Research Article Vol. 4, No.

11 / November 2017 / Optica 1350

Measuring the complex orbital angular momentum

spectrum and spatial mode decomposition of
structured light beams
ALESSIO D’ERRICO,1 RAFFAELE D’AMELIO,1 BRUNO PICCIRILLO,1 FILIPPO CARDANO,1,* AND
LORENZO MARRUCCI1,2
1
Dipartimento di Fisica "Ettore Pancini", Università di Napoli Federico II, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant’Angelo, Napoli, Italy
2
CNR-ISASI, Institute of Applied Science and Intelligent Systems, Via Campi Flegrei 34, Pozzuoli (NA), Italy
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Received 6 June 2017; revised 8 September 2017; accepted 20 September 2017 (Doc. ID 297496); published 27 October 2017

Light beams carrying orbital angular momentum are key resources in modern photonics. In many applications, the
ability to measure the complex spectrum of structured light beams in terms of these fundamental modes is crucial.
Here we propose and experimentally validate a simple method that achieves this goal by digital analysis of the in-
terference pattern formed by the light beam and a reference field. Our approach allows one to also characterize the
beam radial distribution, hence retrieving the entire information contained in the optical field. Setup simplicity and
reduced number of measurements could make this approach practical and convenient for the characterization of
structured light fields. © 2017 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: (050.4865) Optical vortices; (260.6042) Singular optics; (230.6120) Spatial light modulators; (090.1970) Diffractive optics;
(070.0070) Fourier optics and signal processing; (060.2605) Free-space optical communication.

https://doi.org/10.1364/OPTICA.4.001350

1. INTRODUCTION transverse momentum (i.e., propagation direction) [37,38], and

In 1992, Allen et al. [1] showed that helical modes of light— quantum weak measurements [39].
paraxial beams featuring a helical phase factor e imϕ, where ϕ is the General structured fields are, however, not given by individual
azimuthal angle around the beam axis and m is an integer—carry helical modes, but can always be obtained as suitable superposi-
a definite amount of orbital angular momentum (OAM) along tions of multiple helical modes. Accordingly, a full experimental
the propagation axis, equal to mℏ per photon [2]. Important real- characterization of these structured fields can be based on meas-
izations of such optical modes include, for example, Laguerre– uring the complex coefficients (amplitude and phase) associated
Gauss (LG) [1] and Hypergeometric Gaussian beams (HyGG) with each mode appearing in the superposition for any given
[3], which share the typical twisted wavefront but differ in their choice of the mode basis. In general, this is not a trivial task,
radial profiles. Controlled superpositions of helical modes, pos- but several methods for the reconstruction of the complex spec-
sibly combined with orthogonal polarization states via spin-orbit trum associated with the OAM degree of freedom have been dem-
interaction [4,5], result in spatially structured beams that are onstrated thus far [24,28,29,33,35,36,40,41], possibly including
proving useful for a broad set of photonic applications [6] such also the radial mode spectrum reconstruction [31,32,37–39,
as classical and quantum optical communication [7–10], quan- 42–44]. It is worth noting that, once these complex coefficients
tum information processing [11–13], and quantum simulations are known, the complete spatial distribution of the electric field
[14,15]. The ability to experimentally ascertain the OAM values can be obtained and important properties such as beam quality
associated with individual helical modes represents a fundamental factor M 2, beam width, and wavefront are easily computed at any
requirement for all applications based on twisted light. Hitherto, propagation distance [40,45]. Inspired by previous works
this has been demonstrated by a variety of methods: exploiting [28,29,46,47] introducing Fourier analysis in this context, here
double-slit interference [16], diffraction through single apertures we present an approach to the measurement of a light OAM spec-
[17–20] or through arrays of pinholes [21], interference with a trum and, more generally, to spatial mode decomposition of struc-
reference wave [22,23], interferometers [24–26], OAM- tured light that may prove to be more practical than most
dependent Doppler frequency shifts [27–29], phase flattening alternatives. The OAM complex spectrum information is con-
and spatial mode projection using pitchfork holograms [30–32], tained in the intensity pattern resulting from the interference
q-plates [33,34], spiral phase plates [35] and volume holograms of the light beam with a known reference field (such as a
[36], spatial sorting of helical modes by mapping OAM states into Gaussian beam), and can hence be easily extracted by a suitable

