INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic machine that has ability to accept data (or
information) as input, internally store and automatically execute a program of
instructions, perform mathematical and logical operations on the data (or
information), and report the results as output. It can also be defined as an
electronic machine that accepts information/data, stores it until the
information is needed, processes the information according to the instructions
provided by the user, and finally returns the results to the user. Computers
has become an indispensable tool in the office, home, or school. Two of the
things that give a computer its flexibility are its memory and its ability to De
programmed.

Features
Ø It is an electronic machine.
Ø It has ability to accept input.
Ø It has ability to process data.
Ø It has ability to store information.
Ø It has ability to give out results of computation.
Ø It acts under the control of stored program
Computers can also do the following:
Ø Arithmetic operations (+, -, *, I)
Ø Logical comparisons of relationships among values (<, >, =)
Ø Storage and retrieval of information.

Attributes of Computer:
Speed & complexity of operation: Computer is a very fast device. It
carry out instructions at a very high speed. Its speed is measured in MHz-one
million instructions per second. No matter how complex, its speed is not
negotiated
Accuracy: its accuracy, though dependent on the instructions and
processor types, it produces solutions to all problems accurately.
Versatility-the multi-processing features of the computer makes it very
versatile in nature. Different tasks can be performed with same ease and
accuracy.
Reliability: Computers never make mistakes on their own. They are very
reliable
Recalling information stored: It remembers stored information or data.
Storage- It can store a very large volume of data both in the Primary
and secondary storage devices of the computer. It can also retrieve the date
 Sharing same data: it has the capability of using same data for different
processing by a number of different people. Note that Computers do
whatever human instruct (programme) it to do.

Advantages of Computers
One can write more effectively by means of a computer. There are tools like
spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus and dictionary, installed in the
computer. Thus, it takes less time to proofread a written document and also,
there is no need to open up a dictionary book to look for meanings of words.
Typing is much faster than writing on a paper. If there is a need for
reorganizing the sentences or paragraphs, one can cut and paste and make
the necessary changes. Thus, overall a computer allows the user to create
documents, edit, print, and store them so that they can be retrieved later.
Using a computer, one can remain connected to the world through Internet.
Internet is a network of computers that communicate via the Internet Protocol
Suite (TCPIIP). The World Wide Web (WWW) or simply web is a huge
resource of information that can be accessed via the Internet. To mention a
few of the resources, there are electronic mail (e-mail), file transferring and
sharing, online chat, and gaming. The Internet allows people from around the
world to share knowledge, ideas, and experiences in any field. But, there are
both advantages and disadvantages of Internet. E-mail is a method of
communication used globally, between friends, colleagues, business
partners, and so on. The electronic mail is provided with a system of creating,
storing, and forwarding mails. It may consist of text messages with
attachments of audio-visual clips. One can also download or upload files
using the Internet. There are also facilities like online chatting available on the
Internet. As compared to telephonic conversation, both e-mail and online chat
are cost saving. Online gaming is another important resource of the WWW.
Many online games are available, which are of common interest for any age
group.
Right from banking to investment, a user can accomplish the task by sitting
within the comfort zone of his/her home. With this, one no longer needs to
stand in the line for money withdrawing, depositing, or conducting other
transactions. The same facility is available for making investments. In
addition, one can read current news, check weather conditions, plan
vacations, and make hotel and travel reservations, find out about diseases
and treatment methods, learn about specific countries and their cultures, seek
jobs, etc. via the Internet. If the computer has Internet connection, one can
shop and that too in discounted rates. The purchased products will be
delivered to the provided address, thus saving both time and money.
Nowadays, computers are widely used for education and training purposes.
In schools, computer education has been made compulsory to spread
awareness about computers. As a matter of fact, computers have become a
learning tool for children. Indeed, a student can use the PC as a storage
system for many books. Also, there are many universities that provide online
degrees, which are very advantageous for those people staying in the remote
areas and for the disabled. In fact, online education is one of the most flexible
and convenient forms of learning. One can take the benefit of such online
degree programs staying at home without the need of relocation. Computers
are also used for training purposes. Many companies use them to train their
staffs.

Ø It has the ability to store large amount of data & information

Ø High speed of operation - it is a fast machine
Ø Very accurate
Ø Reliable
Ø Efficient
Ø Automatic processing. Once data is input, all data processing activities
are automatic under the control of the internally stored program.

Disadvantages
Ø initial cost of installation is high
Ø it is prone to breaking down, therefore, there is the need to obtain
standby facilities.

Vulnerability of Computer System

This section examines the various sub-systems of a computer that are
vulnerable in the event of computer crime and frauds. Table below depicts a
list of common vulnerable components of computer systems:

FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

Computers are machines which perform simple operations, but are capable of
doing these with great speed and accuracy. A computer system depends on
its hardware, software and people ware for effective performance.

Components of a Computer System

A computer system comprises of hardware and software. They go hand in
hand. One cannot have one without the other.

HARDWARE: The physical devices of a computer are known as hardware.

Examples include CPU, and peripheral devices such as keyboard, mouse
printer, speaker and scanner.

Hardware Components of a Computer System

Most computer systems consist of inter-connected hardware components that
form a computer system. A computer is a system of hardware devices
organized to perform five basic functions: input, processing, output, storage
and control. Thus, a computer system consists of:
Ø Input
Ø Output
Ø CPU consisting of Memory, ALU and Control
Ø Secondary/External/ Auxiliary / Backing storage.

Input Unit: This is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a
computer. It is a means of communication between user and the computer.
A computer would be useless without some way for you to interact with it
because the machine must be able to receive your instructions and deliver
the results of these instructions to you. Input devices accept instructions and
data from the user. Some popular input devices are: Keyboard, Mouse,
Scanner, Microphone, CD-ROM, Joystick, etc.

Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the
keyboard on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has
special keys:
· The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions
depending on where they are used.
· The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards,
allows you to enter numbers quickly.
·The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your
position within a document or webpage.
You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can'
perform with a mouse.

Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer
screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a
bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit
by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.
A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button)
and a secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two
buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through .screens of information.
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves
in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on
where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you
point to the item and then click (press and release) 'the primary button.

Monitor: This is the TV set like equipment on which computer displays

information. A user moves the mouse on a computer to control the position of
the cursor to allow selection of a command and for drawing.
Touch Screens: The user touches the screen, with a finger or a pointer to
make a selection Digital Scanners: Translate images such as pictures or
documents into digital form. Terminals: Data can be entered directly into the
computer via a data entry terminal. Keyboard: Like a type-writer
Voice input devices: Compare electrical patterns produced by the speaker
voice to a set of pre-recorded patterns and accepts the sounds when a
pattern is recognized.
The primary media used for computer input are:
Ø punched cards
Ø magnetic tape
Ø magnetic disks

The appropriate input machines are:

Ø The keypunch/card reader
Ø key - to - tape machine (punch a reader)
Ø key - to - disk machine (punch a reader) .
The key-to-magnetic media offer several advantages over traditional punched
- card input; even though key-to-magnetic systems are more costly than
punched card systems.

ON-LINE connections to the computers can be obtained through terminals

and keyboards. Data entry has traditionally been the weakest link in the chain
of data processing operation. Even when data can be processed
electronically at extremely high speeds these days, significantly more time is
required to prepare and enter it into the computer system. SOURCE-DATA
AUTOMATION is an approach to data collection and preparation that
substantially reduces preparation time. This process collects data about an
event in computer readable form, when and where the work takes place. By
eliminating the intermediate steps used in preparing card input, Source -data
information improves the speed, accuracy, and efficiency of data - processing
operation. It is mostly implemented by machines e.g. Magnetic-ink character
reader (MICR), Optical mark reader (OMR), etc. Examples of input devices:
Ø Card reader
Ø Magnetic tape reader
Ø Magnetic disk reader
Ø Terminals (keyboard) for direct data entry
Ø Scanners (MICR, OMR)
Ø Light pen, mouse, digitizer, Wand reader (Point of Scale) and touch
sensing (or graphics).

Output Unit: This unit allows computers to communicate with users. Output
device are as listed below:
Printers: Produce printed copy of information. This kind of output is known as
Hard-copy output.
Terminals: For showing the output on a screen. It is TV -like. The output by a
terminal is known as soft-copy.
Plotters: For drawing computer output
Voice Output Devices: Convert digital output into intelligible speech.
Output machines are necessary for communicating computerized results from
the computer to the user. Just as in the case of input, the efficiency of the
output machines has a significant influence on the efficiency of the computer
system. PRINTERS constitute the most popular output device for a computer.
They serve a basic function out of which printing processed data in a form
human can read. This permanent, readable copy of computer output is
termed HARD COPY. Various types of printers exist:

Impact Printers
Ø Dot - matrix printer (or wire - matrix printer) ~ Daisy - wheel printer
Ø Chain printer
Ø Drum Printer.

Non-Impact Printers
These constitute a new development, and they use laser technology, or
photographic techniques to print output.
Ø Electrostatic Printer
Ø Electro- Thermal Printer
Ø Ink - Jet Printer
Ø Laser Printer
Ø Xerographic Printer.
Visual Display Terminals (VDT) are output devices that display data on
cathode-ray tubes. VDTs supply only SOFT Copy output.

The Register
Registers are group of flip-flops use to store data within the Central
Processing Unit. Examples of registers within the CPU include Accumulator
(ACC), Program Counter, Instruction Decoder, Instruction Register, Stack
Pointers, Etc.

The Memory Unit

It is the part of the Computer where data and instructions are stored in digital
form. It can also serve for the storing of intermediate and final results of
operations performed by the ALU. A computer must have a means of storing
information (data) and instructions so that it can perform processing tasks on
the data. Secondary Storage Devices include Hard disk, Floppy disk, Tape
drive, and CD-ROM. Typical storage device are discussed below.

