term is often used as a synonym for the United Kingdom, which also includes
Northern Ireland and a number of offshore islands.
− The switch from England to “Great Britain,” or just “Britain” occurred in 1707 when
England and Scotland unified.
− This distinct switch signified that not only the English on the mainland were part of this
growing empire, but now also the surrounding islands and associated peoples that were
previously held in lower esteem.
− It would still take generations for the Scots, Irish, and others to be treated more fairly by
their British counterparts.
• Evidenced by age-old tradition of primae noctis.
− Primae Noctis - a supposed legal right in medieval Europe, allowing feudal lords to have
sexual relations with “less peoples,” on their wedding nights. Conquest through English
blood.
• As seen in the 1995 film Braveheart, starring Mel Gibson.
American Colonies Prosper

• From 260,000 settlers in 1700, the colonial population of North America grew eight times to
2,150,000 in 1770.
− (In comparison, the French colonial population grew from 15,000 to 90,000 in 1775, i.e.,
just 4% of the English total.)
− In fact, the English colonial population doubled almost every 25 years in the 1700s.
• Slowly, but surely, the settlements in North America on the east coast began to thrive. The stories
of towns such as Jamestown that were struggling, going through famine, and having a “difficult
life” was quickly turning into a success story.
• Cultural Unity - a process in which different ethnic groups agree to share their cultures and build
common values, always being in a state of change.
− Created through sets of practices which can be shaped to certain ends by building a
culture that admits variety, maximizing social skills, accumulating social capital, and
accelerating unified development.
• Britain and its colonies in the Americas grew a strong relationship. The colonials
WERE British, and thought of themselves so.
Trouble in England

• Charles I - was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625
until his execution in 1649.
− Married a French Catholic princess, created religious division, brought out open warfare
between Puritan-led Parliament and the king’s marriage ties with Catholicism.
− Ended in Parliament winning and having King Charles I beheaded for treason.
• English Interregnum - the period between the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649 and the
arrival of his son Charles II in London on 29 May 1660 which marked the start of the Restoration.
During the Interregnum, England was under various forms of republican government.
− Eventually asked Charles II to be king in 1660, the son of the executed leader.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− King granted proprietary colonies in North America to trusting individuals, families, or

groups to guide each colony. (Carolinas, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.)
Rise of Charles II

• Charles II - King of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, and King of England,
Scotland and Ireland from the 1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death in 1685.
− Initially given ruling power over the surrounding kingdoms, Charles II eventually found
himself without a throne for a number of years.
− During that period of time, England went through upheaval without strong leadership
from an executive branch.
− Thus, in 1660, he was offered the throne by Parliament, recognizing that the state needed
a monarchy to lead the people from a symbolic, spiritual, and authoritative position of
power.
• A common tactic among monarchies and constitutional monarchies during
republican trials & errors. Difficult to break away from centuries-long tradition.
• Restoration Colonies - a number of land grants in North America given by King Charles II of
England in the later half of the 17th century, ostensibly as a reward to his supporters in the Stuart
Restoration. The grants marked the resumption of English colonization of the Americas after a
30-year hiatus.
− Part of his strong push to solidify his rule, expand English territory, and renew colonies.
Colonies Grow Under Charles II

• The Carolinas
− Per royal decree, English plantation owners on the small Caribbean island of Barbados
were given land in Carolina.
− Established Charleston in 1670, in honor of Charles II, and continued slave labor on
plantations due to large Barbados immigration. Rice, tobacco, indigo, etc.
− Political disagreements escalated until North and South Carolina split apart.
• New York and New Jersey
− Took over land from the Dutch colonies in New Netherland during Anglo-Dutch wars,
1650s-1660s.
− English gained the lucrative fur trading colonies, renamed cities, and controlled Atlantic.
− Granted massive land grants to few families (160K acres to Livingstons near Hudson
River Valley, and allowed the Five Nations to live and govern autonomously.)
• Pennsylvania
− Charles II bestowed this land to William Penn to settle large debt owed (Jamaica victory
& personal debts to his father,) creation of Quakers.
• Yamasee War - conflict fought in South Carolina from 1715–1717 between British settlers from
the Province of Carolina and the Yamasee and a number of other allied Native American peoples.
− Some of the Native American groups played a minor role, while others launched attacks
throughout South Carolina in an attempt to destroy the colony.
− Over time the English settlers developed a trade deficit with native tribes.
• Native deerskin and other goods were traded for European guns, a valuable
commodity in rival-warring factions amongst the natives.
− Once the deficit was large enough, English settlers began to take native women as
payment for debts. This infuriated the tribes’ leaders, resulting in the Yamasee War.
− With a coalition of local tribes, they attempted to drive away the English.
• Resulted in destroying the Carolina colonies through violent warfare. Almost
succeeded!
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

•English settlers struck a deal with the Cherokee. Sold them immense amount of
arms in return for military alliance. Yamasee War ended.
• Main Point: Distinct “disunity” among the tribes. Could not force Europeans out.
Colonies Overview Pt. II

• Quakers: A group rejecting the political, social, and religious authority of England. Believed that
all human beings were equal and that by discovering the “Inner Light” to God, they would enter
heaven without Church intervention.
• William Penn, a famous Quaker leader that was granted Pennsylvania land by the English crown
to settle a debt to his father, had a cooperative relationship with Native Americans. Wanted
freedom of religion, social pluralism, condemned slavery, and promoted fair treatment of Native
Americans.
− Penn’s views ignited newcomers to seek refuge in Pennsylvania.
− Rhetoric was to treat all as equals, regardless of privileged status or elite upbringing.
− Quakers were persecuted in England and even in some colonies. Sought refuge in
Pennsylvania, and many flocked to their state.
• Navigation Acts - a series of English mercantilist laws enacted between 1651 and 1696 in order
to control trade with the colonies.
− An attempt by England to better control trade in Atlantic and in American colonies.
− ¾ of crew must be English, most lucrative goods only to England or its colonies, etc.
Conspiracy Trials

• After the Stono Rebellion, ripples were sent throughout the colonies. A rising fear of rebellion,
slaves killing whites, and more was growing.
• New York Conspiracy Trials - also known as the Great Negro Plot of 1741, a supposed
large-scale scheme plotted by Black slaves and poor white settlers to burn down and take over
New York City.
− That year, 13 fires broke out throughout the cities.
− A rising fear that slaves were the ones responsible grew into a quick rumor.
− British authorities interrogated 200 slaves and accused them of this conspiracy, and
arrested.
− Government executed 17 New Yorkers, Catholics, in addition to 13 black men who were
publicly burned at the stake.
− Another 70 slaves sold to the West Indies to prove a point.
• Long-Term Effects:
− Would continue to solidify societal fear, paranoia, and eventual violence against blacks.
2. Great Awakening and Enlightenment Influences
First “National” Great Awakening

• First Great Awakening - religious revival in the British American colonies mainly between
about 1720 and the 1740s. It was a part of the religious ferment that swept western Europe in the
latter part of the 17th century and early 18th century, referred to as Pietism and Quietism in
continental Europe among Protestants, Roman Catholics, and Anglicans.
• George Whitefield - Church of England evangelist who by his popular preaching stimulated the
18th-century Protestant revival throughout Britain and the British American colonies.
− Whitefield experienced a strong religious awakening that he called a “new birth.”
− The rest of his career was divided between evangelical preaching throughout the
American colonies from Georgia to Massachusetts and itinerant preaching in England,
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.

− His belief → He believed that every truly religious person needs to experience a rebirth
in Jesus; aside from this, he cared little for distinctions of denomination or geography.
Essentially, individuals could bring about their OWN salvation through accepting Christ,
not needing an institution to mitigate between themselves and God.
Roots of the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment - a period from the late 1600s to late 1700s in Europe, in which people changed
their outlook on life by seeing reason as the key to human progress.
• These thinkers believed that rational understanding would help examine human life better, and
progress government and society.
• Scientific Revolution
− Enlightenment thinkers grew from this period of time. Science, observation, and reason
were becoming natural laws that applied through our physical world.
− They eventually turned these ideas from the physical world and asked philosophical
questions about life.
• Questions: Are there natural laws that tell us how to live? How well do current
constitutions follow natural laws? Do natural laws give people certain rights?
What is the best form of government?
New Ideas vs. Old

• Thinkers questioned the foundations of religion, morality, and government.

