Q1. What is automation? Describe fixed, programmable and flexible automation.

Ans : Automation: Automation can be described as the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished
without human assistance or intervention. It is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a control system
that executes the instructions.

Automated manufacturing system can be classified into three basic types-

1. Fixed Automation 2. Programmable Automation 3. Flexible Automation

1. Fixed Automation: Fixed Automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operation is
fixed by the equipment configuration. Each operation is usually simple, involves perhaps a plain or linear rotational
movement/ motion or an uncomplicated combination of two, such as feeding of a rotating spindle. It is the
integration and coordination of many such operations in one piece of equipment that makes the system complex.
Typical features of fixed automation are-
i) High initial investment for customer-engineered equipment
ii) High production rates and
iii) Relatively in flexibility of the equipment to accommodate product variety.

The economic justification for fixed automation is favored in products that are produced in very large quantities and
at high production rates. The initial cost of the equipment can be spread over very large number of units, thus making the
unit cost attractive compared with attractive method of production. Example of fixed automation include machine transfer
lines and automated assembly machines.

2. Programmable Automation: In Programmable Automation, the production equipment is designed with the
capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations. The operation
sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted
by the system. New system can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products.
Some of the features that characterizes programmable automation include-
i) High investment in general purpose equipment
ii) Lower production rates than fixed automation
iii) Flexibility to deal with variation and change in product consideration.
iv) High suitability for batch production.

Programmable Automated production system are used in low and medium volume production. The parts or products
are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of a different product that corresponds to the new products. The
physical setup (tooling, fixtures, machine setting ) must also be changed. This changeover procedure takes time.
Consequently, the typical cycle for a given product includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming takes place
followed by a period in which parts in the batches are produced. Example of programmable automation includes
automatically controlled (N.C)machines industrial robots and programmable logic controllers.

3. Flexible Automation:
Flexible Automation is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible automated system is capable of
producing a variety parts (or products) with virtually no time lost for change over from one part style to the next.
There is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering the physical set up (tooling, fixtures,
machine setting ). Accordingly, the system can produce various mixes and schedules of parts or products instead of
requiring that they be made in batches. What makes flexible automation possible is that differences between parts
processed by the system are not significant. So the amount of changeover required between styles is minimum.

The features flexible automation include-

 i) High investment for customer-engineered equipment
ii) Continuous production of variable mixture of products.
iii) Medium production rates
v) Flexibility to deal with product design variations.

Example of flexible automation flexible manufacturing system system for performing machine operation.

Q2.Define a Robot. Name four basic robot configurations. Explain the four categories of robots.

Ans: An industrial robot is a programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or
special device through a variable programmed motion for the performance of a variety of tasks.

Four basic robot configurations are-

I)Polar configuration II) Cylindrical configuration III)Cartesian Co-ordinate configuration IV)Joint Arm configuration

The four categories robots are- 1.Polar Robot 2.Cylindrical Robot 3. Cartesian Co-ordinate Robot 4. Joint Arm Robot

1.Polar Robot :

It uses a telescopic arm that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot. The pivot is mounted on a rotating base.
These various joints provide the robot with the capability to move its arm within a spherical space and hence the name “
Spherical Co-ordinate “robot is sometimes applied to this type.
Ex- UNIMATE2000, MAKER110
2.Cylindrical Robot :
Cylindrical Robots uses a vertical column and a slide can be moved up or down along the column. The robot arm is
attached to the slide so that it can be moved radially with respect to the column By rotating. the column, the robot is capable
of achieving a workspace that approximates a cylinder.
3.Cartesian Co-ordinate Robot :

The Cartesian Co-ordinate Robot uses three perpendicular slides to construct the X, Y and Z axes. The other names are
sometimes applied to this configuration, including xyz robot and rectilinear robot. By moving the slides relative to one
another, the robot is capable of operating within a rectangular work envelope. Other names used for Cartesian Co-ordinate
Robot are “box” robot and “Gantry robot” and processes the appearance of a gantry-type crane.