That be as it may, memory could be grouped as Primary, Main or Internal. It

stores data and programs during processing, it stores data and programs
temporarily. It is inside the CPU area, it is volatile, expensive & intended for
short-term storage.
External Memory: This is known as Secondary, Auxiliary, or Mass storage. It
refers to long-term storage of data outside the CPU. It allows a computer to
permanently retain large amounts of information and data. It is non-volatile,
not expensive but much slower than primary memory. Examples are
Magnetic disk, magnetic tape, optical disks e.g. CD-ROM.
The following are the most common hardware in a desktop computer system.
Your system may be a little different, but it probably has most of these parts.
A lap top computer has similar parts but combines them into a single
notebook-sized package. A computer system consists four components
namely: Input, Storage, Processing, Output devices

(i) Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a small area of memory that provides start-up instructions when the
computer is turned on. You cannot store any data In ROM. The instructions in
ROM are set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed by the user. The
last instruction in ROM directs the computer to load the operating system.
Every computer needs an operating system. This is a special computer
program that must be loaded into memory as soon as the computer is turned
on. Its purpose is to translate the instructions in English into Binary so that the
computer can understand your instructions. The operating system also
translates the results generated by your computer into English when it is
finished so that we can understand and use the results. The operating system
comes with a computer.
(ii) Random Access Memory (RAM)
This is the area of memory where data and program instructions are stored
while the computer is in operation. This is temporary memory. NOTE: The
data stored in RAM is lost forever when the power is turned off. For this
reason it is very important that you save your work before turning off your
computer. This is why we have peripheral storage devices like your
computer's hard disk, floppy diskettes and USB flash etc.
(iii) Permanent Memory (Auxiliary Storage)
Files are stored in permanent memory only when saved to disk in a drive or
saved to computer's hard disk, Drive c: Also work can be saved to a network
drive.
(iv) Hard disk drive
Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid
platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can
hold massive amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's
primary means of storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The
hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.
(v) CD and DVD drives
Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually
located on the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve)
data from a CD, and many CD drives can also write (record) data onto COs.
CD-R: A CD-Recordable drive can put data onto a disk in just one session,
and then is "closed" one "burn" only - you can't add to it after you create it.
CD-RW: A CD-Rewritable drive can be written onto more than once - similar
to a floppy or hard disk.
DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disk - Read-Only Memory)
CD's, CD-R's, CD-RW's, and DVD's all look the same. One must read the
label to determine the media type. Both CD's and DVD's are optical storage
media. Optical technology uses a laser or light beam to process information.
USB Flash Drive: These can hold documents, pictures, and music. Some
flash drives are also MP3 players.
(vi) Floppy disk drive
Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or
diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small
amount of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are. more
prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than
they used to be, although some computers still include them.

System unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. It is made up of two parts:
Hardware and Software. A computer system is a rectangular box placed on
your desk; or a tower case system usually placed on the floor beside your
desk or a mini tower case system usually placed underneath your desk.
Inside this box are many electronic components that process information. The
most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or
microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another
component is random access memory (RAM), Which temporarily stores
information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information
stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off. Almost every other
part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables
plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit.
Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral
device or device.

COMPONENTS OF A CPU
Central procession unit has three main components: the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU), the control unit and the memory. These parts are interconnected by
buses, often made of groups of wires.
Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits
which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit
represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it
represents a “1”, and when off it represents a “0” (in positive logic
representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more
of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware
closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit
(CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since
the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated
circuit called a microprocessor.

CONTROL UNIT
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages
the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the
program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which
activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers
may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special
memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next
instruction is to be read from.
The control system's function as follows, note that this is a simplified
description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a
different order depending on the type of CPU:
1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the
program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands
or signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or
perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically
stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete,
instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register
or perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory
cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to
the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a
place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify
the program counter are often known as “jumps” and allow for loops
(instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional
instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to
process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and
indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet
smaller computer called a micro sequencer, which runs a microcode
program that causes all of these events to happen.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and
logic. The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be
limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division,
trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can
only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to
represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer
that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed
to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can
perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any
arithmetic operation although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does
not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and
return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal
to, greater than or less than the other (“is 64 greater than 65?”).
Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can
be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing
boolean logic.
Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process
several instructions simultaneously.[53] Graphics processors and computers
with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic
on vectors and matrices.

DATA PROCESSING - PRINCIPLES, CONCEPT & DEFINITION

At present computers are designed to operate with minimal operator

intervention. However, there are occasions when the supervisor would want
the operators to perform certain tasks. Similarly, there are occasion when the
operator may need information from the system. A common way for the
system to communicate with the operator is for it to print out its requests on
the operator's console or on a console typewriter.
The supervisor may request the operator to perform various tasks such
as:
v Typing in the current date on the console typewriter in the morning, so
that the date of run can appear on the listings produced on the printing that
day;
v Mounting of a specific tape that contains the file required for the
processing of a specific programme.
Certain errors may occur that required the operator's intervention. The
supervisor will then request the operator to key in, on the console typewriter,
the appropriate action that should take.

Batch System
In a batch processing environment, all the programmes from the various
'users are collected and fed into the computer later by the operator one after
the other and are thus executed in sequence. With this arrangement,
programmers no longer have to run their own programmes by themselves. As
a result, the user may have to wait for hours or even days before getting
computer response.
The Computer has to run a complete programme without stopping so
that the other programmes have to wait for long periods before gaining
access to the computer. And if there is a bug in the programme, the job may
be shorted and will have to be resubmitted after correction.
It should be noted that in a batch processing system not only is data for
a given application accumulated into batches but also a number of different
application are accumulated into batches. They are then processed
periodically according to a predetermined schedule for the efficient use of the
computer system.

ON-LINE PROCESSING SYSTEMS

The term on-line pertains to equipment or devices in direct
communication with the Central Processing Unit (CPU). An on-line system
may therefore be define as a computer-based system capable of processing
information through peripheral devices under the control of the CPU and in
which information reflecting current activity is introduced into the system as
soon as it occurs.

REAL-TIME SYSTEMS
A real-time processing system is an on-line system with quick response
capability. Such a system has the capability of accessing and updating
computer files using terminal equipment quickly enough to affect decision
making. Here input data are processed as it become available, regardless of
the order in which the data arrives. '
A typical example of the real-time system is an airline reservation
system. This is a real time application, where customer can request airline
information and receive responses quickly enough to make a decision
concerning the reservation of an airplane seat.

Characteristics of real-rime systems

A real time system has the following characteristics:
1. Information is maintained on-line and stored either in memory or in
random access files attached directly to the computer. Data can be efficiently
processed in any sequence as they become available.
2. The system communicates with the user in an interactive and dynamic
manner with fast response.
3. The Computer can be interrogated from remote terminals.
4. Records are updated as events occur, not accumulated (hatched) and
periodically updating.
5. Real time systems are larger, costlier, and more complex that batch
systems.
6. Real time systems have capability of multi-programming ( ) more than
one programme segment in memory at a time), allow for many simultaneous
activities, react to random sequences of inputs, and service a multitude of
interrupts.
7. Real-time inquiry systems are especially useful to organizations such as
banks, brokerage firms, hotels and airline, where prompt servicing of
customer's enquiries is of primary importance.

TIME-SHARING SYSTEMS
Time-sharing may be defined as a situation where many users have
simultaneous conversational interaction with a single computer system or as
an orderly organization of computers and communication equipment
(hardware) and specialized programming (software) that permits concurrent
utilization of the facility by a large number of users working at remote on-line,
typewriter like terminal.
In a time-sharing environment, each user is able to enter his programme at
any time and form any terminal and can expect the computer to react and
reply instantaneously.
To process a job, the user transmits his number (pass word) through the
terminal. The communication controller received and identified the user as a
legitimate paying customer and connects the user to the CPU.
The user now has access to the CPU which processes the programmes in
accordance to a predetermined algorithm.

The characteristics of a time-sharing system

The general characteristics of a time-sharing system are:
1. Each user has one or more terminals connected to the CPU by data
communication lines.
2. Each user acts independently of the others sharing they system. A user
may enter, modify or execute programmes within minutes and may receive
error messages during programme entry and execution. The user may also
enter date.
3. The supervisory programme keeps track of the work each user is doing
and determines the order in which terminals are served. The functions of the
"Supervisor" may include:
* scheduling of users requests;
* transferring control of CPU form one users to another;
* swapping of programmes between main memory and secondary
memory and
* managing the users private files.
4. Each user may develop his own set of programmes or may utilize
standard routine. provided by the time-sharing service.
5. Each user's files are uniquely identified and are accessible only to him
through the use of passwords.
Advantages of time-sharing
Time-sharing allows many users to run their programmes
simultaneously improves man-machine interface, and provides better and
more efficient solutions to most problems.
From the user's point of view, the advantages of time-sharing system
may include the following:
1. Economy: Substantial company fund need not be committed to a
separate system.
2. Fast Response: The conversation/interactive mode of processing
means that the users can design, change, and correct their programmes with
the assistance of the system and will receive answers very quickly.
3. Simplified Learning: Learning how to operate the terminal is simplified.
4. Privacy of the User's Data Files: Each user's files are uniquely identified
and are accessible to only him through the use of specific instructions (or
password).

Main disadvantages of time-sharing system

The following are some of the draw backs of a time-sharing system:
1. Speed: The performance of a time sharing system deteriorates at a
rapid rate with increase in the number of users. Most systems show
noticeable sluggishness especially when handling difficult scientific
computations.
2. Security: The user of passwords does not seem to provide adequate
security particularly in view of the likely leakage of such passwords.
3. Cost: Time-sharing-systems are mere expensive than batch' systems.

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Word Processing Software

Word processing enables a Computer system to serve as a powerful
writing tools. It organizes Computer resources to help you quickly create, edit,
and print documents and manage them in ways no ordinary typewriter can
match. Word processing applies Computer technology to create, manipulate,
and print text materials like letters and other document. Most of such
programs are general-purpose, i.e. they are designed to suit the needs of a
variety of users. Word processing offer hundred of features, Basic set of word
processing operations can be divided into 3 main groups
(a) document-handling operations,
(b) Entering and editing operations, and
(c) print- formatting operations

(a). Document-handling Operations

 A number of general document-handling tasks should be well
understood before any productivity software programme (e.g. word
processor) can be used e.g. opening documents for use and printing.
Because everyone needs fast access to document-handling commands, all of
these operations are usually located on easy-to-reach menus accessible by a
mouse click or two. The trend today in software suites is a document-
centred graphical user interface (including a menu bar, pull down menus, and
tool-bars) that is similar from programme to programme. This arrangement
makes it easy to learn a new programme once you master one or 2 others.