• Christian faith taught that everything is based on the Bible and God’s word, but Enlightenment
thinkers believed that humans were perfectly able to discover truth for themselves.
• Natural Religion - a middle ground between rational thought and religion, believing that God
was within all natural things in this world.
− Many thinkers believed the order of the universe was proof enough of an intelligent
Creator, God. They believed that their studies of the universe and its laws was proof
enough that God exists.
− How could all of these wonderful and perfectly balanced things in life NOT be the work
of a higher power, or God?
Absolute Rule by Kings

• Thomas Hobbes - an English philosopher and scientist, was one of the key figures in the political
debates of the Enlightenment period. Despite advocating the idea of absolutism of the sovereign,
he developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought.
− Main Point: People choose to live within authority for safety. Law & Order > Chaos
− 1600s saw King Charles I go through years of civil war.
− King was eventually executed, and Parliament ruled for a number of years.
− However, this time was chaotic and bloody. Monarchy was later restored.
• How this influenced Hobbes’s thinking:
− He believed that people were naturally cruel, selfish, and greedy.
− 1651 published “Leviathan” where he discussed how people NEEDED a strong
government to balance their cruel nature.
− Advocated for an absolute monarchy where the king could balance the government and
control people’s worst intuitions.
• Social Contract Theory - A theory or a model that typically posits that individuals have
consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

authority of the ruler in exchange for protection of their remaining rights.

Natural Rights

• John Locke - an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most
influential of Enlightenment thinkers, and commonly known as the “Father of Liberalism.” His
writings were immensely influential for the development of social contract theory.
− Main Point: Divine rulers should be tapered by constitutional restraint.
• Constitutional monarchy - a form of government in which the monarch’s power is limited by a
basic set of laws.
− Ex: The current queen of England and Parliament.
• His ideas reflected a long tradition of limiting the king’s power.
− Ex: Magna Carta
• Over time, Parliament was needed to balance the monarch’s power.
− Checks and Balances!
• Bill of Rights - a list of basic human rights that a government must protect.
− Created in the 1690s after a crisis developed.
− King James II was Catholic, but Protestants ran him out of power and forced him to flee
the country. Parliament crowned his daughter, Mary, and her husband, William.
− This bill strengthened the power of Parliament as a representative of the people. Also
listed individual rights against government abuse.
Separation of Powers

• Baron de Montesquieu - a French lawyer, man of letters, and one of the most influential political
philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment. His political theory work, particularly the idea of
separation of powers, shaped the modern democratic government.
− Main Point: Power should be divided among separate powers.
• His most famous book, “The Spirit of Laws,” in 1748, described how governments should be
organized.
• He wanted to protect civil liberty, or the liberty of the people.
• Separation of Powers - the division of powers among branches of government to act as checks
and balances toward one another.
− Executive branch (One King/Prime Minister/President)
− Legislative branch (Parliament or Congress)
− Judicial branch (Supreme Court)
• He warned that if powers were NOT separated, it could lead to despotism.
• Despotism - rule by a single person with absolute abusive power.
Religious Tolerance and Free Speech

• Voltaire - a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his wit, his
attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of
expression, and separation of church and state.
− Main Point: Tolerance and free speech should be protected.
• He admired England’s separation of powers and that the government had laws to act as checks
and balances instead of a single ruler making all of the decisions.
• Religious tolerance - the acceptance of different religious beliefs and customs.
− He thought religious conflict was a main source of evil in the world.
− He argued that no single religion had all the truth.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Freedom of Speech
− Wrote a letter to a man whose views he strongly opposed.
− “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”
Rights of the Accused

• Cesare Beccaria - argued against forms of punishment that had been in use for centuries, instead
advocating for fair treatment of accused people.
• 1763 he began to study law, and was upset at the harsh practices against accused people.
− People might have their thumbs crushed, or bodies stretched on a device until the joints
pulled apart.
• Published “On Crimes and Punishments,” 1764.
• Argued that laws exist to preserve security and order.
• Punishment did NOT have to be brutal, only severe enough to deter people from committing
further crime.
Impact on Revolutions

• All of these thinkers had major impact onto the world, in the form of revolutions!
• A few European absolute monarchs tried to implement these ideas in the 1700s to make their
governments more fair.
− Ex’s: Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of
Austria.
− Became known as the “enlightened despots” or “benevolent despots.”
• American and French Revolutions
− Greatly influenced both revolutions.
− Americans shared the traditions of the Magna Carta, English Bill of Rights, etc.
− Declaration of Independence echoed John Locke’s theories of natural rights and social
contracts.
− U.S. Constitution also has Montesquieu's idea of separation of powers.
− French revolution led to the National Assembly, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen, etc. Proclaimed liberty and equality!
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 5 Imperial Reforms and Colonial Protests

1. Confronting National Debt from French & Indian War
American Frontier Troubles

• Seven Years’ War - a global war fought between 1756 and 1763. It involved all five European
great powers of the time plus many of the middle powers and spanned five continents, affecting
Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines.
− Began with Austria’s desire to regain territory from Prussia.
− Drew in Great Britain, France, Prussia, Russia, Austria, and others.
− Resulted in more than 1.5 million soldiers dead. More injured or missing. Could this be
considered the First World War?
• Britain came out on the winning side of this war, celebrating their victory in 1763 as a victory for
the monarchy. France, their longtime enemy, was “defeated.”
− British colonies were proud of this achievement, of British victory over worldwide
enemies, and of the strength of the British Constitution vs. the French Catholic “menace.”
• French and Indian War - the North American warfront of the Seven Years’ War. The colonies of
British America against those of New France, each side supported by military units from the
parent country and by American Indian allies.
North American Dynamics

• Treaty of Paris, 1763 - ended the French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War between Great
Britain and France, as well as their respective allies. In the terms of the treaty, France gave up all
its territories in mainland North America, effectively ending any foreign military threat to the
British colonies there.
− Much of this newly gained land was controlled by native confederacies.
− Important Point: Resulted in Britain maintaining tens of thousands of troops in North
America to protect the borders from both native raids and imperial rivals.
• Very expensive.
• Colonists began to push west for further land expansion, to build larger tobacco estates, and
increase white settling potential.
• Native American Perspective → were trading with both British and French for valuable goods,
gunpowder, and guns. Once they lost French trade, the frontier became increasingly hostile.
British also failed to give them gifts as the French did, which was respectful custom.
Pontiac’s War

• Pontiac’s Rebellion (War) - launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of American Indian

tribes, primarily from the Great Lakes region, the Illinois Country, and Ohio Country who were
dissatisfied with British policies in the Great Lakes region following the French and Indian War.
− Inspired by words of prophet Neolin, part of the Lenni Lenape tribe, and the leadership
from Ottawa war chief, Pontiac.
• Neolin - his pan-Indian teachings opposed alcohol, materialism, and polygamy.
He emphasized that if the Indians gave up the evil ways brought to them by the
Europeans that the Master of Life would bless them with plentiful game.
− “The land on which you are, I have made for you, not for others.
Wherefore do you suffer the whites to dwell upon your lands?”
− “Drive them away; wage war against them; I love them not; they know
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

me not; they are my enemies; they are your brothers’ enemies. Send them
back to the land I have made for them.”
• Pontiac - urged Indians to “drive the Europeans out and make war upon them.”
• Animosity grew due to war, dismemberment, stake burning, and scalping stories.
Growing Race Tensions

• Paxton Boys - frontiersman of Scottish Ulster Protestants origin from along the Susquehanna
River in central Pennsylvania who formed a vigilante group to retaliate in 1763 against local
American Indians in the aftermath of the French and Indian War and Pontiac's War.
− Formed their own mob to retaliate on neighboring Conestoga and Susquehannock tribes.
− Viewed them all as savages. Needed to be murdered for safety of the frontier.
− Brutally murdered six Conestoga and burned their houses. Found others and scalped
them.
− Governor Penn of Pennsylvania offered reward for the other’s capture. Never found.
• Benjamin Franklin’s description of the Paxton Boys:
− “the barbarous Men who committed the atrocious act, in Defiance of Government, of all
Laws human and divine, and to the eternal Disgrace of their Country and Colour,” stating
that “the Wickedness cannot be covered, the Guilt will lie on the whole Land, till Justice
is done on the Murderers. The blood of the innocent will cry to heaven for vengeance.”
• Proclamation Line - issued by King George III on October 7, 1763. It forbade all settlement
west of a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains, which was delineated as an Indian
Reserve. Meant to deter further bloodshed on the frontier.
2. Stamp Act and the Sons & Daughters of Liberty
British Debt

• Great Britain’s role in the Seven Years’ War, and providing for tens of thousands of troops for
North American protection, meant that they were spending an exorbitant amount of money.
• Since they could not cover their costs with tax collection alone, they borrowed money from
British banks and foreign investors.
• This war nearly doubled the British national debt, from £75 million in 1756 to £133 million in
1763. The interest rate alone was staggering, being over half of the national budget.
• How does an empire replenish its debt and national coffers? → TAXES.
− Began to increase taxes at home, raise interest rates, create tariffs, and increase taxes for
colonies.
− The aristocracy convinced Parliament to not tax their land though. Sneaky.
• Main Point: British Empire tried to recoup their financial losses and the American colonists did
NOT want to pay.
“Death and Taxes”

• With the British Empire in debt, Parliament began to implement imperial reforms in the
mid-1760s to increase revenue.
• Currency Act of 1764 - regulated paper money issued by the colonies of British America. The
Acts sought to protect British merchants and creditors from being paid in depreciated colonial
currency.
− Aimed to standardize currency used in Atlantic trade and to stabilize the empire’s
economy.
• Sugar Act of 1764 - law that attempted to curb the smuggling of sugar and molasses in the
colonies by reducing the previous tax rate and enforcing the collection of duties.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Vice-Admiralty Courts - courts located in British colonies that were granted jurisdiction
over local legal matters related to maritime activities, such as disputes between merchants
and seamen.
• Colonists saw this as dangerous since there were no juries, merely judges passing
down sentences.
• Also, American colonists were smuggling quite a bit and did NOT want to pay
more taxes.
Revenue Issues

• After Britain’s numerous wars, the war-debt doubled to approximately £140,000,000.