2334-2536/17/111350-08 Journal © 2017 Optical Society of America

 Research Article Vol. 4, No. 11 / November 2017 / Optica 1351

processing of the corresponding images recorded on a camera. X

P2 X
K2
First, a Fourier transform with respect to the azimuthal angle leads As
r; ϕ; z  bp;m LGp;m
r; ϕ; z; (5)
to determining the complex coefficients associated with each pP 1 mK 1
OAM value as a function of the radial coordinate. Numerical in- where LGp;m
r; ϕ; z is the complete LG mode of integer indices p
tegration over the latter then allows one to use this information to and m (with p ≥ 0) as explicitly defined in Section 4, Methods,
determine the OAM power spectrum and, eventually, to decom- and P 1 and P 2 are positive integers defining the bounds for the
pose each OAM component in terms of radial modes, e.g., LG radial spectrum. The link between coefficients c m and bp;m is then
beams. Remarkably, all of the information associated with the spa- given by
tial mode decomposition, or with the OAM power spectrum, is Z ∞
contained in a few images whose number does not scale with the bp;m  rdrLGp;m
r; zc m
r; z; (6)
dimensionality of the set of detected helical modes. A unique 0
series of data recorded for the characterization of a given field where we introduced the radial LG amplitudes LGp;m
r; z 
is used for obtaining the decomposition in any basis of spatial LGp;m
r; ϕ; ze −imϕ , for which the ϕ dependence is removed.
modes carrying OAM (LG, HyGG, Bessel), as this choice comes The procedure we present here allows one to measure the com-
into play only at the stage of image analysis. plex quantities c m
r, or equivalently the coefficients bp;m . We
achieve this goal by letting the signal optical field interfere with
a reference wave E ref  Aref
r; ϕ; ze −i
ωt−kz having the same
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION polarization, frequency, wavelength, and optical axis of the beam
A. Description of the Technique under investigation, and whose spatial distribution is known. The
simplest choice for this reference is a Gaussian beam. At any plane
In the following, we limit our attention to the case of scalar optics,
transverse to the propagation direction, the intensity pattern I
as extension to the full vector field is simply obtained by applying
formed by the superposition of signal and reference beams is
the same analysis to two orthogonal polarization components.
(we omit the functional dependence on the spatial coordinates)
Considering cylindrical coordinates
r; ϕ; z, the electric field
amplitude associated with a monochromatic paraxial beam I  I s  I ref  I˜α : (7)
propagating along the z direction is given by
Here I s and I ref are the intensities corresponding to the sole signal
E s
r; ϕ; z; t  As
r; ϕ; ze −i
ωt−kz ; (1) and reference fields, respectively, while the term I˜α 
where ω is the optical frequency and k is the wave number. We 2 Re
e iα As Aref  corresponds to their interference modulation pat-
refer to E s as the signal field to distinguish it from the reference tern, α being a controllable optical phase between the two. The
beam that will be introduced later on. The information concern- interference modulation pattern can be experimentally singled out
ing the spatial distribution of the field is contained in the complex by taking three images, namely I, I ref (blocking the signal beam),
envelope As
r; ϕ; z. Being periodic with respect to the azimuthal and I s (blocking the reference beam), and then calculating the
coordinate ϕ, such complex function can be expanded into a sum difference I˜α  I − I ref − I s .
of fundamental helical modes e imϕ , carrying mℏ OAM per photon The interference modulation pattern is linked to the OAM
along the z axis [2], mode decomposition by the following expression:
X
X
K2 I˜α  2 jAref jjc m j cosmϕ  α  βm ; (8)
As
r; ϕ; z  c m
r; ze imϕ ; (2) m
mK 1
where βm
r; z  Argc m
r; z − ArgAref
r; z. By combining
where K 1 and K 2 are integer numbers representing the OAM two interference patterns obtained with α  0 and α  π∕2,
spectrum bounds of the field, respectively (they can also be one then gets
infinite in the case of unbounded spectra). Coefficients c m are X
I˜0 − i I˜π∕2  2 jAref jjc m je imϕβm  : (9)
defined in terms of the angular Fourier transform
Z m
1 2π
c m
r; z  dϕe −imϕ As
r; ϕ; z: (3) Finally, Fourier analysis with respect to the azimuthal coordinate
2π 0 allows one to determine the coefficients c m
r,
The probability P
m that a photon is found in the m-order Z 2π
1
OAM state is obtained from the coefficients c m by integrating c m
r; z  dϕ
I˜0 − i I˜π∕2 e −imϕ ; (10)
4πAref
r; z 0
their squared modulus along the radial coordinate,
Z which contains all the information associated with the spatial dis-
1 ∞
P
m  drrjc m
r; zj2 ; (4) tribution of the electric field.
S 0 The method just described is required for a full modal decom-
P R
where S  m 0∞ drrjc m
r; zj2 is the beam power at any trans- position and requires taking a total of four images (that is, I with
verse plane. The quantity P
m is also referred to as the OAM α  0 and α  π∕2, plus I ref and I s ), maintaining also a good
power spectrum, or spiral spectrum of the beam, and does not interferometric stability between them. However, for applications
depend on the longitudinal coordinate z because of OAM con- requiring the measurement of the OAM power spectrum only—
servation during propagation. A complete analysis of the field in that is, ignoring the radial structure of the field, and for which the
terms of transverse spatial modes is obtained by replacing e imϕ in OAM spectrum is bound from below (that is, there is a minimum
Eq. (2) with a complete set of modes having a well-defined radial OAM value)—there is a simplified procedure that is even easier
dependence, e.g., LG modes, and more robust (the case for which the spectrum is limited from
 Research Article Vol. 4, No. 11 / November 2017 / Optica 1352