(b). Entering and editing operations

Every word processor contains an assortment of entering and editing
operations. These capabilities accept both text keyed in by the user and the
insertion of computer graphics into documents and they allow the user to
manipulate both text and graphics on the screen.
1. Making the Insertion Point: Word processing provide an automatic line
return. This moves to the right as the new character or document is typed. As
the insertion point changes, the status bar at the bottom of the screen
changed correspondingly. The status bar always show where you are in the
document by displaying information such as the current page number and
where the insertion point is positioned on the page.
2. Scrolling: Allows you to move contiguous lines of text up and down on the
screen. Virtually all word processing programs allow one to press the 'up
arrow' and 'down-arrow' keys to scroll a document line by line. Using 'Page
Up' and 'Page Down' keys scrolling is faster, by moving page by page instead
of line by line.
3. Making a Line Return: Word processing provide an automatic line return
when the insertion point reaches a certain column position at the right-hand
side of the screen. This return is called 'soft return', and the built-in feature
that provides soft return is called wordwrap feature. Hard return is used to
mark the end of paragraphs or to create called 'hard return' to create space
on the page after typing in the titles or headings. 'hard-return' is activated by
tapping the 'Enter-key'.
Enter-key should not be tapped if not the end of a paragraph as it will not
allow reformatting of paragraphs later when reformatting is necessary.
4. Inserting and Deleting
There are two most basic editing operations. Word processing generally
allows one to delete a character, word, sentence or block of Characters at a
time.
Other features include: Moving and Coping, Spell-checking, and

(c). Print Formatting Operating

1. Adjusting line spacing
2. The ruler line
3. Justifying
4. Reformatting
5. Head and Footer
6. Fonts
7. Previewing Documents
8. Multiple Columns
9. Footnoting

COMPUTER AND SOCIETY

Importance of computers are spread in every sphere of life. Computers have

become an integral part of our lives. Be it the desktop computers or laptop
computers, both have various advantages in our daily life. The landscape of
global communication has changed since computers have been introduced in
our society. Importance of computers can be attributed to the fact that almost
every sphere of our life is affected by computers. Information technology (IT)
is a whole new industry that has developed after the introduction of
computers. Presenting before you is an article with an abridged summary of
importance in computers in various fields.

Importance of Using Computer

Among several advantages of computers, access to the Internet is hailed to
be an advantage that has shaped the way we communicate. Importance of
information technology has been such that besides creating millions of IT
jobs, it has become an integral part of every other industry. Features and
operations of IT are indirectly required in every other sector.

USES OF COMPUTER
The merging of the gains of VLSI with those of telecommunications
gave birth to a new revolution in the computer industry called information
technology (IT). Today we can talk of an information age. Instead of the
traditional concepts of data processing linked with the application of
computer, we now talk of data delivery.
The application area of computer is unlimited. Some of the areas in
which computers are making tremendous impart are transaction processing,
telebanking, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, telemedicine, text
handing (DTP) Document, Image Processing, teletext/view data, electronic
mail, voice mail and networks.
The application area of computer is unlimited. Some of the areas in
which computers are making tremendous impart are transaction processing,
telebanking, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, telemedicine, text
handing (DTP) Document Image Processing, teletext/view data, electronic
mail, voice mail and networks.
 The ultimate, referred to as the killer, is the Internet-and World Web
(WWW) - which has turned the whole world into one global information
village. The development world has harnessed the power of the computer
and to revolutionize their own world for the benefit of their citizens. How has
Nigeria fared? What development has taken place in Nigerian since Von-
Newuman invented the stored-program concept?
Application of computers in Nigeria has been mainly in the areas of
transaction processing. Notable areas are banking automation, personnel and
payroll records, financial systems, census, examination processing, oil
exploration, scientific computing, and text handing (DTP) to mention a few.

THE IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON THE INDIVIDUAL

The growth of computerized automation is changing both the
environment of work and the nature of the job market. In the process it is
displacing workers and creating new job. It is estimated that during the 1980s
as many as 200,000 people in the U.S. auto manufacturing and supply
industries will permanently loose their jobs as a result of technological
advancement and automation. General motors announced in 1982 about the
plans to buy J 4,000 industrial robots over the next decade; and when
installed, according to various estimates, it will replace 14,000 to 50,000
workers.
Individuals working in the clerical and service sector of the economy
feel intensively the impact of technology.
Thousands of bank tellers have already been replaced by electronics
banking terminals.
There is no doubt that computers will perform more and more low-level
clerical tasks, such as filling and key punching.
Some forecasters fear that, as a result of this automation, workers will
be forced to conform to the machine's pace and that clerical will be in jobs
more rigidly compartmentalized than ever before. Others are hopeful that by
freeing workers from routine. repetitive jobs, technology will enable people to
perform more creative tasks thus promoting business growth.
Despite the prediction made by the analyst, technology is not only
creating new jobs but it is creating them in new industries. Reports from the
Bureau to labour statistics indicated that the number of clerical worker grew fr
om about 10 million in 1960 to more than r 8 million in 1980 contrary to
predications made at the time computers were first introduced that large
numbers of clerical workers would be displaced due to the above points one
could conclude that computer has made a positive impact on the individual

IMPACT OF COMPUTER ON SOCIETY

Computer can be put into many uses: the basic uses include
referencing computation and assisting in decision making. It is an arduous
task to document all areas where computer have been applied because they
are too numerous to list, nevertheless some of these area are discussed as
follows:

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS

Air Traffic controllers coordinate air flights to make sure that pilots and
passengers travel safely.
Air traffic controllers manage traffic between or with airport Enroute
controllers monitor planes as they fly between airports. These controllers
cannot see they so the keep track of them using radar. Each plane appears
as a blip on a radar screen. Controllers monitor the traffic instructs pilots
when they need to change their attitude or heading in order to avoid other
planes or bad weather.
Tower Controller Manage the flow of airplanes that are landing and
taking off. They give clearance and traffic information to pilot and other
controller. They may talk to pilot about their fuel needs. When planes are
backed up, they use this information to help decide which planes will land
first. They also determine the best way to bring in and send out flights to
reduce delays tower controllers look out lower windows and use radar to track
planes. In addition. they adjust runway and airport light. Both type of
controllers monitor the weather and keel pilot informed of conditions. They
use tow-way radios to talk to pilots and other controllers they adjust these
radios to reduce static.
Some controllers are called flight service specialists. They work at
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) flight service stations. Specialists
watch rather than direct air traffic. They provide information on routes and
weather to pilots or controllers. They also help with searches and rescues.

ADVANTAGES OF INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTERS TO AIR TRAFFIC

CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. The computer helps in co-coordinating and directing arrivals,
departures, and travel of airplanes between airports.
2. It helps air traffic controllers to authorize landings and take-offs at
airports.
3. It helps in monitoring the tracks of aircraft on radar screen.
4. It reads activity logs and evaluates weather reporters.
5. It assigns flight path changes for turbulent or stormy weather, other air
traffic or emergencies.
6. It relays flight data between en-route and tower controllers.
7. It helps analyze fuel requirement and flight maps to instruct pilots.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER IN AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. Computer sometimes gives wrong information abut detector signal.
2. Insufficient computing power.
3. Error in downloading of control algorithm into the traffic control
computers.
Education
Computers have changed the way we work, be it any profession. The uses of
computers are infinite, these include the Internet that is a huge source of
information. There are online universities that deliver online degrees, and
distance learning is spreading far and wide. Many schools and colleges have
started making use of audio-visual ways of imparting knowledge. There are a
horde of online tools and methodologies, which help students in many ways.
Therefore, it is only natural that the role of computers in education has been
given a lot of importance in recent years.
Computers play a vital role in every field. They aid industrial processes, they
find application in medicine; they are the reason why software industries
developed and flourished and they play an important role in education. This is
also why the education system has made computer education a part of
school curriculum. Considering the use of computer technology is almost
every sphere of life, it is important for everyone to have at least the basic
knowledge of using computers.

The role of Computer in Education

Computer technology has had a deep impact on the education sector. Thanks
to computers, imparting education has become easier and much more
interesting than before. Owing to memory capacities of computers, large
chunks of data can be stored in them. They enable quick processing of data
with very less or no chances of errors in processing. Networked computers
aid quick communication and enable web access. Storing documents on
computers in the form of soft copies instead of hard ones, helps save paper.
The advantages of computers in education primarily include:
Storage of information
Quick data processing
1Audio-visual aids in teaching
Better presentation of information
Access to the Internet
Quick communication between students, teachers and parents

Brilliant aid in teaching

Computer teaching plays a key role in the modern education system.
Students find it easier to refer to the Internet than searching for information in
fat books. The process of learning has gone beyond learning from prescribed
textbooks. Internet is a much larger and easier-to-access storehouse of
information. When it comes to storing retrieved information, it is easier done
on computers than maintaining hand-written notes.

Impetus to distance education

Online education has revolutionized the education industry. Computer
technology has made the dream of distance learning, a reality. Education is
no longer limited to classrooms. It has reached far and wide, thanks to
computers. Physically distant locations have come closer due to Internet
accessibility. So, even if students and teachers are not in the same premises,
they can very well communicate with one another. There are many online
educational courses, whereby students are not required to attend classes or
be physically present for lectures. They can learn from the comfort of their
homes and adjust timings as per their convenience.

Information presentation
Computers facilitate effective presentation of information. Presentation
software like PowerPoint and animation software like Flash among others can
be of great help to teachers while delivering lectures. Computers facilitate
audio-visual representation of information, thus making the process of
learning interactive and interesting. Computer-aided teaching adds a fun
element to education. Teachers hardly use chalk and board today. They bring
presentations on a flash drive, plug it in to a computer in the classroom, and
the teaching begins. There's color, there's sound, there's movement - the
same old information comes forth in a different way and learning becomes
fun. The otherwise not-so-interesting lessons become interesting due to
audio-visual effects. Due to the visual aid, difficult subjects can be explained
in better ways. Things become easier to follow, thanks to the use of
computers in education.

Access to the Internet for literally everything

Internet can play an important role in education. As it is an enormous
information base, it can be harnessed for retrieval of information on a variety
of subjects. The Internet can be used to refer to information on different
subjects. Both teachers and students benefit from the Internet. Teachers can
refer to it for additional information and references on the topics to be taught.
Students can refer to web sources for additional information on subjects of
their interest. The Internet helps teachers set test papers, frame questions for
home assignments and decide project topics. And not just academics,
teachers can use web sources for ideas on sports competitions,
extracurricular activities, picnics, parties and more.