• Logic dictates that they needed to recoup some of their financial losses.
− How to regain revenue?
• Increase trade, tariffs, internal tax, and colonies tax.
• Stamp Act of 1765
− The first direct tax on the American colonies.
− Many papers and legal documents HAD to use official stamped/marked paper from
London, effectively giving the British an extra revenue stream.
• Ex’s: Legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, currency, etc.
• Colonists resisted the tax, arguing that they never sought war with French-America or
French-Canada and the British forced the war and taxes onto them.
• “No taxation without Representation!” - Perhaps the most popular slogan remembered from the
American Revolution times.
− Colonists wanted Parliament representation to vote on these important matters. Britain
refused, arguing that their interests were already heard from like-minded voters.
Children of Liberty

• Sons of Liberty and the Daughters of Liberty - groups that did not agree with the British
taxation and boycotted their goods as well as protested in the streets.
− Both considered themselves British patriots but were defending their personal liberties.
− Comprised of regular folk, such as: artisans, shopkeepers, merchants, etc.
• 1765, they went after a man named Andrew Oliver, the official Distributor of Stamps.
− After hanging risque propaganda about Andrew, they formed a crowd to throw stones at
his house.
− They then built an effigy of him in front of his house and burned it.
− Mr. Oliver resigned the next day.
− Early form of domestic terrorism? Similar to KKK tactics later on.
• Governor Thomas Hutchinson was another victim.
− Sons of Liberty barricaded him in his house until he would renounce the Stamp Act. He
refused, since he swore an oath to the crown and to his office. The “True Sons” looted
and burned his house.
• Main Point: Colonists did not like additional taxes. Saw it as excessive oversight, abuse of
power, and reacted with extreme measures.
3. Townshend Acts & Colonial Protests
Taxation & Compliance

• As the colonists resisted the new taxation burdens, Britain needed to ensure that:
− 1) Taxation increased to make up for war debts.
− 2) Compliance of taxes would be met.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Townshend Acts - series of laws passed by the British government on the American colonies in
1767. They placed new taxes and took away some freedoms from the colonists.
− New York Restraining Act, 1767; Revenue Act, 1767; Indemnity Act, 1767;
Commissioners of Customs Act, 1767; Vice Admiralty Court Act, 1768, etc.
• Main purpose of these acts:
− Raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so that they
would remain loyal to Great Britain.
− Create more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations.
− Punish the Province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act.
− Establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies.
• Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer.
• Shown here in a 1765 painting by Joshua Reynolds.
• Instituted the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767 in order to raise money to support the British
military presence in the colonies.
• Benjamin Franklin’s opposition to the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts:
− “I never heard any objection to the right of laying duties to regulate commerce; but a
right to lay internal taxes was never supposed to be in parliament, as we are not
represented there.”
Boston Massacre

• Boston Massacre - known to the British as the Incident on King Street, was a confrontation on
March 5, 1770 in which British soldiers shot and killed several people while being harassed by a
mob in Boston. The event was heavily publicized by leading Patriots such as Paul Revere and
Samuel Adams.
− On this particular night, many Bostonians threw snowballs, rocks, and sticks at British
soldiers who were guarding one of the administrative buildings.
− They were angry at the increased taxes and wanted to make a point. They goaded the
guards too far.
− Guards opened fire into the crowd.
− This bloodshed was propagated throughout the colonies, becoming a rallying cry for
British oppression, British taxes, and British cruelty!
• Sons and Daughters of Liberty immediately portrayed the British soldiers as murderers and the
slain Bostonians as martyrs in a just cause.
• Six of the eight soldiers on trial were acquitted. Adams argued that there was provocation and that
gave them the right to self-defend. Stacked jury with loyalists and won his case. Tried to prove
that law is the cornerstone of legal defence, not a lynch mob.
• The Sons of Liberty circulated this sensationalized version of the events of March 5, 1770, in
order to promote the rightness of their cause.
• The verses below the image begin as follows: “Unhappy Boston! see thy Sons deplore, Thy
hallowed Walks besmeared with guiltless Gore.”
• Perfect example of newspapers & activist groups creating propaganda for their own uses.
Powderkeg Tea?

• Tea Act, 1773

− Effectively enforced legal purchase of tea from the British East India Company, based in
London.
− At the time, around 85% of tea was illegally smuggled into North America by the Dutch,
so taxing tea imports would yield Britain a huge cash grab.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Naturally, the colonists did not like the additional taxes OR the implicit message that the
British Parliament had a right to arbitrarily tax them.
• Heart of the Issue: Could a foreign power across the Atlantic dictate the
day-to-day lives of colonists when they do not even have a say in the legislation
they pass?
• British Retaliation:
− Coercive Acts & Intolerable Acts- punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in
1774 after the Boston Tea Party. The laws were meant to punish the Massachusetts
colonists for their defiance in the Tea Party protest in reaction to changes in taxation by
the British to the detriment of colonial goods.
Sympathetic British Reactions Back Home

• The artist of “The Able Doctor, or America Swallowing the Bitter Draught” (London Magazine,
May 1, 1774) targets select members of Parliament as the perpetrators of a devilish scheme to
overturn the constitution; this is why Mother Britannia weeps.
• Although not all of Great Britain was in agreement with Parliament’s actions against the colonies,
some were sympathetic to their plights.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 6 War for Independence

1. British Law & Order, Strategy & Consequences
Eve of Revolution

• Before the American Revolution, the British Empire found itself in numerous wars spanning
multiple continents. War supplies, troops, ammunition, food, and more proved enormous costs for
the empire.
− Seven Years’ War, 1756-1763
• A global war fought between the major European powers over control in Europe.
Eventually splintered off into North America, South America, Africa, and Asia.
Perhaps the first true World War?
• Britain and its ally, Prussia, proved victorious. At a great financial cost.
− French and Indian War, 1754-1763
• British American colonies vs. New France over dominance of North America.
• French settlements totalled approximately 60,000, while British America
numbered approximately 2,000,000 individuals.
• To even the odds, French enlisted Native American tribes to aid their fight.
− End Result: Britain gained Canada, east of Mississippi territory, Florida,
and some Caribbean islands. END of French supremacy and rise of
British.
− £70,000,000 of war-debt accumulated from this one war alone.
Revenue Issues

• After Britain’s numerous wars, the war-debt doubled to approximately £140,000,000.

• Logic dictates that they needed to recoup some of their financial losses.
− How to regain revenue?
• Increase trade, tariffs, internal tax, and colonies tax.
• Stamp Act of 1765
− The first direct tax on the American colonies.
− Many papers and legal documents HAD to use official stamped/marked paper from
London, effectively giving the British an extra revenue stream.
• Ex’s: Legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, currency, etc.
• Colonists resisted the tax, arguing that they never sought war with French-America or
French-Canada and the British forced the war and taxes onto them.
• “No taxation without Representation!” - Perhaps the most popular slogan remembered from the
American Revolution times.
− Colonists wanted Parliament representation to vote on these important matters. Britain
refused, arguing that their interests were already heard from like-minded voters.
Taxation & Compliance

• As the colonists resisted the new taxation burdens, Britain needed to ensure that:
− 1) Taxation increased to make up for war debts.
− 2) Compliance of taxes would be met.
• Townshend Acts - series of laws passed by the British government on the American colonies in
1767. They placed new taxes and took away some freedoms from the colonists.
− New York Restraining Act, 1767; Revenue Act, 1767; Indemnity Act, 1767;
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Commissioners of Customs Act, 1767; Vice Admiralty Court Act, 1768, etc.
• Main purpose of these acts:
− Raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so that they
would remain loyal to Great Britain.
− Create more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations.
− Punish the Province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act.
− Establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies.
Powderkeg Tea?

