COMPONENTS OF PV SYSTEMS

LEARNER GUIDE

1
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Note to the learner
Topic elements to be covered include
• KM-11-KT01: PV array systems and PV applications (13%)
• KM-11-KT02: Solar radiation (5%)
• KM-11-KT03: The photovoltaic effect (5%)
• KM-11-KT04: Solar cell types (13%)
• KM-11-KT05: Electrical properties of solar cells (5%)
• KM-11-KT06: PV modules (10%)
• KM-11-KT07: PV junction/string boxes, smart boxes, string diodes, connectors and fuses
(8%)
• KM-11-KT08: Inverters (13%)
• KM-11-KT09: Cabling, wiring and connection systems, installation materials and
switching (direct current load switch [DC main switch] and AC switch disconnector) (8%)
• KM-11-KT10: Batteries (10%)
• KM-11-KT11: Charge Controllers (10%)

2
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Assessments

The only way to establish whether you are competent and have accomplished the learning
outcomes is through continuous assessments. This assessment process involves interpreting
evidence about your ability to perform certain tasks. You will be required to perform certain
procedures and tasks during the training programmer and will be assessed on them to certify
your competence.
This module includes assessments in the form of self-evaluations/activities and exercises. The
exercises, activities and self-assessments will be done in pairs, groups or on your own. These
exercises/activities or self-assessments (Learner workbook) must be handed to the facilitator. It
will be added to your portfolio of evidence, which will be proof signed by your facilitator that you
have successfully performed these tasks.

Listen carefully to the instructions of the facilitator and do the given activities in the time given
to you.

3
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 This icon means that other books are available for further information on a
topic/subject.
Books

This icon refers to any examples, handouts, checklists, etc.…

References

This icon represents important information related to a specific topic or

section of the guide.
Important

This icon helps you to be prepared for the learning to follow or assist you to
demonstrate understanding of module content. Shows transference of
Activities
knowledge and skill.

This icon represents any exercise to be completed on a specific topic at home

by you or in a group.
Exercises
Tasks/Projects An important aspect of the assessment process is proof of competence. This
can be achieved by observation or a portfolio of evidence should be
submitted in this regard.

An important aspect of learning is through workplace experience. Activities

Workplace
with this icon can only be completed once a learner is in the workplace
Activities
Tips
This icon indicates practical tips you can adopt in the future.

This icon represents important notes you must remember as part of the
learning process.
Notes

4
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT01: PV array systems and PV applications (13%)

KT0101 Stand-alone systems (without storage, with storage, hybrid systems)

KT0102 Grid-connected systems
KT0103 Components of the two systems

Stand-alone systems (without storage, with storage, hybrid systems)

What is a stand-alone solar system?

A simple stand-alone PV system is an automatic solar system that produces electrical power to
charge banks of batteries during the day for use at night when the suns energy is unavailable. A
stand-alone small-scale PV system employs rechargeable batteries to store the electrical energy
supplied by a PV panels or array.

Standalone (Off Grid) Solar Systems

A Stand-Alone Solar System

Solar power icon free standing or Stand-Alone PV System is made up of a number of individual
photovoltaic modules (or panels) usually of 12 volts with power outputs of between 50 and
100+ watts each. These PV modules are then combined into a single array to give the desired
power output. A simple stand-alone PV system is an automatic solar system that produces
electrical power to charge banks of batteries during the day for use at night when the suns
energy is unavailable. A stand-alone small-scale PV system employs rechargeable batteries to
store the electrical energy supplied by a PV panels or array.

Stand-alone PV systems are ideal for remote rural areas and applications where other power
sources are either impractical or are unavailable to provide power for lighting, appliances and

5
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
other uses. In these cases, it is more cost effective to install a single stand-alone PV system than
pay the costs of having the local electricity company extend their power lines and cables
directly to the home.

A stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) system is an electrical system consisting of and array of one or
more PV modules, conductors, electrical components, and one or more loads. But a small-scale
PV system does not have to be attached to a roof top or building structures for domestic
applications, they can be used for camper vans, RV’s, boats, tents, camping and any other
remote location. Many companies now offer portable solar kits that allow you to provide your
own reliable and free solar electricity anywhere you go even in hard to reach locations.