Computer hard drives and storage devices are an excellent way to store data.
Computers enable storage of data in the electronic format, thereby saving
paper. Memory capacities of computer storage devices are in gigabytes. This
enables them to store huge chunks of data. Moreover, these devices are
compact. They occupy very less space, yet store large amounts of data. Both
teachers and students benefit from the use of computer technology.
Presentations, notes and test papers can be stored and transferred easily
over computer storage devices. Similarly, students can submit homework and
assignments as soft copies. The process becomes paperless, thus saving
paper. Plus, the electronic format makes data storage more durable.
Electronically erasable memory devices can be used repeatedly. They offer
robust storage of data and reliable data retrieval.

Other Areas of Computers Application in Education

Right from elementary school students to PhD researchers, every educational
system has been influenced by computers. Some of the uses of computers in
education are as follows:
- Students can be better prepared for the future technologies and it's
easier to explain several topics that are hard to be understood without 3-D
images.
- Online education has made learning easier and convenient for a large
section of population.
- Easy access to encyclopedia on the Internet certainly makes us ponder
over textbooks versus computer teaching. Online encyclopedia have made
researching and preparing documents simpler.
- Students aware of computer use have better chances of job
opportunities as computers literacy is a need now. Importance of computer
education was never so important as it is in the present scenario.
- Using computer aided facilities like PowerPoint presentation eases
understanding of complex topics.
- Planning and Scheduling: Software can be used to store contact
information, generate plans, schedule appointments, and meet deadlines.
- Plagiarism: Software can examine content for plagiarism; this is where it
checks if information has been copied or tweaked to resemble previously
published work.

This was about the role of computers in education. But we know, it's not just
the education sector which computers have impacted. They are of great use
in every field. Today, a life without computers is unimaginable. This
underlines the importance of computer education. Knowledge of computers
can propel one's career in the right direction. Computers are a part of almost
every industry today. They are no longer limited any specific field. They are
used in networking, for information access and data storage and also in the
processing and presentation of information. Computers should be introduced
early in education.

Computers have brought about a revolution across all industries. They have
changed the face of society. They are no longer specialized tools to be used
by specially trained people. They are ubiquitous and used in almost every
sphere of life. Computers are the best means for storage and management of
data, they can serve as huge knowledge bases and can be harnessed for all
sorts of financial transactions owing to their processing power and storage
capacities. As computers are a daily utility, they have gained immense
importance in day-to-day life. Their increasing utility has made computer
education the need of the day.

By computer education, we mean, gaining the know-how of the basic

concepts related to a computer and gaining the basic knowledge of computer
operation. Knowing about the basic components of a computer, the basic
concepts behind the use of computers and the know-how of some of the
elementary computer applications constitutes computer education. Learning
about the computer basics followed by a practical experience of using a
computer is the key to computer education. As computers are widely used
today, acquiring computer education is the need of the day.
Computers are not only storage devices and processing units, but also are
excellent communication media. They are the means to access the Internet
and get connected to the world. They are also an effective audio-visual
media. Computers can be used to access a vast knowledge base and search
for information archives over the Internet. Only computer education can
facilitate the use of computers for purposes of communication and
entertainment.
Computer knowledge coupled with certain other job skills increases one's
chances of getting a job. Those with knowledge of computers are considered
trainable for many kinds of jobs. As most of the jobs involve the use of
computers, computer education is an eligibility criterion for almost all the
modern-day jobs. Higher education involving network administration,
hardware maintenance or software skills open doors for brighter job
opportunities.

Computer education helps one manage one's own business assets and
personal finances. Computers serve as efficient means for management of
information. Personal financial assets, medical records and important
documents can be stored in an electronic format in a computer system.
Today, banking transactions and payments of bills can be done over the
Internet. Similarly, online shopping is becoming widely popular. To be in the
race, it is very important to take computer education.

The word processing applications of a computer serve as an effective means

of documentation. The database management software that are a part of
computer systems serve as the means of managing large amounts of data.
The networking capabilities of a computer facilitate connecting to the Internet
to reach out to the world. Gaming applications and media players are some of
the popular computer software, which are popularly used across the world.

Computers, which have such a wide variety of applications, are indeed ruling
society. To keep up the pace in this fast life of today, computer education is
extremely important. Computers are an integral part of life and so is computer
education.
COMPUTER APPLICATION IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
This section forms the foundation of the school section and it has to be
taken care of and nurtured with every available modern material in order to
improve its standard and development. Administrative section in school
comprises of many sub-sections, which are directly responsible to it.

Some of these section are:-

1. Personnel management Department.
2. Accounting Department
3. Examination and Records Department
4. Information and Publication Department
Considering the function of computer in each of the above mentioned
department we shall see its usefulness.

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT.

With the aid of special application packages like DBASE IV and DBMS
(Database Management Systems). All the relevant information about the
school can be complied for regular use and also for making reference at any
time.
In forming the Database, the following information might be included:
Name. Grade level, Date of first Appointment, Date of Birth, Address etc.
These can be stored permanently in the computer system and can be
updated regularly whenever there is need with greatest case.

ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT
In the accounting aspect of an administration computer enables the
organization to determine their work force at a glance. Amount being paid
(annually, monthly or weekly) number of hours worked per day and total tax.
Records for each employee are stored on the system as permanent
files (using magnetic tape or disk)
The payroll processing involves only simple calculation like hour worked
time rate. But in manual processing of salaries valuable time are spent on
retrieving information. Updating and sorting files, and printing out individual
pay slips, computer also helps in determine the financial position of the
institution and it also aids budgeting.
The above mentioned function of computer in accounting can be
achieved through the use of accounting package like lotus 1-2-3 and also
some financial packages like financial modelling.

EXAMS AND RECORD DEPARTMENT

This is a department where all records and particulars of students are
kept. Performance and other details about each student can be determined
from this department.
INFORMATION AND PUBLICATION DEPARTMENT
They make use of computer in carrying out their function effectively and
efficiently.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER APPLICATION IN SCHOOL

The following are the importance of the application of computer in our
schools.
Students can study and learn at their own pace.
1. Learning can be done at the student's own convenience
2. Learning can be make interesting and challenging.
3. Computer enhances efficient and effective administration.
4. It has been able to solve most of our educational problems with its
teaching learning packages.

USES OF COMPUTER IN TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS

1. Objective testing on students' performance
2. Printing of students , result
3. Storing of Information
4. Preparation of timetable for teaching and learning process.
5. Record keeping in classroom

ELECTRONIC BANKING
For many consumers, electronic banking means 24-hour access to
cash through an automated teller machine (ATM) or Direct Deposit of pay
checks into checking or savings accounts. But electronic banking now
involves many different types of transactions.
Electronic banking, also known as electronic fund transfer (EFl), uses
computer and electronic technology as a substitute for checks and other
paper transactions. EFTs are initiated through devices like cards or codes
that let you, or those you authorize, access your account. Many financial
institutions use ATM or debit cards and Personal identification Numbers
(PINs) for this purpose. Some use other forms of debit cards such as those
that require, at the most, your signature or a scan. The federal Electronic
Fund Transfer Act (EFT Act) covers some electronic consumer transactions.

ELECTRONIC FUND TRANSFERS

EFT offers several services that consumers may find practical:
· Automated Teller Machines or 24-hour Tellers are electronic terminals
that let you bank almost any time. To withdraw cash, make deposits, or
transfer funds between accounts, you generally insert an ATM card and enter
your PIN. Some financial institutions and ATM owners charge a fee
Particularly to consumers who don't have accounts with them or on
transactions at remote locations. Generally, ATMS must tell you they charge
a fee and its amount on or at the terminal screen before you complete the
transaction. Check the rules of your institution and ATMs you use to find out
when or whether a fee is charged.
· Direct Deposit lets you authorize specific deposits, such as paychecks
and social Security checks, to your account on a regular basis. You also may
pre-authorize direct withdrawals so that recurring bills, such as insurance
premiums, mortgages, and utility bills, are paid automatically.
· Pay-by-Phone Systems let you call your financial institution with
instructions to pay certain bills or to transfer funds between accounts. You
must have an agreement with the institution to make such transfers.
· Personal Computer Banking lets you handle many banking transactions
via your personal computer. For instance, you may use your computer to view
your account balance request transfers between accounts and pay bills
electronically.
· Point-of-Sale Transfers let you pay for purchases with a debit Card,
which also may be your ATM card. The process is similar to using 'a credit
card, with some important exceptions. While the process is fast and easy, a
debit card purchase transfers money - fairly quickly-from your bank account
to the store's account, So it's account. So it's important that you have funds in
your account to cover your purchase. This means you need to keep accurate
records of the dates and amounts of your debit card purchases and ATM
withdrawals in addition to any checks you write. Your liability for unauthorized
use, and your rights for error resolution, may differ with a debit card.
· Electronic Check Conversion converts a paper check into an electronic
payment at the point of sale or elsewhere, such as when a company receives
your check in the mail. In a store, when you give your check to a store
cashier, the check is processed through an electronic system that captures
your banking information and the amount of the check. Once the check is
processed, you're asked to sign a receipt authorizing the merchant to present
the check to your bank electronically and deposit the funds into the
merchant's account. You get a receipt of the electronic transaction for your
records. When your check has been processed and returned to You by the
merchant, it should be voided or marked by the merchant so that it can't be
used again. In the mail-in situation, you should still receive advance notice
from a company that expects to process your check electronically.
Be especially careful in telephone transactions, which also could involve
e-checks. A legitimate merchant should explain the process and answer any
questions you may have. The merchant also should ask for your permission
to debit your account for the item you're purchasing or paying on. However,
because telephone e-checks don't occur face-to- face, you should be
cautious with whom you reveal your bank or checking account information.
Don't give this information to sellers with whom you have no prior experience
or with whom you have not initiated the call, or to sellers who seem reluctant
to discuss the process with you. Not all electronic fund transfers are covered
by the EFT Act.
 For example, some financial institutions and merchants issue cards
wd1t cash value stored electronically on the card itself. Examples include
prepaid telephone cards, mass transit passes, and some gift cards. These
"stored-value' cards, as well as transactions using them, may not be covered
by the EFT Act. This means you may not be covered for the loss or misuse of
the card. Ask your financial institution or merchant about any protections
offered for these cards.