• Tea Act, 1773

− Effectively enforced legal purchase of tea from the British East India Company, based in
London.
− At the time, around 85% of tea was illegally smuggled into North America by the Dutch,
so taxing tea imports would yield Britain a huge cash grab.
− Naturally, the colonists did not like the additional taxes OR the implicit message that the
British Parliament had a right to arbitrarily tax them.
• Heart of the Issue: Could a foreign power across the Atlantic dictate the
day-to-day lives of colonists when they do not even have a say in the legislation
they pass?
Like-Minded Colonies

• First Continental Congress, 1774 - all colonies, except Georgia, met in Philadelphia to advocate
the boycott of ALL British goods.
− If Britain would not listen to their summons, then they would listen with their financial
losses!
• Britain saw the signs of violence, and dispatched General Thomas Gage to reassert control and
order in the colonies.
− Although General Gage had initial success with occupying Boston, the colonies mustered
up their minutemen to strategically cut off his advances and confiscate weapons,
ammunitions, and artillery.
• Minutemen - members of a class of American militiamen who volunteered to be ready for
service at a minute's notice.
PS/ Shot Heard Round the World

Concord Hymn, by Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1836

• “By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, Here once the
embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world.
• The foe long since in silence slept; Alike the conqueror silent sleeps; and Time the ruined bridge
has swept, Down the dark stream which seaward creeps.
• On this green bank, by this soft stream, We set today a votive stone; That memory may their deed
redeem, When, like our sires, our sons are gone.
• Spirit, that made those heroes dare To die, and leave their children free, Bid Time and Nature
gently spare The shaft we raise to them and thee.”

Battles of Lexington and Concord → Unclear who fired first shots, but this was the beginning of major
hostilities between the colonies and Britain. Revolution is beginning.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

In Open Rebellion

• Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775

− Siege of Boston
− Boston was the original objective, but the key decisive battle took place on a nearby hill.
− Although the British proved victorious, it was a pyrrhic victory. Came at a very high cost.
American casualties were not nearly so high, very good trade for them.
− Take Away → American militiamen could stand up to hardened British soldiers given the
right circumstances.
• August, 1775 - King George III formally declares the colonies in open rebellion.
− Formal beginning of American Revolution!
• Patriots - colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rejected British rule during the American
Revolution and declared the United States of America as an independent nation.
• Loyalists - colonists who stayed loyal to the Crown during the American Revolutionary War,
often called Tories, Royalists, or King's Men at the time. They were opposed by the "Patriots,"
who supported the revolution, and called them "persons inimical to the liberties of America.”
Common Sense is Not So Common

• Common Sense, by Thomas Paine, 1776

− A radical pamphlet written by Thomas Paine to advocate for revolution. Colonials should
not be subservients to the British!
− Called King George III a “royal brute.” Channeled colonial discontent toward the
monarchy.
− Argued for a new type of government:
• Republicanism - a political philosophy that held that elected representatives, not
a hereditary monarch, should govern states.
− Guided the conduct of the Patriots in their struggle against the British
Empire. It demanded adherence to a code of virtue, placing the public
good and community above narrow self-interest.
• Popular sovereignty - citizens in the republic would determine who would
represent them, and decide other issues, on the basis of majority rule.
Declaration of Independence

• Summer 1776, Continental Congress met in Philadelphia to officially sever ties with Britain and
establish their own government.
• Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, and established the foundation of the American
government as a Republic where the consent of the people would be a top priority.
• “We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit
of Happiness—That to secure these Rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving
their just Powers from the Consent of the Governed, that whenever any Form of Government
becomes destructive of these Ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it.”
− Conflicted with the issue of slavery, which would eventually result in the Civil War.
− Conflicted with women and Native Americans as well.
2. Early Years of Revolution
War in the South

• By 1778, the ongoing war between the colonial rebels and the British Empire had reached a
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

stalemate.
− Stalemate - a position counting as a draw, in which a player is not in check but cannot
move except into check.
• King George III adamantly demanded that the rebels be brought under British control again.
− Due to the top-down pressure on the government and military, the British revised their
strategies.
• New Strategy → Gain support from Loyalists in the South to win overall control of the colonies.
− South was filled with potential allies: Loyalists, slaves who wanted freedom from
bondage, and Native American allies.
Georgia & South Carolina

• The British campaign began by taking over Savannah, the capital of Georgia, in December 1778.
• Initial success was achieved to the delight of the British!
− Slaves had turned to help the British in large numbers to escape bondage. Around 20,000
did.
− Native American tribes that resented the local colonists turned the help. (Mohawk &
Creek tribes.)
− Loyalists who wanted to remain with the empire joined forces.
• The colonial Continental Congress also proposed to free slaves if they fought alongside the
Patriot army, however Georgia & South Carolina revolutionaries and local leaders refused.
• South Carolina
− April 1780, British forces marched north with 8,000 men to besiege Charleston. After
six weeks of fighting, they annexed the city under General Sir Henry Clinton’s
command.
• Ordered his subordinate, General Charles Cornwallis to subdue South Carolina.
Military Restructuring

• As the American defeats kept increasing, a restructure in strategy was necessary to win the war.
• General Nathanael Greene took command in 1781.
• Guerrilla Warfare & hit-and-run tactics
− Guerrilla Warfare - irregular warfare where paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or
irregulars, use ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run tactics, and mobility,
to fight a larger and less-mobile traditional military.
• Led to favorable engagements in Battle of Cowpens in S.C., Battle of Guilford in Courthouse, and
Battle of Bunker Hill.
British Surrender

• Summer of 1781, Cornwallis moved his army to Yorktown, Virginia, with the expectation that the
Royal Navy would assist him with more troops.
• To counter this move, the American and French allies swarmed the coastal peninsula in
September to cut them off.
− Joined by General George Washington, leader of the Continental Army, famed Marquis
de Lafayette, the trainer of the American troops, and the French navy blockading British
retreat from the ocean.
• By October 1781, Lord Cornwallis sensed the imminent defeat. Surrendered on October 19th
under the song “The World Turned Upside Down,” a song benefitting the British Empire’s
surprising defeat at the hands of the small colonials.
3. Rise of American Revolutionaries
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Growing American Identity

• Population divisions varied by state, but some were deeply divided over Loyalist/Patriot lines.
• Loyalists:
− Around 20-30% of the colonial population were Loyalist, around 30% Patriot, and the
rest neutral.
− Many held administrative positions. Both swore an oath to defend the British
constitution and had their economic well being at stake.
− Felt marginalized by confiscation acts passed by the states, which allowed them to seize
their land and property.
− Famous Loyalist → William Franklin, only surviving son of Benjamin Franklin. Was a
true loyalist, held a governor position for New Jersey, was imprisoned during the war, and
left for England after the war. Father and son never reconciled.
• Around 100,000 colonists followed his example by sailing to England/Canada.
PS/Hannah Ingraham on Removing to Nova Scotia

Hannah Ingraham was eleven years old in 1783, when her Loyalist family removed from New York to
Ste. Anne’s Point in the colony of Nova Scotia. Later in life, she compiled her memories of that time.

“[Father] said we were to go to Nova Scotia, that a ship was ready to take us there, so we made all haste
to get ready. . . . Then on Tuesday, suddenly the house was surrounded by rebels and father was taken
prisoner and carried away. . . . When morning came, they said he was free to go.

We had five wagon loads carried down the Hudson in a sloop and then we went on board the transport
that was to bring us to Saint John. I was just eleven years old when we left our farm to come here. It was
the last transport of the season and had on board all those who could not come sooner. The first transports
had come in May so the people had all the summer before them to get settled. . . .

We lived in a tent at St. Anne’s until father got a house ready. . . . There was no floor laid, no windows, no
chimney, no door, but we had a roof at least. A good fire was blazing and mother had a big loaf of bread
and she boiled a kettle of water and put a good piece of butter in a pewter bowl. We toasted the bread and
all sat around the bowl and ate our breakfast that morning and mother said: “Thank God we are no longer
in dread of having shots fired through our house. This is the sweetest meal I ever tasted for many a day.””

Question → What do these excerpts tells us about life as a Loyalist in New York or as a transplant to
Canada?

Growing American Identity

• Patriots
− Nicknamed “Whigs,” came from different backgrounds.
− Merchants, shoemakers, farmers, sailors, blacksmiths, tanners, smiths, etc.
− All came together for a common cause, the revolution.
• Economic Strife
− As the Revolutionary War went on, toward the end their finances were running short,
This causes a tremendous shortage of supplies, equipment, etc. for the soldiers and
population.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Valley Forge - General Washington’s winter camp that underwent extreme shortages.
• PS/James Fallon to Jonathan Potts, Yellow Springs, 27 April 1778.”
− “We want, my dear sir, wine above all things, for our sick are now
numerous, and our cases generally putrid….we also want sheets,
shirts, candles, soap, writing as well as wrapping paper, pots,
horn-spoons, and every other kind of hospital utensil.”