4. Joint Arm Robot:

Its configuration is similar to that of the human arm. It consists of two straight components, corresponding to the human
forearm and upper arm, mounted on a vertical pedestal. These components are connected by two rotary joints
corresponding to the shoulder and elbow. A wrist is attached to the end of the forearm, thus providing several additional
joints.
Ex- SCARA(Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm)

Q3. What do you mean by open loop and close loop server system ? Illustrate with block diagrams.
Ans: Close loop Control system: A close loop control system, also known as a feed back control system, is one in
which the output variable is compared with an output parameter,, and any difference between the two is used to drive the
output into agreement with the input.

Close loop control system consists of six basic elements: 1) Input parameter, 2) Processor,3)Output variable ,, 4) Feed
back sensor , 5) Controller , 6) Actuator

The input parameter often referred to as the set point, represent the desired value of output. The process is the
operation or the function being controlled. In particular, it is the Output Variable, that is being controlled in the loop. A
Sensor is used to measure the output variable and close the loop between input and output. Sensor perform the feedback
function in a close loop control system. The Controller compares the output with the input and making the required
adjustment in the process to reduce the differences between them. The adjustment is accomplished using one or more
actuators, which are hardware devices that physically carry out the control actions, such as electric motors or flow valves.

Open loop Control system: In contrast to Closed loop Control system, an open loop Control system operates without
the feedback loop. In this case, control loop operates without measuring the output variable,, so no comparison is made
between the actual value of the output and desired input parameter. The controller relies on an actuate model of the effect
of its actuator on the process variable. With an open loop Control system,, there is always the risk that the actuator will not
have the intended effect on the process, and that is the disadvantage of an open loop system. Its advantage is that, it is
generally less expensive than a Close loop Control system. Open loop Control systems are usually appropriate when the
following conditions apply.

I)Actions performed by the control system are simple.

2)the actuating function is very reliable

3)Any reaction forces opposing the actuator are small enough to have no effect on the actuation.

Q.4. What are joint space and world space representation robots? What do you mean by forward
transformation a reverse transformation? Derive the relation for world and joint space representation of 3-
D manipulator .
Ans. In Joint space representation, the position of the end of the arm may be represented by two joint angles (θ1, θ2)
Pj=(θ1, θ2)
Another way to define the arm position is in “world space”. This involves the use of Cartesian co-ordinate system that is
external to the robot. The origin of the Cartesian axis system is often located in robot’s base. The end position would be
defined in world space as Pw=(x,y)

Going from joint space to world space is called forward transformation and going world space to joint space is called reverse
transformation.

Forward Transformation of 2-DOF Arm.

The position of the end of the arm in world space be determined by defining the vectors for link -1 and link- 2

r 1 = [ L1 cos θ1, L 2 sin θ1 ] ……………………….(1.1)

r2 = [ L2 cos (θ1+ θ2), L 2 sin (θ1+ θ2) ] …………..(1.2)

Vector addition of (1.1) and (1.2) yields the coordinates X and Y of the end of the arm ( point Pw) in world space,

X= d1 cos θ1 + d 2 cos (θ1+ θ2) ……………………..(1.3)

Y= d1 sin θ1 + d 2 sin θ1+ θ2) ………………………..(1.4)

Pw =(x,y)= [ d1 cos θ1 + d 2 cos θ1+ θ2) , d1 sin θ1 + d 2 sin θ1+ θ2) ]

Reverse Transformation of 2-DOF Arm

Considering θ2 to be positive.

Using the trigonometric identities

Cos(A+B)= CosA CosB-SinASinB and Sin(A+B)=SinA Cos B+ CosA SinB

We can rewrite equations (1.3) and (1.4) as

X= d1 cos θ1 + d 2 cos θ1 cos θ2- d2 sin θ1 sin θ2

Y= d2 sin θ1 + d 2 sin θ1 cos θ2+d2 cos θ1 sin θ2

Squaring and adding above two equations, we get,, Cos θ2=(x2+y2-d12-d22) / 2 d1 d2 …………(1.5)

Defining α and β as in fig, we get tan α=P/b= d2 sin θ2 / d1 + d 2 cos θ2 …………………………….(1.6)

tan β=y/x

Using the trigonometric identity, tan (A-B)= tanA-tanB /1+tanA tanB

tan θ1= tan(β- α)= tan α - tan β /1+tan α tan β

Knowing the link length d1 and d2, we can calculate the required joint angles (θ1, θ2) to place the arm at a position (x,y) in the
world space.