Internet and Education

There are numerous advantages of the Internet in the field of education like
gaining information, news, historical data,

The Internet is the largest set of computer networks that use the Internet
Protocol. The invention and development of the Internet was the biggest
discovery by mankind in the 20th century that lead to a revolution. Today, the
Internet is used by more than 50% of the world population as its applications
are found in nearly every fields of life, be it communication, knowledge, news,
shopping, marketing, entertainment, education, etc. So, how exactly does the
Internet technology benefit students for education? Let us take a look at it in
detail.

Use of the Internet in Education

The fast and relatively low-cost access is one of the major benefits of Internet
to people and students all over the world as getting an Internet connection is
easy. Communication and information are the two most important uses of the
Internet. Secondly, information can be updated or modified at any time and
for any number of times, which helps in learning and better understanding.

✔ Easy Contact
As mentioned above, communication is one of the biggest advantages of the
Internet in education. Students can contact other students or their teachers
via the E-mail if they have queries about any information. Sharing of
information, discussions on a particular subject, etc., can be easily carried out
using the Internet. At the same time, teachers can also contact parents and
guardians easily using Internet.

✔ School/College Projects
The Internet can be most useful for completing projects in schools and
colleges. As the Internet is an ocean of information, covering nearly all
subjects known to man, one can find information, research work, etc.,
required for one's projects. Going through the information on the Internet is
definitely faster than reading an entire book on the subject. Homework is also
made easier with the help of the Internet which is also one of the important
uses of computers in education.
 Encyclopedia
Sometimes, an encyclopedia may not always be available to students and
they may have difficulty in gaining access to the books in the library. In that
case, the encyclopedia of various subjects available on the Internet can be
helpful. This is more useful for students who belong to communities not
having English as their mother tongue. Kids and younger children can also be
benefited by the Internet by using the pictures, videos, etc., which is one of
the major advantages, when comparing textbooks versus computer teaching.

News
All the latest news are constantly updated on the Internet on news sites.
Students learning politics, can have an access to all the current affairs
through the Internet in the school campus, at home, or at any other place.
Historical accounts like speeches, biographies, etc., are also easily available
on the Internet in detailed and accurate versions.

Online Learning
Another positive effect of Internet in education is the onset of distance
education or online learning. With this facility, you can take up short-term
courses with the course material available online, learn, and give exams. One
of the benefits of online learning is that people from any part of the world can
gain knowledge on different subjects, complete courses, etc.

Using Multimedia
Arguably, it is believed that visual data has a greater impact on learning and
memorizing than plain text. Therefore, images, graphics, animation, pictures,
slides, documentaries, etc., have a greater appeal than a plain textbook.
Using multimedia and Internet provides an opportunity for children to gain
knowledge about a particular subject in depth. Students can now see the
actual photographs of rare bird species, or see animated graphics of a
volcanic eruption to understand it in detail.

Affordable Knowledge
Investing in research material may be tedious and unaffordable for some. But,
now, thanks to the Internet, we have content websites, web encyclopedias,
and dictionaries whenever we want them. Today, able as well as less-able
students can be benefited to the sea of knowledge through the Internet.
University courses and learning is now easy for people belonging to all strata
of the society with the help of online courses.

Easy Education System

Not only gaining knowledge, but, every part of the education system is
simplified because of the Internet. You can now view your prospective
educational institute, look up for courses, enroll to online courses, take
classes, research, see your results, and even look for job prospects on the
Internet. Therefore, the scope of Internet in education is very wide and equal
to all.

No Age Bracket for Education

Online courses provide an opportunity for people of all age groups to take up
education of their choice, according to their liking and wish. Be it a student, a
housewife, or a professional, they can just start up their computers, connect
to the Internet, and take virtual classes. Therefore, people can now gain
knowledge according to their need and time available. You are, now, never
too old or too busy to learn something new.

Finally, although the Internet cannot replace books or classroom education, it

is one of the best substitute for those who wish to gain deeper knowledge on
literally every subject under the sun.

computer is an electronic device that executes certain actions through user-

based commands. It is made up of two parts - hardware and software. The
computer processes input through input devices like the mouse and
keyboard. The computer displays output through output devices like a monitor
and printer. The size of a computer varies considerably from small personal
computers (like laptops, minicomputers, and notebook laptops), to gigantic
supercomputers which require an entire building to host them. The speed
also has a very large range. Computers have become indispensable in
today's world; let's take a look at why we're so dependable on them.

Word Processing
A Word Processing software automatically corrects spelling and grammatical
mistakes. If content needs to be replicated, there are options known as 'copy'
and 'paste' that allow you to do this without re-typing the content. You can
print documents and make several copies too. It is easier to read a word-
processed document than a handwritten one, making it effectual for
paperwork. You can add images to your document as well, provided by
certain features on word processors.

Internet
It is a network that connects computers worldwide, to an information source
that is free to all, at a minimal fee per month from one's service provider. You
can browse through much more information than you could do in a library.
That is because computers can store enormous amounts of information. You
also have very fast and convenient access to information. Through 'email',
you can communicate with a person sitting thousands of miles away, within a
few seconds. Chat software applications enable one to speak to another
person in real time. Video conferencing tools are becoming readily available
to the common man, making it a convenient feature for one-on-one meetings.

RESEARCH
The most basic function of a computer is to compute or calculates and
that is its greatest asset as it can do it fast and accurately (Ayeni 1992).
In the development of theory or hypothesis, a researcher is often
confronted with masses of data he wants to work on. If he has access to
computer, he can store the data somewhere in the computer and make use of
the high-speed computation offered by the computer to examine as many
hypotheses as possible on the data in his pursuance of a possible theory
relating to the data.
Statistical analysis of data derived from experiments can be very
tedious and cumbersome especially when the quantity of data involved in
very large and many variable are involved in the analysis.
Through the procedures for analyzing these data (standard in most
cases), a manual analysis would involve hours and possibly days of
computational efforts due to care that needs to be taken for accurate results
to be obtained and margin of errors that must be achieved. And the accuracy
can be relied upon.
Computers are also very useful in simulation studies. Also programmed
instruction set on the computer can be used a learning tool for studies. Such
a programmed instruction set is called computer aided instruction (CAL).
The computer program would display a lecture on the screen of a visual
display unit for student to study and would thereafter pose questions for
students to answer.

PROFESSIONS
Computers are being used extensively in accounting, architecture,
engineering, law and medicine among others. Ayeni (1992) emphasized on it
as follows:
In architecture and engineering, computers are used to aid in design of
bridges, buildings, machines and so on, by combining various basic elements
and evaluating their capabilities in terms of measurement, physical
properties, stresses and so on, some numerical calculations that can be
refined in estimating parameters used for evaluating some of the designs
involve large-sized differential equations, which are too difficult to solve
manually.
In law, computers are used mostly for information retrieval. Abstracts of
cases are stored and indexed in the computers when a new case comes up,
similar cases are retrieved from the data bank and listed. The lawyer can then
study the new case along with some or all retrieval which may serve as
references.
Also some lawyers use computers to keep diary of cases that are listed
for hearing in the immediate future.
 In medicine, a popular use of computers in medical records for storing
the history of patients. These records are updated from time to time. The
history of patient and his degree of response to past treatment enable the
doctor determine whether the present mode of treatment should be
discontinued or not. Also computers can be used to aid diagnosis. In this
case, current data such as temperature reading, blood pressure, symptoms
and so on, of patient are entered into the computer. The data is analyzed by
the computer and the computer suggests what type of ailment the patient
suffers from. Finally, in large hospital environments, computers are used for
scheduling nurses on duty.

OFFICE AUTOMATION
Ayeni (1992) in his work stated that computers are now being used in
the office to assist in the office work. The greatest attention has been paid to
computer assisting in typing documents and letters involving addresses in
form of labels to be affixed to envelopes.
Word processors and micro computer are used to store documents.
Many pages of documents could be stored. The processor in particular has
facilities to format the document in a desirable manner. An office secretary
who has to use the word processor should have a minimum exposure to the
use of computer.
The word processor has the advantages of being able to print several
copies of the same document and also being able to make minor changes in
the text of the document very easily before printing the entire document.
Hartley (1990), stated in their work that the catalyst for the use
computers as automation aids in offices came when microprocessor
technology enabled manufacturers to produce word processing machine at
prices low enough to become practical altemative to typewriters. Word
processors allow the typist to create a document using an image in a VDU
screen.
The earlier word processors were specialized machines.
However, the current trend is to use a conventional personal computer
with a word processing package. In this way the personal computer can be
used for a variety of functions.
The second major office automation (unction introduced on PC' is the
spread sheet. A spread sheet program such as Lotus 1-2-3 or Microsoft Excel
allows the screen to image a large sheet of paper, broken into rows and
columns.
Data can be typed into cells in the matrix but the others can be filled in
by calculation. By using a shared microcomputer or by networking Pc's, users
can share resources such as high quality laser printers, main frame
communication links and databases. Given a share able systems, new office
automation functions becomes possible examples are electronic mail and
messaging EMM whereby a user can create a note or document using word
processing facilities and then either send it direct to another user or place it
into an e-mail box. Users are then responsible for checking their mail box.

BUSINESS
Computers in Business
Nowadays, the use of computers in industries is quite commonplace, owing to
the fast processing of information and timely deliverables. In this article, let us
explore the significant role that computers play in the business world.
Almost everyone is aware that Information Technology (IT) has played a very
significant role in taking businesses to new heights. Before the advent of
computers and relevant technology, business were totally done using manual
resources. As a result, the time taken to complete a task was more, quality of
work was not up to the mark, and the procedures also tended to be more
complicated. However, as computers started to be used in businesses
establishments, the processing of work got more stabilized.

What is Corporate Computing?

Corporate computing is a concept that is concentrated on the involvement of
information technology in business concerns. If you are a working
professional, you surely might have easily known how much computer
technologies are used in businesses. These technologies are used in almost
all sectors such as accounts and payroll management, inventory
management and control, shipping functions, data and database
management, financial analysis, software development, security control and
many other essential fields. The end result of corporate computing is
increased productivity and quality.