Treaty of Paris

• With the British forces defeated, negotiations began for the peaceful transition of power in North
America.
• British Parliament voted to end military operations against the rebels, and began drafting a treaty
with American drafters.
• Treaty of Paris, 1782-1783 - signed in Paris by representatives of King George III of Great
Britain and representatives of the United States of America on September 3, 1783, ended the
American Revolutionary War.
− Recognized independence of the United States, determined boundaries of states and new
nation, fishing rights in northeast, fair treatment of Loyalists and their property.
• Native American Promises?
− This treaty freely gave Americans plenty of “British” land. Conflicts in land, agreements,
contracts, race, etc.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 7 Creating Republican Governments

1. Common Sense: Monarchy to Republic Formation
Creating an Early Republic

• At the end of the Revolutionary War, young America began to debate about what the new nation
would look like.
• Would democratic rule be the law of the land? Or another monarchy? Or a Republic?
• American Equality
− What rights would each new state have within the new nation?
− States began drafting their individual constitutions.
• Democracy vs. Republicanism?
− Democracy → a system of government by the whole population, where each citizen
receives a vote. Largest majority, or 51+% of the vote, wins.
• Ancient Greek roots to city-states.
− Republic → a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected
representatives, and which has an elected or nominated leader rather than a monarch.
• Ancient Rome roots with elected representatives and complex bureaucracy.
First Mention of Republic?

• As we discussed in Ch. 6, Thomas Paine was instrumental in spreading the idea of creating a
Republic in his popular works, Common Sense, 1776.
− Advocated a republic, not a monarchy.
• The Declaration of Independence drafted up the political, military, and social break from
England. However, it did not state what the new form of government would be.
• Why Republicanism?
− Monarchy, the long-standing political formation within Europe, was based on dynastic
succession, or passing down rule by bloodline.
• Double-edged sword. Great rulers vs. inept rulers.
• Inheritance issues, civil wars, conflict.
• Many in the colonies felt that King George III did not perform his duty of
protecting and guiding the people. Was seen as a tyrant.
− The Romans faced similar issues when they forced their king tyrants out of Rome and
started a republic. American intellectuals studied the classics intently!
Democracy vs. Republic

• True Democracy
− The 51+% ruling majority. Majority rule can overpower minority rights.
− Wealthier Americans did not like this, as they were landowners, merchants, planters, etc.
They saw democracy as an inefficient way to let uneducated rabble vote on a nation’s
decisions.
• Conservative Whigs
− The Federalist Papers, James Madison wrote: “Democracies have ever
been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found
incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in
general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their
deaths.”
• Radical Whigs
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Favored broadening the popular participation and pushed for democracy.

Democracy
Will a Republic Survive?

• A Republic requires citizens to be educated, informed, and to protect the Republic themselves
through their own actions.
• If a Republic becomes corrupt and falls, or succeeds into future generations, it is the direct result
of the citizenry.
• Big Government or Small Government?
− Should influence in the new nation be determined by ownership of land?
− Should they hold more political rights in the government vs. those with fewer land
claims?
• Remnants of European nobility social order.
− A republic limits the rights of property holders, spreading out the voting/liberty rights
throughout the citizenry and populace.
PS/Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues of Character

1. “Temperance. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation.

2. Silence. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation.
3. Order. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.
4. Resolution. Resolve to perform what you out; perform without fail what you resolve.
5. Frugality. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; ie., waste nothing.
6. Industry. Lose no time; be always employ’d in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.
7. Sincerity. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justy, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.
8. Justice. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.
9. Moderation. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.
10. Cleanliness. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, cloaths, or habitation.
11. Tranquility. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or avoidable.
12. Chastity. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury
to your or another’s peace or reputation.
13. Humility. Imitate Jesus and Socrates.”
King George Washington?

• The most famous Revolutionary War general, became the most popular man in America at this
time. Early superstar/rockstar status.
• Embodied the virtues that the Republicanists wanted within their new nation.
• After commanding the Continental Army, returned to his Virginia estate at Mount Vernon to live
with his wife, Martha.
• Some clammered for Washington to become the new monarch, to lead the new nation to glory.
• His remarks with Col. Lewis Nicola in letters
− Discussed merits of monarchy.
− Discussed merits of a republic.
− Everything in between.
− Not an “offer for kingship,” but discussion.
2. The Extent of Change
Women’s Rights in New America
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Coverture - in 18th century America, a married woman had no legal or economic status
independent of her husband.
− Could not conduct business or buy/sell property.
− Husband controlled all property she brought to the marriage (dowry), but she had to
consent to selling it if needed.
− Had no right to vote.
• Wives of republican statesmen began to argue for equality with their husbands, citing evidence
and advocating for legal equality with educational equality.
• Abigail Adams - wife of John Adams: (First prominent American feminist?)
− “In the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire
you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your
ancestor. Do not put such unlimited power in the husbands. Remember, all men would be
tyrants if they could.” → Wanted to give women more legal/economic independence.
• Judith Sargent Murray, Massachusetts - advocated for women’s economic independence and
equal educational opportunities. Why were boys given access to education as a birthright, while
girls were not? 1780s argued that God made men’s & women’s minds equal.
Women’s Rights in New America Pt. II

• Judith Sargent Murray, Massachusetts - advocated for women’s economic independence and
equal educational opportunities. Why were boys given access to education as a birthright, while
girls were not? 1780s argued that God made men’s & women’s minds equal.
− Murray championed ideas of economic independence with the argument that women
should be able to sustain themselves if there is NO male breadwinner.
− She made her own income from her own publications, speaking of both traditional and
radical values she had.
− Also believed that women were much better at raising children than men due to instilling
morality and virtue into the family.
Meaning of Race in Early America

• By the Revolutionary War, race had been institutionalized for over 100 years.
• New nation was viewed as a white republic, blacks were slaves, and Indians had no place.
• Remember how some African American slaves ran away from slavers to join the British army?
− Used as evidence to resent them even more, especially in the South.
• Quotes regarding Native Americans and African Americans.
− Thomas Jefferson: King George III incited “the merciless Indian savages” to destroy the
white inhabitants on the frontier.
− Thomas Paine: Great Britain was guilty of inciting “the Indians and Negroes to destroy
us.”
− Benjamin Franklin : 1780s, wrote that Indians would wipe themselves out with
alcoholism, leaving the land free for white settlers.
PS/Phillis Wheatley. On Being Brought From Africa to America, 1753

“Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land,

Taught my benighted soul to understand

That there’s a God, that there’s a Savior too:

HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Once I redemption neither sought nor knew.

Some view our sable race with scornful eye,

“Their colour is a diabolic dye.”

Remember, Christians, Negroes, black as Cain,

May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train.”

Separation of Church & State

• John F. Kennedy’s powerful speech on separation of church and state.

− During his campaign, his Catholic faith was put on spotlight for possibly being
“traitorous” due to the Pope being the “head of the Church,” which might influence his
presidential duties.
• More relevant today since we are seeing the direct result of religious views coming into conflict
with Congressional responsibilities, or if Mike Pence should become president, Executive Branch
responsibilities.
State Constitution Formation

• 1776, John Adams urged each colony to write its own independent state constitution.
− “There is no good government but what is republican.”
• Republican government ideology won over the day, allowing for various ideas to permeate
through each constitution.
− French philosopher Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers in government.
− Checks and balances were proposed. Forming three separate branches of government
(executive, legislative, and judicial) that would maintain a balance of power.
• Each state varied in its approach to their state constitutions. Some leaned toward democratic
tendencies, while others leaned into aristocratic/republican.
Comparing Constitutions

• Massachusetts
− Democratic. Two legislative chambers (upper & lower house), strong governor w/veto.
• Pennsylvania and New Hampshire
− Democratic tendencies, no requirement of property ownership to vote. 21+ taxpayer
could vote.
• Conservative Whigs, like John Adams, vehemently opposed abolishing property
qualifications.
− Putting too much power in the hands of men who had no business voting.
• Elitist, European nobility mentality, concentrating power in few.
• Maryland and South Carolina
− Limited democratic majority power.
• Implemented a financial barrier to enter into political office, thereby excluding
90% of the population.
− Governors had to have “a settled plantation or freehold in their and each
of their own right of the value of at least ten thousand pounds currency,
clear of debt.”
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

3. Debating Democracy
Articles of Confederation: Spectacular Failure

• First national constitution, 1781 officially approved.

• After the Revolutionary War, many were hesitant to give the national government too much
power. Did NOT want to mirror England.
• Political:
− Each state was viewed as a sovereign republic, guarding their own self-interests. General
sense of national unity.
− States could choose whether to comply with domestic/foreign policies.
− Passing any law was difficult, requiring 9/13 states to pass.
− Amending anything required consent of ALL 13 states.
• Economic:
− Congress had NO power to tax citizens. National debt grew over war expenses.
• Military:
− No money/enforcement for national army.