3 –DOF in 2D

Forward transformation:

The position and orientation of the end effector in world space can be determined from joint and link parameter by the
following equations, X3 = d1 cos θ1 + d 2 cos ( θ1 + θ2)+d3 cos ( θ1 + θ2+ θ3)

Y3 = d1 sin θ1 + d 2 sin ( θ1 + θ2)+d3 sin ( θ1 + θ2+ θ3) and ψ=( θ1 + θ2+ θ3)

Reverse transformation:

It can be written

X2 = X3- d3 cos ψ= d 1 cos θ1 + d2 cos ( θ1 + θ2) ……..……..(1)

Y2 = Y3- d3 sin ψ= d 1 sin θ1 + d2 sin ( θ1 + θ2)…………………(2)

Squaring and adding (1) and (2)

X2 2+Y2 2= d 1 2 + d2 2 + 2 d 1 d2 [ cos θ1( cos θ1 cos θ2 - sin θ1 sin θ2) + sin θ1(sin θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ2 cos θ1)

= d 1 2 + d2 2 + 2 d 1 d2 [ cos θ2( cos θ12 + sin θ22. ) – cos θ1 sin θ1 sin θ2 + cos θ1sin θ1 sin θ2

= d 1 2 + d2 2 + 2 d 1 d2 cos θ2

; . cos θ2 = [X2 2+Y2 2 – d 1 2 – d2 2] / 2 d 1 d2

Substituting the values of θ2 in (1) and (2), we obtain value of θ1. Finally the value of θ3 can be determined by using the following
relation

θ3 = ψ-( θ1 + θ2)

Q5. What is the function of a controller? Describe different types of controller.

Ans: The purpose of the controller is to compare the actual output of the plant with the input command and to provide a control signal
which will reduce the error to zero or as close to zero as possible.

The six controller types are:

1.On-off Control: In the on-off controller, the elements provides only two levels of control, full on of full off. An example of a common
implementation of this type of controller is the household thermostat. If the error which is present at the controller is e(t) and the control
signal which is produced by the controller is M(t), then the on-off controller is represented by,

M(t)=M 1 for e(t)>0

= M 2 for f(t)<0 where either M1 or M2 is zero.

2.Proportional control:In cases where a smoother control action is required a proportional controller may be used. Proportional control
provides a signal that is proportional to error. Essentially it acts as an amplifier with a gain Kp.

Its action is represented by, M(t)= Kp e(t)

The transfer function by using Laplace Transformation would be

Where Kp = proportional gain. Error can be reduced to zero but cannot be opened at high speed.

3.Integral control:

Integral controller change the control signal at a rate proportional to the error signal. That is, if the signal error is large, the control signal
increases rapidly; if it is small the control signal increases slowly. This may be represented by

M(t)=Ki ∫e(t) dt Where Ki= integrator gain.

The corresponding transfer function is,

4.Proportional-plus-Integral control :

A proportional controller is incapable of counteracting a load on the system without an error . An integral controller can provide zero
error but usually provides slow response one way to over this is with P-J controller to counteract the load as well as the faster
response to reduce error to zero. This is represented by,

M(t)=kp e(t)+ki ∫e(t) dt where kp=Proportional gain, ki=Integral gain

The transfer function is,

M(s)=kp E(s)+ki/s .E(s)

5.Proportional-plus-derivative control :

Derivative control action provides a control signal proportional to the rate of change of the error signal. Since this would generate no
output unless the error is changing, it is rarely used alone.

The P-D controller is represented by

And the transfer function is

6.Proportional-plus- Integral –plus-derivative control :

P-I-D control is most general control type and probably the most commonly used type of controller. It t provides quick response, good
control of system stability and low steady-state error.

The P-I-D controller is represented by

And the transfer function is

Q6. What is an end-effector ? Describe briefly vacuum and magnetic type grippers.
Ans: An effector is a device that attaches to the wrist of the robot arm and enables the general purpose robot to perform a specific task.

Types of end –effectors are 1.Grippers and 2. Tools

1.Grippers: Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and hold objects. The objects are generally work parts that are to be moved by the robot.
Grippers can be Single or multiple grippers and External or internal grippers.

2.Tools:Tools are end effectors designed to perform work on the part rather than merely grasp it. By definition, the tools end effector is attached to
the robot’s wrist. One of the most common application or industrial robot is spot welding in which the welding electrodes constitute the end effector of
the robot. Other examples of robot applications in which tools are used as end effectors include spray painting, arc welding etc.