Use of Computers in the Business World

Following are only a few major fields in business where computing is used
largely.
- Inventory Control and Management: Inventory control and
management is a crucial process, especially in establishments related to
retail and production. Computers are used for recording all aspects of the
goods coming in, details of goods and services, distribution of stock, and
storage details. Note, that in small retail and production firms, simple
computer software are generally used. Whereas in large corporations,
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERPs) are employed.

- Accounts and Payroll Management: Accounting and payroll

management is also believed to be an important part of the overall system in
a company. Be it any kind of industry; computers are largely used for the
purpose of managing accounts of administration, sales, purchases, invoices,
and also payroll management, which includes recording financial details of
employees. These are just some components of the accounts and payroll
management system where computing is used.
- Database Management: Database management is associated with
filing and recording, managing, and retrieval of data whenever required. For
smooth running of businesses, it is very important that they have all
procedures and details stored. This storage of data is done with the help of
large databases and servers which have to be maintained on a regular basis.
These information databases and servers are controlled by computers by
appropriate authorities in a company.

- Software Development: It can be said that for every computing

need, a software has to be used. Software can only be made using
computers for the purpose of helping businesses to combine processes and
carry out their work properly. Nowadays, ERPs are largely used in business
to blend all their processes together and execute the output as expected.
There are many other software and application packages that a business may
need to use according to the nature of work.

There are many other fields such as security control, communication,

research, budgeting and forecasting, web management, where computers are
essential. The impact of information technology on business has certainly
changed the way businesses operate and have coordinated different
practices of the firm to function collectively. Computer use is not only present
in businesses, but computers are even used in other sectors.

Ayeni (1992) noted that business houses such as banks, insurance

companies accounting firms, manufacturing firms and so on generally have
one major objective. This objective is to make money (profit). Consequently,
most applications of computers in these companies are in the area of
financial management and management information system (MIS)
MIS is a system that provides data or information for a manager at any
level to enable him carry out his duty properly.
The computer programs for financial and management information
systems are usually provided as packages, which are adapted for the
company's use after purchase. Functions' performed by these packages
include management and financial accounting, final accounts personnel
record keeping payroll service, sales ledger and general ledger.
The use of computer in stock control enables store manager show
quickly and as possible when a particular stock is use up so that fresh order
could be placed for the stock.
The stock records are updated on the computer as stocks are issued
out or received.

Benefits of Computers in Business

The use of computers in business has grown by leaps and bound since the
last few decades. Here are some of the benefits of computers in business
field.

Using Internet technologies, computer networking and several types of

software, businesses are able to communicate all across the globe crossing
geographical boundaries.
Communication has taken a new role among partners, suppliers, consumers
and they're able to keep a track of each other that facilitates the business
process.
Development of software like Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software
solutions and Management Information Systems (MIS) have made it possible
to centralize administrative features of a firm.
Project management and other planning activities are easily designed by
integrating latest software with computers. This decreases time on planning
and figuring out certain complex issues.
Seminars, conferences and meetings can be scheduled with bosses and big
corporate giants through web conferencing that can be heard by all the
employees simultaneously.

While the debate on advantages and disadvantages of Internet or computers

will always exist, it's certainly a truth that computers have made our life totally
different, progressive and better.

GOVERNMENT
Ayeni (I 992) in his work was of the opinion that computers are
generally used in providing public services in the government, although a
great number of departments use computers for conventional business
applications such as payroll, personnel records and economic planning.
Economic models are used in planning and forecasting. The economic
model of a large state or country can be very complex, as it would involve
very many parameters such as various products or groups of products, their
load of productions and consumption.

Computers can also be used for compiling census and survey data. The
amount of data that is required to be recorded and processed in the conduct
of census is very enormous in large populations but is much less in surveys.
In Government, computers are also used for licensing operations; various
licenses are issued, reversed or revoked by government from time to time.
Manual processing of relevant data is sufficiently localized to avoid long
queues or delays at the local offices.
The use of computers in the military is more prominent in research and
development and in solving problems on games and operations. It is noted
that at the arrival of computers in the forties, one of the first successful areas
where computers were used was in the military during the second world war
1939-1945,. Computers were used in solving problems on allocation of
resources to competing units during the war.

COMMUNICATIONS
Hartlely (1990), stated that communication systems carry mixtures of
voice, data and image signals, occasionally they are simple point-to point
system such as the cable joining a VDU to a computer port, More often,
however, systems need a switching facility to make and break connections
and to share a single physical system among a number or separate logical
services. These computers can be used effectively as intelligent nodes in
communications system acting as switches. multiplexes demultiplexers and
protocol converters. In the latter case. messages Can be received in one
format and transmitted in another. thus acting as a bridge between different
systems. As an example of computer controlled communication switch,
consider the private automatic branch exchange PAAX) which provides
telephone services within a building and access to external public service
lines, the earlier PABX used analogue circuits with relays to create
connections.
A computer sensed the dialling pulses or multi-tone frequency signals
decoded this as address information and activated signals to close the
required relays.
Nowadays, the PABX is totally digital. The voice signals as well as the
dialling arc converted to digital form and addressing packets of data within the
computers performs the routing. Because of the computerized control of the
circuits. many extended functions became available such as abbreviated
dialling conferencing automatic redial. dial-back e.t.c.
Specialized data communication equipment for joining computers
networks for connecting terminals to computers, for protocol conversion
multiplexing all use specialized digital computing techniques.
According to Dennis P. Curting et. al, you can use your computer to call
another computer anywhere in the world by using a modem and the
telephone line. This process is called telecommunication. He further stated
that exchange of electronic mail with other users, transfer of public domain
software from another computer onto one of your own disks so that you can
run those programs on your computer, holding of conferences with a number
of other users as major application of computer in communications.

HEALTH
According to Richard (1986), Ethical dilemmas have always been
present in 'the care. Critical decisions affecting human life and welfare are
integral to the medical profession. When computers are introduced, however,
many of these decisions became more complicated methods and devices for
prolonging life, using artificial or severely damaged limbs and diagnosing and
treating disease have been greatly enhanced by computing technologies.
Millions of people have greater hope for leaving more normal lives, Some
areas of computer aided biomedical engineering are pacemakers, artificial
hearts, and prosthetic and monitoring devices.
Pacemakers are microprocessor controlled programmable devices,
which help persons suffering from hear disease by maintaining a regular
heartbeat and keeping steady flow of blood throughout the body.
In 1992, the first programmable pacemaker was implanted. It costs
1250 dollars, was considerably smaller than earlier ones and could be
reprogrammed to alter pulse rate and output current without being removed
form the patient, with them physicians can alter 40 different parameters,
obtain and display heart performance data gathered by the implanted
pacemaker and check to see that the-device is functioning properly.
Another area of application is the artificial heart. Considering the
advances and successes with pacemakers, it does not seem far-fetched to
imagine an artificial heart run by a microprocessor entirely contained in a
person's body and enabling that person to function as though the original
heart were in place. Later in 1982, the first artificial heart was successfully
implanted into a patient.
Another area is the use of prosthetic and monitoring devices. Design
and implementation of artificial limbs have shown marked advances, as
medical professionals understand better how the brain, neural networks,
muscles and other part of the body work together to cause movement.
Richard (1986) also stated further that, research in combination with
medical prosthetic designers are now integrating microprocessor technology
to simulate circuitry within the human body.
Successful experiments have been conducted to replace or support
damaged neural networks and restore movement previously paralyzed knee.
In 1982 a young female paraplegic was able to make a few paces after
being equipped with a rather elaborate device consisting or approximately 30
sensors and electrodes in contact with the leg's major muscle groups and
triggered by electrical bursts controlled by a micro computer. A teed back
system provided input so that connections could be made as movement took
place.
Diagnostic devices could signal an impending stroke, indicate which
body parts that need more exercise, warn of possible malfunctioning of
organs and generally contribute to a person's health.
Automobiles already utilize diagnostic devices for a variety of functions
including easily warning of potential dangers such as excessive brake wear.
Other devices can monitor the location o fan individual at all time.
A system termed "home incarceration" has been in New Mexico. The
device used is cigarette. Pack-sized transmitter worn on a probationer ankle.
It sends signals to a computer. Probation officers can tell where the
probationer is by monitoring the computer output.

MANUFACTURING
 Richard (1986), noted that since the beginning of the industrial
revolution, the factory has been a source of employment for thousand of men
and women. The need to have many workers in a particular factory has led to
the development of dense population centres. The output of the factory has
strengthened the national economy and brought a high standard of living to
the majority of the citizens of the developed nation. Direct intervention of the
computer into the manufacturing process is most noticeable in the form of
computerized controls and more recently robots.
In process designing, computer plays an important role in the design
stage of production. Computer aided design and drafting (CADD) system are
used to automate the production of design drawings and design changes.
Such system allows one person to produce the drawings that would have
required from two to eight persons without the aid of automation.
In process control, specially designed computers have been used to
read temperature and pressures in manufacturing process and to adjust
valves and other equipment according to the needs of the process.
Large oil refiner, plants require very little human labour to produce
gasoline and heating oil: from the candle oil they reuse. Telephone exchange
offices put through calls automatically under control of special computers,
process control computers automatically under control of special computers.
Process control computers automatically adjust the level of electricity to meet
the demands of electric power consumers on a continuous, real-time basis.
In robotics, Richard (1986), stated that devices called robots art' being
designed and purchased to do the work for which there is an insufficient
supply of human workers. In particular the use of robots in the operation of
unmanned night shifts in the machine tool industry has been tried as a way of
overcoming the shortage of machinists. Sick leave vacation and strikes arc
not issues with a robot,
It works any number of hours without tiring or complaining or requiring
breaks. Long hours do not lead to reduce quality of work.
One reason for the advance use of robots is that they are becoming
capable of performing useful tasks. In the past a major limitation to their
usefulness was its inability to feel and see. Artificial intelligence has led to
advances in the way a robot is now able to process image and respond as if it
could see.
The use of computers to aid the manufacturing process that includes
integration of data, process control and robots is referred to as computer-
aided manufacturing.