above can be treated equivalently). In the case of beams contain-

ing helical modes with both positive and negative charges
[K 1 < 0 and K 2 > 0 in Eq. (2)], this usually requires having
the signal beam first pass through a spiral optical phase element,
described by the transfer factor e iM ϕ (this can be achieved with a
q-plate or a spiral phase plate with the appropriate topological
charge). If M > jK 1 j, the spiral spectrum of the beam after this
optical component will contain only modes associated with pos-
itive OAM values. If K 1 and K 2 have the same sign, this prelimi-
nary procedure can be skipped. Then, one can extract the
associated probabilities P
m by Fourier analysis of I˜0 only
[see Eq. (8)], with no need of also measuring I˜π∕2 , thus reducing
the number of required images to three and simplifying the setup.
We discuss this in detail in the final part of the paper.
B. Experimental Results
We demonstrate the validity of our technique by determining the
OAM spectrum and the radial profile of the associated helical
modes for a set of structured light fields. The setup is shown
in Fig. 1 and described in detail in the figure caption. Here, struc-
tured light containing multiple OAM components is generated by
means of q-plates, consisting essentially of a thin layer of liquid
crystals whose local optic axes are arranged in a singular pattern,
characterized by a topological charge q [48,49]. The way such a
Fig. 2. Experimental reconstruction of light OAM spectrum. We re-
port the experimental characterization of optical fields containing one
(a-b-c) and three (d-e-f ) helical modes, generated using a q-plate with
q  4 and δ  π or π∕2, respectively. In panels (g)–(j) we report the
experimental intensity patterns I ref , I s , I 0 and I π∕2 , respectively, obtained
when investigating the field generated by the q-plate with δ  π∕2.
Panels (a) and (d) show the OAM distributions in the two cases.
Error bars are calculated as three times the standard error. Panels (b),
(c) and (e), (f ) show the measured amplitude and phase profiles of
the non-vanishing helical modes that are present in the beam, where blue,
red and green colored points are associated with modes with
m  0; 8; −8, respectively. These results are compared with theoretical
simulations, represented as continuous curves with the same color
scheme adopted for the experimental results. For each value of m, we
plot normalized coefficients c˜m  c m ∕S m , where S m is the total power
Fig. 1. Sketch of the experimental apparatus. (a) A He–Ne laser beam associated with the helical mode. As expected from theory, a fraction
passes through a polarizer (P) and is spatially cleaned and collimated by of the beam is left in the fundamental Gaussian state, while an equal
means of an objective (Ob), a pinhole (ph) and a lens (L). A half-wave amount of light is converted into helical modes with m  8, both hav-
plate (HWP) and a polarizing beam splitter (PBS) are used in order to ing the radial profile of a HyGG−8;8 mode. Simulated profiles of Gaussian
split the beam into the signal and reference arms, whose relative inten- and HyGG modes correspond to w0  1.45 mm and z  30 cm, the
sities can be controlled by HWP rotation. Fields resulting from a com- latter being the distance between the q-plate and the camera. Error bars
plex superposition of multiple helical modes were obtained by using are smaller than experimental points.
q-plates and quarter-wave plates (QWPs), as shown in panels (b) and
(c). After preparing the signal field, we place a further sequence of a
QWP and a q-plate in case we need to shift the entire OAM spectrum.
The reference field is a TEM0;0 Gaussian mode. In the upper arm of the device modifies the spatial properties of a light beam is described
interferometer, by orienting the QWP at 0 or 90° with respect to the in detail in Section 4, Methods.
beam polarization we can introduce a α  0 or π∕2 phase delay between In Figs. 2(a)–2(c) and 2(d)–2(f ), we report the results of our
the signal and the reference field, respectively. The two beams are super- first experiment, consisting of the measurement of both ampli-
imposed at the exit of a beam splitter (BS) and filtered through a polar- tude and phase of coefficients c m
r of optical fields having
izer, so that they share the same polarization state. The emerging intensity one (m  8) and three (m  f−8; 0; 8g) different helical modes,
pattern is recorded on a CCD camera (with resolution 576 × 668). (b) A respectively, accompanied by the associated OAM power spec-
QWP oriented at 45° or 0, followed by q-plate with q  4 and δ  π or
trum [see Eq. (4)]. We generate such structured light by shining
δ  π∕2, is used for the generation of a light beam containing a single
mode (m  8) or three modes
m  −8; 0; 8, respectively. (c) two a q-plate with q  4 with a left-circularly (horizontally) polarized
q-plates with q  1 and q  1∕2 are aligned to generate spectra with Gaussian beam and setting the plate optical retardation δ to the
m ∈ −3; 3. (d) A set of more complex distributions was obtained by value π (π∕2), respectively (see Section 4, Methods). Our data
displacing laterally the centre of a q-plate (q  1 and δ  π) with respect nicely follows the results from our simulations, with some minor
to the axis of the impinging Gaussian beam. deviations that are due to imperfections in the preparation of the
 Research Article Vol. 4, No. 11 / November 2017 / Optica 1353