Veteran Mistreatment

• How would you feel if you fought for your country’s independence to then not receive any
reimbursement? → Probably confused, upset, and angry.
• Many troops from the Revolutionary War were not paid on time, far from it. Many from
1777-1781 found so few payments made, that their financial independence was but a dream.
− Ex: Joseph Plumb Martin (Continental Army soldiers) was paid but once from
1777-1781.
− Armed uprising and political divisions grew.
• Joseph Martin ended up publishing a memoir of his life during his old age.
− Became a huge success and widely circulated. Discussed veteran mistreatment.
− PS/“President Monroe was the first of all our presidents, except president Washington,
who ever uttered a syllable in the old soldiers' favor . . . many of the poor men who had
spent their youthful, and consequently, their best days in the hard service of their country
have been enabled to eke out the...end of their lives a little too high for the groveling
hand of envy or the long arm of poverty to reach.”
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Shay’s Rebellion: Lesson on Governance

• Shay’s Rebellion - an armed uprising in Western Massachusetts and Worcester in response to a

debt crisis among the citizenry and in opposition to the state government's increased efforts to
collect taxes both on individuals and their trades; the fight took place mostly in and around
Springfield during 1786 and 1787.
− U.S. found itself in increasing debt due to improper taxation laws. (Quickly finding out
that either you will be taxed by the British far away or by your own back home!)
− Each state had differing currency, making devaluation and currency exchange matters
worse.
− Eventually, farmers’ land was being foreclosed on their “debts” to the state, which caused
all of these Revolutionary War veterans to revolt in anger.
• Impossible to pay the debt AND the currency was worthless.
− Rebellion led by Captain Daniel Shays, a former office of the Continental Army.
− Although had initial success with overtaking various armories, eventually brought down
by milita’s paid for by wealthy patrons.
• Main Point: Governments with few defined powers are ultimately ineffectual.
• Political
− Cause → State legislature refused to address petitioner's complaints. Time and time
again, until during 1786 the farmers could not stand the injustice anymore.
− Effect → Forced lawmakers to amend the Articles. Create a more stable government.
• Economic
− Congress did not solve the dire economic problems in the 1780s. Each state had its own
paper currency, and from the inconsistency internal devaluation occurred.
− Americans lacked specie, or gold and silver currency, to continue with their daily
business activities.
− 1786, Many farmers were in high debt and were still asked to pay taxes by the
government. These farmers ended up fighting after facing home loss. Wanted their debts
forgiven.
• Military
− Led by Captain Daniel Shays, a former Continental Army officer of the revolution.
Lasted months with militiamen refusing to defend the state too. Ended after months of
fighting when a privately funded army ended their raids.
4. Constitutional Convention & Federal Constitution
Constitutional Convention

• Seeing the troubles within the new nation, the Articles of Confederation had to be changed.
• 1787, a second proposed meeting for a Philadelphia convention. Became known as the
Constitutional Convention of 1787.
− Shay’s Rebellion expedited this meeting, as the nation was beginning to unravel.
− As it became obvious that amending the Articles were not going to fix the major issues of
the nation the United States Constitution was created.
• Virginia Plan (James Madison)
− After much debate about elected representation, this plan was advised.
− Bicameral, or a two-house legislature, that would govern the land. (Elected & population
based)
− Proportional Representation - gave more populous states more political power.
− Called for an executive and judicial branch.
• Connecticut Compromise, the “Great Compromise”
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Roger Sherman proposed this to answer the question of representation. Different

bicameral legislature where the Senate would have equal representation, but the House of
Representatives would have proportional representation.
Issue of Slavery

• As the Constitutional Convention debated over elected representation, and eventually ditched the
Articles of Confederation in favor of the Constitution, the question remained:
− Would African American slaves be counted toward state population, and thus influence
their voting influence within the new government?
• Southerners wanted them to increase their influence in Congress, giving them more political
strength.
• Northerners hated the term slavery and did not want the term to be included within the
Constitution. Also, did not want to give the South such tremendous population advantage.
• Three-Fifths Compromise
− 1787 Constitution, three out of every five slaves would count when determining a state’s
population.
− Gave southern states extra political power within the House of Representatives.
Ratification

• The Constitution draft was finished in September of 1787.

• Before the document would become law, each state had to hold a ratifying convention to agree to
the terms.
− Needed 9/13 approval to move forward.
• Americans were deeply divided over the Constitution and its new provisions. Divided into two
schools of thought.
− 1) Federalist - argued for a centralized republic with a strong national government. This
would take away much power and strength from individual states in favor of national
unity and quick decision making.
• John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison argued their case in The
Federalist Papers.
− 2) Anti-Federalist - opposed the Constitution and did not want to consolidate power into
a national government. Constitution mimicked the old, corrupt, and centralized British
government. Argued that elites would end up running the government (eery prediction),
and that the Constitution did not contain a bill of rights.
Legacy of the Federalist Papers

• The Federalist Papers - a collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton,
James Madison, and John Jay under the collective pseudonym "Publius" to promote the
ratification of the United States Constitution.
− In Federalist 6, 7, and 8, Hamilton emphasizes the likely results of wars that would
without question plague a disunited group of states, particularly wars among themselves.
• Modern example of Blue vs. Red states. Republican vs. Democrat. Antifa vs.
Proud Boys/Confederalists. List goes on…
− Federalist 10, written by Madison, is considered by many scholars to be the most
significant of the papers, addressing the question of the factions and passions. As long as
people are free to use their reason and as long as that reason is related to self-love,
opinions and passions will influence each other. In short, factionalism for Madison is part
of the very nature of humanity.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

• Modern examples of “us vs. them” mentality growing. A very antagonist stance
being built as time goes on.
1787, U.S. Constitution

“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure
domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the
Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the
United States of America.”

Modern Plug: Some call for a modern revising of the Constitution to include more inclusive language,
include modern concepts such as corporations/internet/globalism/etc. Not a bad idea considering France is
in their Fifth Republic with numerous constitution changes over time.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 8 Growing Pains: New Republic

1. Competing Visions: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans
Setting Precedents

• With New Hampshire becoming the 9th state to ratify the federal Constitution in 1788, a plan to
establish a strong central government began.
• Congressional seat elections in 1788-1789, giving rise to electoral process for elected
representatives as initially envisioned.
• April 1789, George Washington becomes the first president of the United States.
− Would himself begin to set a precedent with a two-term office. Asked by some for life
appointment, but he refused.
− His vice president was John Adams.
− Both were part of the Federalist Party, wanting to assert a strong national government.
Federalists in Government

• Strong Central Government Ideology

− Federalists believed that the United States needed to maintain a strong central
government.
− Supporting the 1787 federal constitution, they composed a political party.
• Societal Ideologies
− Wanted to maintain traditional roles between men and women.
− Did not want to change any relations between the races.
− Wanted clear distinctions of race and intelligence.
− All were NOT created equal.
− To forcibly impose equality would be the destruction of the new republic.
• Governmental Appointments
− Alexander Hamilton (Federalist) → Secretary of Treasury
− Thomas Jefferson (Founder) → Secretary of State
− Henry Knox (Rev. War Vet) → Secretary of War
− Edmond Randolph (Con. Conv. Del.) → Attorney General
• July 1789, Judiciary Act → officially titled "An Act to Establish the Judicial Courts of the
United States," was signed into law by President George Washington. Article III of the
Constitution established a Supreme Court, but left to Congress the authority to create lower
federal courts as needed.
Money Issues: Another Shay’s Rebellion?