LAW-ENFORCEMENT
Military, Navy, and the Air Force (Security)
In the military, these systems are used to store confidential information. They
are used to develop, test, and debug important programs. They are used as a
surveillance equipment to check the enemy territory. In the navy, they are
used for logistics, personnel, and pay records. They are used in the
applications of SONAR and RADAR, for example, in tracing lost airline debris
or sunken ships. For the air force, they are used to develop standardized
tools and interfaces in accordance with the Air Force Network Operations
(AFNETOPS) guidance to transform raw data into actionable C2 information.
They are used to develop, test, and analyze crucial programs with regards to
the working mechanism of different kinds of airplanes. They are used for
information processing, storage, and rescue operations.

1. Computer can be used in law-enforcement to keep criminal record and

confidential record.
2. This particular computer can also be used to enhance image to police
security organization.
3. Compute is used for crime mapping, the area of High and low crime
rate is known.
4. Computer is also used in national crime information center (NClC) it is
used in recording information about wanted person stolen property etc.
Computer can also be used in the emergency calls for local police.

THE USEFULNESS OF COMPUTER IN KEEPING CRIMINAL RECORDS

Because the computer ability to store large amount of information in
potable computer is now being used to keep record on criminal activities.
Electronic data banks of crime related information are readily available to
state and local law enforcement. The federal Bureau of investigation (FBT)
operate a nation wide police information data bank known as the national
crime information center.
The names and record or known criminal (record can be age, sex,
colors
· Information about wanted or missing persons.
· Information about cars (including license plate number) guns and even
boats.
Crime can be detected by computer and the criminal can be known for
example in one case police officer stopped a driver for making an illegal turn.
When the car's license plate numbers was checked by computer, the police
discovered that the vehicle had been stolen in another state. It turned out that
the driver was wanted for a bank robbery. He was immediately arrested.

CRIME
To an economist, a banker or an accountant, the act of deceiving
somebody to acquire money, goods e.t.c. illegally is known as fraud.
According to Mr. Odoh, an information technologist, "fraud is an act of
changing figures for personal gains". From the foregoing, one can begin to
have an idea of what computer crime is. Computer fraud, which is any
dishonest or criminal act perpetrated or aided by the use of a computer
system. This crime in question includes fax piracy, illegal use of credit
cards/facilities, cellular cloning, signature forgery fake entries into customer
accounts in blanks and finance houses, illegal transfer of money from one
account to the other and so on.

CASES
Although cases of Computer Crime are not rampant in Nigeria and
Africa at large, the reason is not that computer Criminal are not on the
continent of Africa but the crippling technological growth. Computer Crime is
no longer news in places like America and the United Kingdom. The Guardian
of 21st April, 1998, reported a case of one Smart Alec who paid the sum of
ten million dollars into an account in New York and requested the sum to be
transferred to an account in London, where the money must have transited
into a whopping sum of one hundred million dollars, just in a mater of
seconds!
What he expected was no magic but a mere addition of a zero to the
existing ten (two digits) to make a hundred (three digit) by an official of the
hank who was in connivance with him. The fraudsters were unlucky: the
attempt failed!
Also in the U.S.A. imagine another fraudster who defrauded more than
ten super markets in ten cities through the use of credit facilities. This
fraudster succeeded in wreaking tins havoc in less than five hours.
With the rise in computer dependency these days, one will definitely
expect computer crime to be on the increase in the next millennium.
particularly with the advent of the Internet.

ARMED ROBBERY Vs. COMPUTER CRIME

Whereas an armed robber may sometimes involve himself in armed
struggle with his victims, it might sound funny that billions of dollars might go
down the drain in a faction of a second by ordinarily pressing the ENTER key
on the keyboard of a computer or by a click of the mouse button right under
the nose of the victim, In the same vein, changing "greater than" sign (> ) in a
program to an equality sign (=) may affect the logic of a program to the extent
that it can earn fraudsters quite a huge amount of money just in a twinkling of
an eye.
It goes without saying that the fastest and easiest modern way of
perpetrating fraud it through the computer!

STAGES
According to Dr. Paul Otunbusin. Computer Crime can occur in five
different stages in the operation of a computer. These stages are:
1. The input stage: When data are entered into the computer, crime mayor
perpetrated by supplying false data or altered information to the computer.
2. The programming stage: This involves alteration and for manipulation of
the program intended to control the operations of the computer.
3. The processing stage: This involves alteration or manipulation to the
computer input processor through improper instructions.
4. The output stage: This involves stealing or selling to competitor.
Confidential print-outs by criminal minded insiders of computer based firms
and companies
5. The data communication stage: At this stage, un unauthorized person
could break into telephone circuits, thereby having access to-confidential
information.

EFFECTS
The effects of computer crime include:
(a) Loss of huge amount of money, which might force some, films or
companies into liquidation;
(b) Severe and irreparable destruction ofvita documents in a bid to cover
up crime by computer criminals;
(c) Exposure of sensitive and! or confidential information of firms,
companies and government parastatals, thereby making them prone to
criminal attacks.

SOLUTION
To curb computer crime the following solutions are proffered:
1. In cases of data transfer, data encryptioning should be adopted so as to
protect stored data and forestall any forgery. alteration or removal by an
unauthorized person or device.
NOTE
Data encryptioning means transformation of plain text to cipher text which is
secret writing, usually in codes, with an associated key or code books(s):
such code book(s) is/are normally kept secret. The act of encyptioning is
cryptography.
2 . When a computer crime is detected, such a case must be reported and
given immediate attention to avert its prolonged effect.
3. In all computer dependant firms, companies and government
parastatals should be clearly defined, thereby enhancing easy and effective
tracing of criminals if and when there are cases of computer crime.
4. Severe punishment should be imposed on crime perpetrators so as to
deter intending criminals.
5. For each firm, company e.t.c., external auditors should be appointed,
whose visits will not be. announced to the workers of such a firm or company.
6. Imposition of standard measures of checks at various points such that
before u transaction is completed, it must have gone through two or more
hands.
7. Staff of firms and companies must be transferred from one unit to the
other, within a short time, say 1½ to 2 years and without them knowing their
next department prior to the transfer.
8. Passwords and other security measures in computers should be
changed at intervals.
9. Restriction of computer users to their particular operations, thereby
disallowing unnecessary accesses to computer systems.

Crucial Role of Computers in Medicine

The health care field has gone through a revolution after computers have
been introduced in our society. Uses of computer in the medical field has
been immense. Computers have been integrated with almost all medical
technologies to improve accuracy in results.

Big hospitals require computer systems to maintain database of patient

records. This has lessened the burden of paper management.
Some uses of computers in hospitals include maintaining staff attendance
records, medical records recording of incoming and outgoing timings of staff,
computerized accounting and managing records of patient and associated
doctors.
The use of computers in medicine has gained more significance as heartbeat
rate, pulse rates all can be checked on special graphs on monitor screen.
Internet technology has made it easier to exchange information, news and
reports about latest medical development all across the globe.
Medical imaging has grown to become an extremely important aspect of
medical diagnosis. By using techniques to create body images of even the
most complex structures in the body, scientists have made it easier to treat
ailments.
Web conferencing has made it easier for expert doctors sitting in some
distant country to guide and instruct junior surgeons. More so, even while
operation, many senior doctors can guide junior doctors. These are some of
the amazing uses of computers in hospital set ups.
All surgical procedures are recorded in small cameras (some even installed in
the medical equipment) so that the process of surgery can be learned better
and improved.
Nowadays, even computer counseling is possible owing to extensive use of
computers.

CHAPTER FIVE

INTERNET

Brief History of Internet

 A collection of interconnected networks is called an Internet. In the mid
1960's, at the height of the cold war, the Department Of Defense (DoD) in the
United States wanted a command and control network that could survive a
nuclear war. Traditional circuit-switched telephone networks were considered
too vulnerable, since the loss of one line or switch would certainly terminate
all conversations using them and might even partition the network. 10 solve
this problem, DoD turned to its research arm, ARPA(Advanced Research
Projects Agency). The Internet was then started as a wide area; packet
switching network called ARPANET. The idea behind the goal was to allow a
large community of users to share the resources that were available on the
computers.
The ARPANET provided this service by connecting hosts and terminal
servers into a network. The network started with four hosts located at the
University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at
Santo Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and the University
of Utah;
Internet is the biggest computer network in the world. It connects users
all over the world, and reduces the whole world to a village that is what
brought about the term global village. Internet uses the TCP/IP protocol to link
government institutions, universities, secondary schools, commercial firms,
military institutions and research laboratories. This computer network is
without doubt one of the most important achievement of the last century.
Many users access Internet via commercial service providers such as
American on-line, CompuServe, and many others that become active every
month all over the world.
In order for us to get the most out of the available resources of the
Internet, we must get familiar with some basic concepts.
Every host connect to the Internet has a unique numerical address,
much like a telephone number. But these are hard to remember and it is
easier to give each host a name that has some structure and let a machine
do the conversion from the meaningful name to the numeric address. This
service is performed by the DNS-Domain Name System.
Many networks exist in the world, often with different hardware and
software. People connected to one network often want to communicate with
people attached to a different one. This desire requires connecting together
different and frequently incompatible networks, sometimes by using machines
called Gateways to make the connection and provide the necessary
translation, both in terms of hardware and software.

Services that the Internet offers

This section presents the services rendered by the Internet.

(1) Telnet
 The terminal emulation protocol allows users to connect to a remote
host and run programs on it. You must have authority to access a file before
you can use Telnet
It provides the users with the ability to connect to a computer in the
Internet and act as local user in the remote server, but a lot of public services
(Archie, gopher, e.t.c) are accessible via telnet without the need of being
registered in the remote machine.
The format for the telnet protocol is: Telnet host (Telnet IBM 306A-
Name of machine)
Where host is either the name of the machine one wishes to use or its
'numerical address, also known as IP address.

(2) FTP File Transfer Protocol

File transfer protocols is used to transfer files between any pair of
machine connected to the internet. These protocols can also be used to
transfer the file that contains the directory listing of the remote machine. The
type of the file can be B!INARY, as is the case for programs, or ASCII or
EBCIDC for unformatted text.
The local machine must provide the remote server with an identification
of the account that is being used as well as a password, some machines
allow the user to use an account called anonymous or tip using it as a
password or their e-mail address. The FTP protocol also belongs to the group
of TCP/IP protocols. The FTP protocol is used to transfer files without the
need of having an account on that server (anonymous service only).
Since there are a lot of FTP servers around, finding the tile that we are
looking for is not an easy task. This problem has been solved by a group led
by peter Deutsch then at McGill University, now at Bunyip, who devised a
program, called ARCHIE server around the world and they periodically
exchange information about the locations; of the files.