structured fields. In particular, in panel a, the small peaks centered

around m  −8 are related to the possible ellipticity of the polari-
zation of the Gaussian beam impinging on the q-plate, while a
small contribution at m  0 corresponds to the tiny fraction
of the input beam that has not been converted by the q-plate.
In panels b and e, the radial profiles used for our simulations
are those corresponding to the Hypergeometric-Gaussian modes
[3], the helical modes that are expected to describe the optical Fig. 4. Measure of shifted OAM power spectrum. OAM probability
field at the exit of the q-plate [50] (see Section 4, Methods, distributions are measured for two different optical fields, obtained when
shining a sequence of two q-plates with q 1  1 and q 2  1∕2 with hori-
for details). Error bars shown in our plots are those associated with
zontally polarized light. A further q-plate with q  4 shifts the final spec-
the variability in selecting the correct center r  0 in the exper- trum by M  8 units. (a) OAM spectrum for the case δ1  π and
imental images, which is identified as one of the main sources of δ2  π. (b) The same data are reported for a different field, obtained
uncertainty in the spectral results. They are estimated as three when δ1  π and δ2  π∕2. Error bars represent the standard error
times the standard deviation of the data computed after repeating multiplied by three.
our analysis with the coordinate origin set in one of 25 pixels that
surround our optimal choice. Other possible systematic errors,
such as, for example, slight misalignments between the signal
and reference fields, are not considered here. preparing it in a state of left-circular polarization. If M is large
Data reported in Fig. 2 prove our ability to measure the com- enough, i.e., higher than K 1 [see Eq. (2)], we have that
plex radial distribution of the field associated with individual hel- c
m ≠ 0 only if m > 0. This allows, in turn, using Eq. (8) to
ical modes in a superposition. For each of these, we can use our determine the OAM spectrum, instead of Eq. (9), which requires
results to obtain a decomposition in terms of a complete set of the measurement of I π∕2 also. At the same time, this approach is
modes. For a demonstration of this concept, we consider the field less sensitive to possible noise related to beam imperfections or
obtained when a left-circularly polarized beam passes through a slight misalignments, typically associated with small spatial
q-plate with q  4 and δ  π. The latter contains only a mode frequencies, that affect the lowest-order helical modes, as reported
with m  8, as shown in Figs. 2(a)–2(c). By evaluating the in- also in Refs. [28,29]. Let us note that once the beam passes
tegrals reported in Eq. (6), we determine the coefficients bp;8 through an optical element adding the azimuthal phase e iM ϕ ,
of a LG decomposition. For our analysis, we use LG beams with thanks to the conservation of OAM during free propagation,
an optimal waist parameter w̃0 (different from the one of the im- the associated power OAM spectrum is only shifted by M units,
pinging Gaussian beam), defined so that the probability of the that is, P