• Learning from their lessons with Shay’s Rebellion, the new Federalist government did not wait
for another economic catastrophe.
• Tariff Act, 1789 - designed to raise revenues for the new government by placing a tariff on the
importation of foreign goods (averaging more than 8 percent).
− A victory for Federalists and all who believed in a national government.
− Began to bring in much necessary revenue into the federal government.
• Money = influence = spending = authority
• PS/ "The Petition of Tradesmen, Manufacturers, and others of Baltimore". Document. 1789. From
National Archives and Records Administration. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives,
Washington, D.C:
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Bill of Rights & First 10 Amendments

• Although the Federalists were receiving praise from many, there was still a large portion of the
American public that feared too much concentration of power in a central government.
− Tyrannical government possibly.
− Would leave citizens with no recourse.
• Bill of Rights, 1789 - the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791 and
guaranteeing such rights as the freedoms of speech, assembly, and worship.
− Amendments:
• 1-10
− Guaranteeing freedom of speech, religion, bear arms, jury trial, and
more.
• Adoption of the Bill of Rights gave the Anti-Federalists a bit more leeway in their opposition
toward the Constitution, giving the federal government some much-needed power and legitimacy.
Hamilton’s “Reports”

• Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, was a nationalist who believed a strong federal
government would solve the ongoing financial crisis.
• By the time he entered into the government in 1789, the United States was piling up debt up to
$53 million.
− Began to be considered a financial risk toward European lenders.
• Three Reports
− 1) Public Credit
• To regain trust of creditors and foreign investment, sold federal bonds in order
to pay off lenders, gain a good credit rating abroad, and raise interest by 1792.
• “To promote the increasing respectability of the American name; to answer the
calls for justice...to cement more closely the union of the states...to establish
public order on the basis of upright and liberal policy.”
• States with larger debt, supported this plan. States with little debt, did not.
• Compromise was born where Hamilton agreed to give up New York City as the
U.S. capital in favor of a “federal city” in the District of Columbia.
Hamilton’s “Reports”

• 2) National Bank
− Hamilton wanted to establish a national bank that could regulate the economy as needed.
− Proposed new bank with new bank notes, demanding their conversion into gold with a
gold standard.
− Invoked the Constitution’s “implied powers” from Article 1, Section 8. President
Washington supported him and signed it into law, 1791.
• 3) Raising Revenue
− Report was to address issue of raising revenue to pay interest on national debt.
− Advocated foreign product tariffs to support local business but raise revenue from
imports.
− Proposed federal subsidies to American industries.
− Rescued the U.S. from bankruptcy in the late 1780s.
America’s First Party System

• James Madison and Thomas Jefferson was upset with Hamilton’s financial restructuring.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Believed it gave power to speculators who profited at the expense of hardworking citizens.
• 1783, Jefferson: “Those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God, if ever he had a
chosen people.”
− Made a statement that property ownership was virtuous and right.
− National Gazette - a publication made to counter the Federalist press from 1791-1793.
• Tried to sway public opinion between the partisan ideologies.
• Not objective journalism, but propaganda for one’s party.
• Democratic-Republicans - founded based on their beliefs that the country should be run by two
co-equal areas of government - the State Governments and the National Government, both having
equal power and able to operate fairly independently of the other.
• Naturalization Act, 1790 - restricted citizenship to "any alien, being a free white person" who
had been in the U.S. for two years. In effect, it left out indentured servants, slaves, and most
women.
− Debates regarding rights, race, and “good character” emerged for citizenship.
2. The New American Republic
The French Revolution

• French Revolution - 1789-1790s. During this period, French citizens razed and redesigned their
country’s political landscape, uprooting centuries-old institutions such as absolute monarchy and
the feudal system. The upheaval was caused by widespread discontent with the French monarchy
and the poor economic policies of King Louis XVI, who met his death by guillotine, as did his
wife Marie Antoinette. Although it failed to achieve all of its goals and at times degenerated into
a chaotic bloodbath, the French Revolution played a critical role in shaping modern nations by
showing the world the power inherent in the will of the people.
− American Revolution served as an inspiration!
• The Terror, 1793-1794 - multiple massacres and public executions occurred in response to
revolutionary fervor, anticlerical sentiment, and frivolous accusations of treason by Maximilien
Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety.
Events Back Home

• Haitian Revolution, 1791-1804.

− successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection by self-liberated slaves against
French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign nation of Haiti. Ended with
the former French colony's independence.
• Whiskey Rebellion, 1791-1794.
− Tax protest in the United States during the presidency of George Washington, ultimately
under the command of American Revolutionary war veteran Major James McFarlane.
− Citizens upset over Hamilton’s tariffs and tax on whiskey. Said it was oppressive to
working people. Aligned themselves with Democratic-Republican Party.
− Saw this tax as a Federalist plot to destroy their republican liberty. Perhaps even to
restore a monarchy.
− Government mustered 13,000 man militia to put down rebellion.
PS/“Shall the majority govern or be governed?”

Alexander Hamilton frequently wrote persuasive essays under pseudonyms, like “Tully,” as he does here.
In this 1794 essay, Hamilton denounces the whiskey rebels and majority rule.

“It has been observed that the means most likely to be employed to turn the insurrection in the western
country to the detriment of the government, would be artfully calculated among other things ‘to divert
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

your attention from the true question to be decided.’

Let us see then what is this question. It is plainly this—shall the majority govern or be governed? shall the
nation rule, or be ruled? shall the general will prevail, or the will of a faction? shall there be government,
or no government? . . .

The Constitution you have ordained for yourselves and your posterity contains this express clause, ‘The
Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and Excises, to pay the debts, and
provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States.’ You have then, by a solemn
and deliberate act, the most important and sacred that a nation can perform, pronounced and decreed, that
your Representatives in Congress shall have power to lay Excises. You have done nothing since to reverse
or impair that decree. . . .

But the four western counties of Pennsylvania, undertake to rejudge and reverse your decrees, you have
said, ‘The Congress shall have power to lay Excises.’ They say, ‘The Congress shall not have this power.’
...

There is no road to despotism more sure or more to be dreaded than that which begins at anarchy.”

—Alexander Hamilton’s “Tully No. II” for the American Daily Advertiser, Philadelphia, August 26, 1794
3. Partisan Politics
John Adam’s Presidency

• After the French Revolution, war between Great Britain and France in the 1790s shaped United
States foreign policy.
− Still not strong enough to effectively negotiate trade agreements and influence
political/diplomatic events, the U.S. stood by as Europe plunged into wars again.
− John Adams saw the United States’ relationship with France as a possible liability…
• Later on, Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France, effectively establishing
a monarchy again.
• French Directory, 1795-1799 - a five-member committee that governed France when it replaced
the Committee of Public Safety. Later it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Coup of
18 Brumaire, and replaced by the French Consulate after that.
− Issued decrees that ANY ship carrying British goods could be seized on the high seas.
(Queue Captain Jack Sparrow)
− John Adams was worried American ships would be seized during its trade.
− 1778 France declared an END to their treaty. Quasi-War (1796-1799) was waged where
France seized 834 American ships. Adams began to build up the U.S. Navy.
XYZ Affair

• 1797, Adams sought a peaceful and diplomatic solution with France instead of waging war.
Delegates and emissaries between the two countries met.
• XYZ Affair - A bribery scandal between the U.S. and France over negotiations of peace, almost
resulting in war due to public outrage.
− Pres. John Adams dispatched three ministers to France in 1797 to negotiate a commercial
agreement to protect U.S. shipping.
− Ministers were approached by three French agents who suggested a hefty bribe.
− The three French agents (called X, Y, and Z in the diplomatic correspondence to John
Adams) were made public in the United States.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Outcry over the bribe solicitation, followed by preparations for war. Although a period
of undeclared naval warfare ensued between France and the United States formal war was
avoided, and the incident was settled by the Convention of 1800.
Wartime Restriction on Freedoms

• Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 - four internal security laws passed by the U.S. Congress,
restricting aliens and curtailing the excesses of an unrestrained press, in anticipation of an
expected war with France.
− After the XYZ Affair (1797), war with France had appeared inevitable. Federalists sought
to prevent such subversion in the United States and adopted the acts as part of military
preparedness.
− Acts took aim at French immigrants who could be national security threats if spoke or
wrote “in a scandalous or malicious” manner against the U.S. government.
− What penalties were there under the acts?
• Up to 5 years in prison with $5000 fine in 1790 dollars, the 1913’s equivalent of
$130,000. From 1790 dollars, who knows how much. Insane amount.
• Acts raised constitutional questions about freedom of the press under the First Amendment.
• U.S. - French Quasi-War ended in 1800 in the Treaty of Mortefontaine. Reopened trade with
two countries and ended French taking over American ships.
Thomas Jefferson Pt. I

• Revolution of 1800 - not an actual revolution, but referred to as such since it was the first transfer
of power in U.S. history from one political party to another. Namely, from the Federalists to the
Democratic-Republicans.
• Thomas Jefferson won the election of 1800, creating a peaceful transition even though fears of
violence lurked throughout the nation due to the transfer. Set an important precedent.
• His relationship with Federalists:
− Took opportunity to gain political ground when Federalists were divided. Hamilton
disagreed with Adams’s approach to foreign policy, wrote him a lengthy/scathing letter.
Jefferson got ahold of this, and reprinted it happily. (First ever sneaky screenshot?)
− Wanted to depart from their views. Was pro-democracy and very pro-farmer. Trusted that
they could make good/informed decisions.
• 1804, reelected. Began to reverse Federalist policies by turning away from urban commercial
development.
− Instead, urged to promote agriculture through sale of western public lands and
affordable lots.
Thomas Jefferson Pt. II