(3.) Mail
Electronic Mail: it allows the exchange of text messages between users
throughout the world. It uses the SMTP protocol (Simple Mail Transference
Protocol) from the TCP/IP protocols suite. It tries to establish a direct
connection in order to send the e-mail message, if the connection cannot be
established it saves the message in a file and at a later time tries again. This
method makes for a highly reliable service.
SMTP does not acknowledge the reception of e-mail messages. The e-
mail service is a fast and efficient way to exchange information amongst more
than 40 million users in the world. Internet delivers email to all these users
using Domain Name System (DNS) which is a hierarchical method that
combines geographic and organizational data to identify a host.

(4.) Talk
 It is an interactive communication service that allows two users to
engage in an on-line "conversation" screen to screen from different
computers. While in a talk session the computer screen splits in half forming
two windows, one of the windows displays the characters being sent, while
the other shows the one being received. Here before you use this, you must
have informed the other party that he should log on at a particular time.

(5.) News
There are two ways to participate in discussion groups over the internet:
one is by means of Usenet Newsgroups, and the other is using mailing lists
(also called mail reflectors). Both of them have the capability to create large
communities of users that share a special interest in a particular subject.
Usenet (User Network) is a public network made up of thousands of
newsgroup and organized by topics. Although its origin is outside the internet,
nowadays is one of the milestones.
The News, as are informally called, use the NNTP protocol (Network
New Transport Protocol) which is part of the TCP/IP stack of pro to cols and
described how the messages from the different news groups are exchanged
between collaborating servers.
In order to be able to read message from a newsgroup an NNTP reader
is needed as well as access to an NNTP server. The newsgroups are
organized by categorized such as: misc (miscellaneous), soc (social
activities), talk (political discussion)sci (science and technology), rec
(recreational), comp (computers) and flews (general information about Usenet
news).
The users can browse through the different news groups available,
reading messages, replying to them or posting new ones if they wish.
E-mail lists or mail reflectors offer the same opportunities to the user;
the main difference is that users must subscribe to this service. After
subscribing to a list of interest every message sent to it will be automatically
sent to each of the subscribers.

(6) Web:
The World Wide Web is a network of severs that use hypertext to
establish a link and to access files, often with lavish graphics. It is currently
the most popular service information exchange in the internet.
When we have a web server that means other servers can access it. A
lot of web sites are even capable of supporting video and audio.
The WWW was born at CERN (European Laboratory of Particle
Physics) and it uses hypertext to link pieces of information that can be in any
part of the network. To access the information available on the Web it is
necessary to have a Web browser. The most popular browsers available at
the moment are Netscape, Internet Explorer and Mosaic. Any of these
browsers will allow access to services like Gopher and FTP, and even e-mail.
 Mosaic was created at the National Centre for Super Computing
applications at lllinois University and lets users navigate through the internet
using a very comfortable graphical windows interface. The other browsers are
refinements of mosaic.
What makes the WWW pages so amazing is that the hyperlinks that are
in them can take us to another document that can be in a server anywhere in
the world. A lot of businesses have WWW pages in the internet, providing an
excellent way to meet the interests of vendors and buyers alike.

(7) Gopher
It is a service offered in the internet that allows the user to search and
retrieve information in a user - friendly way.
Gopher is a search tool developed at the University of Minnesota that
shows the information in a series of hierarchical menus, kind of like the table
of contents in a book. The Gopher servers are limited to text display whereas
the WWW pages can publish text, graphics, and video. But in order to be
able, to access the web one need to have a full Internet connection with least
14400 bps of bandwidth and a powerful machine with graphic capabilities.
While using Gopher, we do not need the mouse and a slow speed
connection to Internet makes do. When we selects a specific topic - using
Gopher we jump from one link to another. The Gopher servers have a lot of
useful information. In order to obtain more information about the 3,000 plus
Gopher servers available at this time the users should visit the Gopher Server
University of Minnesota.
The way to access this service is through client software installed on
the local machine. Several sites offer public Gopher clients that are
accessible through telnet.

(8) Archie
It is used to locate files that are stored in FTP servers. It is a database
with information and servers that offer anonymous FTP services. Archie
servers can be accessed through telnet using as a login the name "Archie".
Two of the most popular Archie servers around are the Taiwan Archie. telnet
archie. ncu. edu. tw, and the SuraNet Archie: tenet archie suranet. The
different Archie servers communicate with each other and therefore share
essentially the same information.

(9) Veronica
(Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Netwide Index to Computerized Archives) -
a search tool similar to Archie with the difference that VERONICA looks for
text found in Gopher menus. This may sound as a small domain, but since
there are Gopher servers that include e-mail listings, newsgroups, and more,
the results of a search using VERONICA can be amazingly ample. The usual
way to access VERONICA is by selecting the service from one of the menus
is a Gopher server, by doing this. a small. dialogue box will appea,r asking for
the keyword we are looking for. Afterwards we-will see another menu that
displays related articles as the result of the search, from this list we select a
site that has-the information we are looking for.

(10) WAIS: (Wide Area Information Server)

This software is used to index long text files found on servers. On the
client wais searches and retrieves files in databases. Just like in Gopher, it
allows the users to access all kind of information without worrying about
where it is. One way to access this service is to log on through telnet to nnsc.
nsf net using "wais" as a login. Wais offer the capability to refine our search
using as a model one of the retrieved documents but this means that the
documents have to be processed before being included in a wais server.
It should be noted that, while the World Wide Web is by far the most
popular and useful means of accessing information on the net, superseding
every other service, it is also a bandwidth hogger,
For users with limited bandwidth, gopher and ftp are very valuable, but
they still need interactive access. Most of the services provided by Gopher,
Archie, and ftp can also be accessed Rye-mail. This is of paramount
Importance for people who do not enjoy a direct connection to the Internet .

(11) Internet Telephone

Internet telephone means the transport of telephone calls over the
internet instead of public switched telephone networks. Currently, telephony
offers cheaper call prices with less quality of service than public switched
networks.
The possibility of voice communications travelling over the Internet
rather than the PSTN first became a reality early in 1995: At the moment, it
seems that Internet Telephony will revolutionize voice calls business and
technology used to transport voice calls. The current development on
Telecommunications industry is changing the use of telecommunications
networks remarkably. People use telephone lines more and more for data
transfer instead of ordinary voice calls.
The primary technical difference between the Internet and the PSTN is
their switching architectures. The lnternet dynamic routing based on non-
geographic addressing versus the PSTN that uses static switching based on
geographic telephone numbering which bond uses static switching based on
geographic telephone numbering. Furthermore, the Internet's “intelligence” is
very much decentralized, or distributed, versus the PSTN which bundles
transport and applications resulting in the medium's intelligence residing at
central points in the network. PSTN is a circuit switched network. It dedicates
a fixed amount of bandwidth for each conversation and thus quality is
guaranteed. When the caller places a typical voice call, he picks up the phone
and hears the dial tone. The central office will establish the connection, and
then the caller and callee can discuss with each other.
 When the caller places Internet telephony call, he picks up the phone
and hears dial tone from the private branch exchange (PBX) if one is
available. Then he dials a number, which is forwarded to the nearest Internet
telephony' gateway located between the PBX and a TCP/IP network. The
Internet telephony gateway finds a route through the internet that reaches the
called number. Then the call is established. The Internet telephony gateway
modulates voice into IP packets and sends them on their way over the
TCP/IP network as if they were typical data packets. Upon receiving the IP
encoded voice packets, the remote IP telephony gateway reassembles them
into analogue signal to the callee through the PBX.

(12) E-Commerce
Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is already a reality. It is attractive
because it reduces cost of ding business. Sending a few bytes of data over
the network is cheaper, faster and more convenient than sending a
messenger or even making a phone call. Unfortunately, e-commerce has
suffered from the fact that there are no readily available secure means of
payment for the goods and services ordered for. Payment has been made by
credit card whereby customer would have to provide credit card details using
e-mail. However, given the open structure of the Internet, there is a general
unwillingness to make personal credit card details available in this form
because both buyer and the seller are exposed to fraud or nefarious third
parties. Also the emergence of the many businesses on the Internet offering
services to customers has caused the need for a secure online payment
system.
Furthermore, there is a lot of trust involved in buying goods or services
in the virtual world of e-commerce. You do not just trust that the quality of the
goods or services will be satisfactory; you may also have to trust that the
quality of the goods or services will be satisfactory; you may also have to trust
that you will even receive them. The question of trust is very important in the
virtual world than in the real world. This is because the two parties are not in
the same place, and hence one can not depend on things like physical
proximity, hand-shakes and body signals. In addition, the other party may be
in another country or even in cyberspace, hence transaction might not be
subject to the laws of the country or state at all.

CHAPTER SIX

COMMUNICATION
Communication major dimensions scheme

Interactional Model of Communication

Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication

Transactional Model of Communication

Communication code scheme

Linear Communication Model
The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude Shannon
and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949. The original model was
designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their
initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver.
The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was
the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one
could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often
there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation,
which they deemed noise.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard
view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural
language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/
encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of
communication simply views communication as a means of sending and
receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality,
and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver
structured this model based on the following elements:
1. An information source, which produces a message.
2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
4. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
5. A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for
communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect
behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver's (1949) linear

model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication.
The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated
the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message
(what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder
(by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium),
destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur
Schram (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a
message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message.
Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and
experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may
take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form
depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together,
communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a
destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another
entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission
governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
1. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and
their users)
2. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what
they represent) and
3. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting

agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules.
This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication,
including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary
phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative
competences within social interactions.
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional
model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of
communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending
and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked
reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the
constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual
communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be
interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which
information travels from one individual to another and this information
becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of
communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the
receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional
traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of
message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the
transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content
may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect.
One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the
processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each
possess something that functions as a codebook, and that these two code
books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like
code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the
model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic
continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian
media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of
media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different
possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways
they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and
papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the
transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging
of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone
and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can
sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can
change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).