m → P
m  M . The radial distribution of individual
lowest radial index p  0 is maximal [51]. In Fig. 3, we plot helical modes, on the other hand, is altered during propagation,
the squared modulus and phase of the coefficients bp;8 determined that is, c m
r; z↛c mM
r; z. For this reason, this alternative pro-
experimentally, matching nicely the results obtained from cedure proves convenient only when determining the OAM prob-
numerical simulations. ability distribution, but cannot be applied to the reconstruction of
the full modal decomposition. In Fig. 4, we report the measured
C. Shifting the OAM Power Spectrum power spectrum of different fields containing helical modes with
As mentioned above, shifting the OAM spectrum of the signal m ∈ −3; 3 (see Section 4 (Methods) and the figure caption for
field may be used to simplify its measurement when reconstruct- further details on the generation of such complex fields), as de-
ing the radial profile is not needed. In our case, we let the signal termined by shifting the OAM spectrum by M  8 by means of a
field pass through a q-plate with q  M ∕2 and δ  π, after q-plate with q  4 and δ  π.
D. OAM Spectra for Displaced q-Plates
As a final test, we used our technique for characterizing more
complex optical fields, such as those emerging from a q-plate
whose central singularity is displaced with respect to the input
Gaussian beam axis [Fig. 1(c)]. In Fig. 5, we report the OAM
probability distributions obtained when translating a q-plate
(q  1, δ  π) in a direction that is parallel to the optical table,
with steps of Δx  0.125 mm. Our data are in excellent agree-
Fig. 3. Complete spatial mode decomposition in terms of LG beams. ment with results obtained from numerical simulations. In the
We consider the light beam emerging from a q-plate with (q  4, same figure, we show part of the associated total intensity patterns
δ  π), described by a HyGG−8;8 mode [50]. We evaluate the overlap I 0 [see Eq. (7)] recorded on the camera. In addition, for each
integral between the radial envelope c 8
r measured in our experiment at configuration, we show in Fig. 5 that the first- and second-order
z  30 cm and LGp;8 modes at the same value of z and characterized by moments of the probability distributions are characterized by
the optimal beam waist w̃0  w0 ∕3 [51], where w0 is the input beam
Gaussian profiles hmi  2q exp
−2x 20 ∕w20  and hm2 i 
waist. In panels (a) and (b) we plot the squared modulus and the phase of
the resulting coefficients (blue markers), respectively, showing a good

2q2 exp
−2x 20 ∕w20  [52]. Fitting our data so that they follow
agreement with the values obtained from numerical simulations (red 0 
the expected Gaussian distributions (red curves), we obtain wfit
markers). The phases of bp;8 with p equal to odd integers are absent 1.36 0.04 mm from hmi (panel g), and wfit 0  1.39
in the plot since the corresponding amplitudes are consistent with zero, 0.06 mm from hm2 i (panel h), which are close to the expected
that is smaller than the associated statistical uncertainties. value w0  1.45 0.18 mm.
 Research Article Vol. 4, No. 11 / November 2017 / Optica 1354