• Government Views
− Jefferson did NOT trust cities, industry, or anything related.
− Instead, valued hard-working farmers and wanted to build an “empire of liberty.”
− For the U.S. to become the food-production capital of the world, exporting agricultural
commodities.
− Championed rights of states and wanted limited federal government.
• Financial Views
− Championed limited internal taxing of the people.
− Pushed congress to end all internal taxing of the citizenry, including whiskey/rum taxes.
• Military Views
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− Federal budget for the military was too heavy, wanted to save money.
− Slashed the budget for the navy Adams worked to build up.
Thomas Jefferson Pt. III

• Louisiana Purchase, 1803 - western half of the Mississippi River basin purchased from France
by the United States; at less than three cents per acre for 828,000 square miles ($15 million), it
was the greatest land bargain in U.S. history. The purchase doubled the size of the United States,
greatly strengthened the country materially and strategically, provided a powerful impetus to
westward expansion, and confirmed the doctrine of implied powers of the federal Constitution.
• Jefferson enhanced his vision of an agrarian republic with farmers moving westward to claim
their new land.
• How did this come about?
− Spain gave New Orleans trade free to U.S., but sold the port to France in 1801.
− France began to charge, outraging many Americans.
− Jefferson sent delegates to negotiate for New Orleans deal on trade, came back with
proposition to buy the entire Louisiana Purchase.
• Napoleon was struggling to restore the French Empire to glory, and needed
finances. Emperor agreed to the sale in 1803 for quick money.
4. War of 1812
War of 1812

• War of 1812 - conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain over British violations
of U.S. maritime trading. It ended with the exchange of ratifications of the Treaty of Ghent.
− The war hawks, led by Henry Clay, did not tolerate the British insulting American honor.
Clamored for war!
− U.S. did not have the best time in the beginning, losing ground to British and Indian
allies, including a 1,000 man support army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee war chief and
leader of the Western Confederacy.
− Following year, the U.S. began to have several victories.
− With the Napoleonic Wars ending, Great Britain now had the manpower to divert soldiers
to North America to fight.
− By July 1814, 4,500 veteran British soldiers sailed up the Chesapeake Bay and burned
Washington D.C. to the ground, including the white house.
− After back & forth battles, a stalemate ensued. Americans stubborn for victory.
• Treaty of Ghent - signed in 1814, boundaries remained the same as before the war.
− Last battle by Andrew Jackson in New Orleans. Soundly defeated them, “Stonewall.”
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 9 Part V: Rise of Industrialization

PS/Michel Chevalier on Mill Worker Rules and Wages

In the 1830s, the French government sent engineer and economist Michel Chevalier to study industrial
and financial affairs in Mexico and the United States. In 1839, he published Society, Manners, and
Politics in the United States, in which he recorded his impressions of the Lowell textile mills. In the
excerpt below, Chevalier describes the rules and wages of the Lawrence Company in 1833.

“All persons employed by the Company must devote themselves assiduously to their duty during
working-hours. They must be capable of doing the work which they undertake, or use all their efforts to
this effect. They must on all occasions, both in their words and in their actions, show that they are
penetrated by a laudable love of temperance and virtue, and animated by a sense of their moral and social
obligations. The Agent of the Company shall endeavour to set to all a good example in this respect. Every
individual who shall be notoriously dissolute, idle, dishonest, or intemperate, who shall be in the practice
of absenting himself from divine service, or shall violate the Sabbath, or shall be addicted to gaming, shall
be dismissed from the service of the Company. . . . All ardent spirits are banished from the Company’s
grounds, except when prescribed by a physician. All games of hazard and cards are prohibited within their
limits and in the boarding-houses.”
Artisan to Wage Worker

• Artisans - skilled, experienced craft workers making high-quality goods that were produced by
hand and required years of service to master.
− Colonial times, masters would take on apprentices to study under them.
− After years of service and study, a young apprentice would become a journeyman (a
skilled worker without his own shop). After honing their skill enough, the master would
finally give him acknowledgement that his skill is surpassed by none and a new master
was created.
• Wage Work
− In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, merchants began to use wage labor
in order to reduce labor costs.
− Based on the British putting-out system
• Hiring farming families to perform specific tasks in the production process set at
a certain wage
Rise of Manufacturing

• By the late 1790s and early 1800s, Great Britain had the most advanced textile mills and
machines in the world.
• The United States continued to purchase goods, however hoped to eventually maintain
economic/industrial independence.
• Britain attempted to stop this from occurring, thus banning emigration of mechanics, skilled
workers, and machines from leaving the nation.
− Some skilled mechanics, like Samuel Slater, traveled to the U.S. in hopes of finding
greater profits and expanding personal business.
− He was a British migrant who brought plans of an English textile mill and built the
nation’s first successful water-powered mill in Pawtucket, Massachusetts.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

− He would eventually also become the founder of the first truly successful cotton mill in
the U.S.
• By 1807, thirteen more mills were established and increasing.
War Spurring Innovation

• Embargo of 1807 - was a general embargo on all foreign nations enacted by the United States
Congress against Great Britain and France during the Napoleonic Wars.
− Hurt American business profits.
• War of 1812 compounded the financial difficulties of American merchants.
• Led many to seek a future in manufacturing, which was less tied to trade.
• Boston Manufacturing Company
− Created by Francis Cabot Lowell after touring English mills and memorizing design
plans.
− Convinced wealthy merchant families to invest in his new mill, raised over $400,000 to
establish the textile mill in 1814.
− Deskilling - process of machines taking over labor from people and creating repetitive
steps in their job processes.
Rise of Consumerism

• End of eighteenth century

− Most American families lived by candlelight at home
− Bare floors with unadorned walls
− Cooked and warmed themselves by fireplace
− Owned few clothing items
− All manufactured items were made by hand, scarce, and expensive
• Nineteenth century
− Automation allowed once luxury items to become commonplace
− All could afford the small luxuries of life
− Rooms were lit by oil lamps
− Homes were heated by parlor stoves, allowing more privacy
− Iron cookstoves with multiple burners allowed for more elaborate meals
− Furniture, wallpaper, clocks, and wall adornments now available
PS/A New Englander Heads West

A native of Vermont, Gershom Flagg was one of thousands of New Englanders who caught “Ohio
fever.” In this letter to his brother, Azariah Flagg, dated August 3, 1817, he describes the hustle and bustle
of the emerging commercial town of Cincinnati.

“DEAR BROTHER, Cincinnati is an incorporated City. It contained in 1815, 1,100 buildings of different
descriptions among which are above 20 of Stone 250 of brick & 800 of Wood. The population in 1815
was 6,500. There are about 60 Mercantile stores several of which are wholesale. Here are a great share of
Mechanics of all kinds. Here is one Woolen Factory four Cotton factories but not now in operation. A
most stupendously large building of Stone is likewise erected immediately on the bank of the River for a
steam Mill. It is nine stories high at the Waters edge & is 87 by 62 feet. It drives four pair of Stones
besides various other Machinery as Wool carding &c &c. There is also a valuable Steam Saw Mill driving
four saws also an inclined Wheel ox Saw Mill with two saws, one Glass Factory. The town is Rapidly
increasing in Wealth & population. Here is a Branch of the United States Bank and three other banks &
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

two Printing offices. The country around is rich. . . .That you may all be prospered in the world is the
anxious wish of your affectionate Brother.” - Signed, GERSHOM FLAGG
Societal Class

• Middle Class
− Not all artisans could rise to the level of the elites.
− Many owned small factories, stores, and practices. A middle class was emerging.
− Fearing the treadmill of poverty, many strove to improve or maintain their middle-class
status through cleanliness, discipline, morality, hard work, education, and good manners.
− Their children did not work in factories, but attended school and self-improving
activities. Instead of children being used as labor, they were now invested in.
• The Working Class
− Most sought to emulate the middle class by keeping their wives and children out of the
workforce, their economic situation necessitated otherwise.
− Children might attend school for a few years to learn how to read & write, but not
long-term.
− Income from labor was of utmost importance.
Panic of 1819

• This economic crisis arose after the War of 1812, revolving around the Atlantic economy.
• Made worse by land speculation and poor banking practices.
• British textile mills consumed vast quantities of American cotton, the Napoleonic Wars made
Europe reliant on agricultural products, and this drove up the prices of food/cotton/tobacco.
− Resulted in “land fever.” - Due to increased prosperity, farmers expanded their acreage
through land purchases in order to expand their farms and businesses.
− When denied due to no credit history, new banks would approve the risky loans.
• Led to an economic bubble bursting in 1819 due to the compounded risky loans.
• The first economic depression experienced by the American public!
• Prices increased, agricultural products began to fall, overproduction led to reduced demand and
prices falling even further, etc.
− Crop prices fell by 75% or more. Led many farmers to go bankrupt.
• In response, Congress passed several acts modifying land sales. Land Law of 1820, Relief Act of
1821, and others. By 1823 the panc had ended, and economic recovery began.
HIST 11 (1389) Olivia Zhu

Ch. 10 Jacksonian Democracy

P