Vacuum grippers: Vacuum cups, also called suction cups, can be used as gripper devices for handling the objects which are flat, smooth and
clean, conditions necessary to form a satisfactory vacuum between the object and the suction cup.

The vacuum pump and the venture are two main devices used for removing the air between the cup and the part surface to create the vacuum.
The vacuum pump is a piston operated or vane driven device powered by an electric motor,, capable of creating a relatively high vacuum. The
venture is a simple device and can be driven by means of “shop air pressure”

Magnetic grippers:
Magnetic grippers can be divided into two types a) Permanent Magnet gripper b) Electro Magnetic grippers

Electromagnetic grippers are easier to control, but require a source of dc power and an appropriate controller unit. As with any other robotic gripper
device, the parts must be released at the end of the handling cycle, which is easier to accomplish with an electromagnet than with a permanent
magnet.

Permanent Magnets have the advantage of not requiring external power source to operate the magnet. However, there is loss of control that
accompanies this apparent advantage. When the part is to be released at the end of the handling cycle, some means of separating the part from the
magnet must be provided. The device which accomplishes this is called a stripper or stripping device. Its function is to mechanically detach the parts
from the magnet.

Q.7 Define a transducer and a sensor. Name different types of sensors. Discus uses of sensors in
robotics. What is a tactile sensor? Discus one type. What is a proximity sensor? Discus one type
Ans: Transducer:
 A Transducer is a device that converts one type of physical variables ( e.g. force, pressure, temperature, velocity, flow rate etc into
another form like electrical voltage. The reason for making the conversion that the converted signal is more convenient to use and
evaluate.

Sensor:

A sensor is a transducer that is used to make a measurement of a physical variable of interest. E.g. thermocouple (temperature)
, speedometer (velocity) etc.

Transducer and sensor can be classified into two basic types depending on the form of the converted signal:-

1.Analog sensor and 2. Digital sensor

1.Analog sensor: Analog sensors provide a continuous analog signal as electrical voltage or current. The signal can be interpreted as
the value of physical variable that is being measured.

2. Digital sensor: Digital sensor produce a signal output, either in the form of a set of parallel status bits or a series of pulses that can
be counted.

Use of sensors in robotics:

I) Safety monitoring and protection of human workers who work in the vicinity of the robot and other equipments.

ii) Interlocks in work-cell control. If work is done in several sequences then if after 1 st sequence robot is interlocked (stopped) and
human verify whether the 1st operation is perfect or not.

iii) Part inspection for quality control

Iv) Determining positions and related information about the object in the work-cell.

Tactile sensor:

Tactile sensors are devices which indicate contact between themselves and some other solid object. They are two types- i) Touch
sensors, ii) Force sensors

i)Touch sensors : Touch sensors are used to indicate that the contact has been made between two objects without regard to the
magnitude of the contacting force.

In the simplest arrangement, a switch is placed on the inner surface of a finger of the manipulator hand.

ii) Force sensors : Force sensors indicate not only that contact has been made with the object but also the magnitude of
contact between the two objects.

Force sensing in robotics can be accomplished in several ways. A common used technique is a “ force sensing wrist”. This
consists of a spiral load cell mounted between the gripper and the wrist.
Another technique is to measure the torque being exerted each joint. This is usually accomplished by sensing Motor current
for each of the joint motors.

Finally the third technique is to form an array of force elements so that the shape and other information about the contact
surface can be determined.

Proximity sensors:
Proximity sensors are device that indicates when one object is close to another object. The distances can be anywhere
between several millimeters and several feet depending upon the minimum distance required to activate the sensor on the
particular device.

A variety of technologies are available for designing proximity sensors. These technologies include optical device,
acoustics, electrical field techniques ( eg. Eddy currents and magnetic fields) and others.

Optical Proximity sensors:

Optical approach for proximity sensing involves the use of a colliminated light beam and a linear array os light sensors. By
reflecting the light beam off the surface of the object, the location of the object can be determined from the position of its
reflected beam on the sensor array.

The formula for the distance between the object and the sensor is :

x=0.5y tan A where x= distance of the object from the sensor,

y= the lateral distance between the light source and the reflected light beam against the linear array,

A= the angle between the object and the sensor array.

Q8. Discus industrial application of robots.