commonly used for the measurement of the phase profile of

optical waves, allowing for the measurement of the complex spa-
tial envelope As of the field [see Eq. (1)]. However, using this
information to obtain the decomposition in terms of a complete
set of helical modes [using Eqs. (3) and (6)], and, in turn, the
OAM power spectrum, has not been thoroughly explored before.
Furthermore, when interested in the spiral spectrum only, we
demonstrated that it is actually possible to retrieve the OAM dis-
tribution without measuring the complete field, making use of a
reduced number of measurements.
In our approach, the most general method requires taking four
images, including the intensity patterns of the signal beam, the
reference beam, and two interference patterns between them.
Information on the modal decomposition of the signal field is
then retrieved using a simple dedicated software. Since the spatial
mode decomposition is obtained during this post-processing pro-
cedure, the same set of images can be used to decompose a beam
in different sets of spatial modes. As demonstrated here, the ex-
perimental implementation of our approach requires a simple in-
terferometric scheme and minimal equipment. Hence, it may be
readily extended to current experiments dealing with the charac-
terization of spatial properties and OAM decomposition of
Fig. 5. OAM spectrum for a shifted q-plate. We measure the OAM structured light.
power spectrum at the exit of a q-plate (q  1, δ  π) shifted with re-
spect to the axis of the impinging Gaussian beam, which is left-circularly
polarized. The overall spectrum is shifted by M  8 units since we are 4. METHODS
using a further q-plate with q  4 and δ  π. However, we plot the A. Spatial Modes Carrying OAM
original OAM distribution associated with the signal field. (a)–
(f ) Experimental (green) and simulated (red) OAM power spectra when Using adimensional cylindrical coordinates ρ  r∕w0 and
the lateral shift is equal to aΔx, with a  1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and ζ  z∕z R , where w0 is the waist radius of the Gaussian envelope
Δx  0.125 mm, respectively. Error bars represent the standard error and z R the Rayleigh range, respectively, Laguerre–Gaussian LGp;m
multiplied by three. (g)–(i) Examples of the experimental intensity pat- modes have the well-known expression
tern I 0 used for determining the power spectra reported in panels (a), (c), sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi jmj
(e). The number of azimuthal fringes reveals that the OAM spectrum has 2jmj1 p! ρ
LGp;m
ρ; ζ; ϕ  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
been shifted. (j) and (k) First and second moment (hmi and hm2 i) mea- π
p  jmj!
1  ζ2  1  ζ2
sured as a function of the lateral displacement. Error bars are not visible
ρ2
−
because smaller than the experimental points.
×e 1ζ2 Ljmj
p
2ρ ∕
1  ζ 
2 2

ρ2
× e iζ1∕ζ e imϕ−i
2pjmj1 arctan
ζ ; (11)
E. Range of Detectable Helical Modes where Ljmj
p
x is the generalized Laguerre polynomial, p is a
Finite size of the detector area and the camera resolution impose positive integer, and m is the azimuthal index associated with
natural limitations to our approach that cannot be used to the OAM.
characterize helical modes with arbitrary values of m and radial When a Gaussian beam passes through an optical element that
profiles. Starting from these considerations, in Section 4, impinges on it a phase factor e imϕ, the outgoing field is described
Methods, we describe how to evaluate the bandwidth of detect- by a Hypergeometric-Gaussian mode HyGGp;m [3,50] with
able LG modes in terms of sensor area and resolution, and provide p  −jmj,
an explicit example for our specific configuration (associated data sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
are reported in Fig. 6). 21jmjp Γ
1  jmj  p∕2
HyGGp;m
ρ; ζ; ϕ 
πΓ
1  jmj  p Γ
1  jmj

3. CONCLUSIONS × i jmj1 ζp∕2
ζ  i−
1jmjp∕2

× ρjmj e −iρ
2 ∕
ζiimϕ
In this study we introduced a new technique for measuring the
OAM spectrum of a laser beam accompanied by its complete spa- × 1 F 1
−p∕2; jmj  1; ρ2 ∕
ζ
ζ  i;
tial mode decomposition in terms of an arbitrary set of modes that
carry a definite amount of OAM, such as LG beams or others. (12)
Based on the azimuthal Fourier analysis of the interference pat- where Γ
z is the Euler Gamma function and 1 F 1
a; b; z is the
tern formed by the signal and the reference field, relying on only a confluent Hypergeometric function.
few measurements, this approach allows one to readily extract the
information contained in both the radial and azimuthal degrees of B. Generating Structured Light Using q-Plates
freedom of a structured light beam. Standard interferometric A q-plate is formed by a thin layer of liquid crystals; the angle α
techniques, as reported for instance in Refs. [53,54], are describing the orientation of the optic axis of such molecules is a
 Research Article Vol. 4, No. 11 / November 2017 / Optica 1355

linear function of the azimuthal angle, that is, α
ϕ  α0  qϕ

(q is the topological charge, given by integer or semi-integer num-
bers). In our experiments, we set α0  0. In this case, the action
of the q-plate is described by the following Jones matrix (in the
basis of circular polarizations):
     
δ 1 0 δ 0 e −imϕ
Q̂
δ  cos  i sin ; (13)
2 0 1 2 e imϕ 0
where m  2q and δ is the plate optical retardation, controllable
by applying an external electric field [55]. It is worth noting that
the second term of Eq. (13) introduces the azimuthal dependence
associated with the OAM degree of freedom. When a left- or Fig. 6. Detectable LG modes. Different colors, as reported in the
right-circularly polarized Gaussian beam passes through a q-plate legend, indicate whether a specific LGp;m , in a transverse plane z 
with δ  π, positioned at the waist of the beam, the output beam 30 cm and with a beam waist w0  0.16 mm [w
z  30 cm →
is given by HyGG−jmj; m, respectively [50]. In our experiment, we 0.4 mm] can be resolved in our setup. These parameters correspond
to the ones used for the complete spatial decomposition of the
generated superpositions of several OAM modes using single or
HyGG beam generated by a q-plate (q  4, δ  π) in terms of LG
cascaded q-plates, characterized by specific values of q and δ that beams.
are reported in the figure captions.
C. Limitations on the Set of Detectable Spatial Modes
8
We briefly discussed in the main text that the finite size of the < r min < r 1
i
detector area and the finite dimension of sensor pixels impose r < r max
ii : (19)
certain restrictions on the features of the helical modes that : p
Λ > 2d
iii
can be resolved and correctly detected in our setup. Let us con-
sider the simple case wherein we want to decompose the signal Indeed, we are requiring (i) that the field is vanishing below the
field in terms of LGp;m modes and we want to evaluate the p, azimuthal aliasing threshold given by r min, (ii) that all the power
m-bandwidth of detectable modes. We consider only the case associated with the mode is contained in the sensor area, and
m > 0, since only the absolute value jmj is relevant to our dis- (iii) that the field radial oscillations have a spatial period such that
cussion. Consider a camera with N × N pixels, with pixel dimen- at least two pixels are contained in a single period, respectively
sions d × d (in our setup N  576 and d  9 μm). We define (radial aliasing limit). It is easy to check that in our configuration,
the following quantities: where the beam waist is w
z  0.4 mm, conditions (i) and (iii)
are always satisfied for the values of fp; mg that are solutions of
r max  d  N ∕2; (14) (ii), i.e., the limiting factor is only the dimension of the sensor
area. By solving such inequality, we get the relation
r min  md ∕π; (15)  2 2 
N d
p< − m − 1 ∕2: (20)
  4w2
z
2p  m − 2 − 1  4
p − 1
p  m − 11∕2 1∕2 In Fig. 6 we plot a colormap for a rapid visualization of detectable
r 1  w
z ;
2 modes. If we apply this analysis to the case of Fig. 3, in which a
(16) beam with m  8 is studied, we obtain that only radial modes
  with p < 16 can be detected. In general, for smaller values of
2p  m − 2  1  4
p − 1
p  m − 11∕2 1∕2 w
z, the determination of a detectable LG mode is more
r p  w
z ;
2 complex and requires the complete resolution of the system of
(17) inequalities system given in (19).

r˜p  w
zf2p  m  1g1∕2 : (18) Funding. H2020 European Research Council (ERC)
(694683 (PHOSPhOR)).
Here r max is the maximum radius available on the sensor; r min is
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