These systems consist of 4 major components:

• Solar panels on the roof

• A charge controller to regulate the flow of energy from the solar panels to the battery
bank
• A battery bank where the solar electric energy is stored
• An inverter to change the battery energy into normal household power.

The daily electrical energy requirement of the property will determine the required number of
solar panels and other system components. The amount of reserve energy required for periods
of little or no sun and the climatology of the specific location will also play a role when we
design such a system. A wind turbine could even be added as an additional source of energy
(with the provision that it is feasible) and a generator could be employed as a final back-up
source of power.

6
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Main benefits of standalone off grid solar systems:

• Dependable and reliable.

• Complete Energy Security.
• Cost of energy yield fixed for at least 25 years.
• Expandable and modular – can be enlarged at any time.
• Renewable resource with minimal impact on the environment.
• No more costly line availability fee (if you had Eskom before).
• Total independence – all electricity provided by sunlight.
• No grid power required, avoiding expensive infrastructure.

Main disadvantages of standalone off grid solar systems:

• Higher initial cost due to larger battery banks.

• Understanding and management of the system and energy usage is required.
• Energy usage limited to what the designed system can yield on a daily basis (could be
supplemented by a generator).
• Battery banks need replacement eventually. Depending on design and type of batteries
used, a lifespan of anything from 2 – 15 years is possible.

7
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Simplified Stand-Alone PV System

While a major component and cost of a stand-alone PV system is the solar array, several other
components are typically needed. These include:

• Batteries: Batteries are an important element in any stand-alone PV system but

can be optional depending upon the design. Batteries are used to store the solar-
produced electricity for night time or emergency use during the day. Depending
upon the solar array configuration, battery banks can be of 12V, 24V or 48V and
many hundreds of amperes in total.
• Charge Controller: A charge controller regulates and controls the output from
the solar array to prevent the batteries from being over charged (or over
8
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 discharged) by dissipating the excess power into a load resistance. Charge
controllers within a stand-alone PV system are optional but it is a good idea to
have one for safety reasons.
• Fuses and Isolation Switches: These allow PV installations to be protected from
accidental shorting of wires allowing power from the PV modules and system to
be turned “OFF” when not required saving energy and improving battery life.
• Inverter: The inverter can be another optional unit in a stand-alone system.
Inverters are used to convert the 12V, 24V or 48 Volts direct current (DC) power
from the solar array and batteries into an alternating current (AC) electricity and
power of either 120 VAC or 240 VAC for use in the home to power AC mains
appliances such as TV’s, washing machines, freezers, etc.
• Wiring: The final component required in and PV solar system is the electrical
wiring. The cables need to be correctly rated for the voltage and power
requirements. Thin telephone wire will not work!

Batteries are an important element and the heart of any stand-alone solar power system,
whether that is one using a large array of panels to power a home or a small pico solar system
used to power the garden, shed or fish pond.

Batteries are needed because of the fluctuating nature of the output being delivered by the PV
panels or array. They also convert the electrical energy into stored chemical energy for use
when the solar array is not producing power. During the hours of sunshine, the PV system is
directly fed to the load, with excess electrical energy being stored in the batteries for later use.
During the night, or during a period of low solar irradiance, such as a cloudy, rainy days, energy
is supplied to the load from the battery.

Grid-connected systems

Grid connect solar power

9
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A grid connect system is one that works in with the local utility grid so that when your solar
panels produce more solar electricity than your house is using the surplus power is fed into the
grid. With a grid connect solar power system when your house requires more power than what
your solar panels are producing then the balance of your electricity is supplied by the utility
grid. So for example if your electrical loads in your house were consuming 20 amps of power
and your solar power was only generating 12 amps then you would be drawing 8 amps from the
grid. Obviously at night all of your electrical needs are supplied by the grid because with a grid
connect system you do not store the power you generate during the day.

Stand-alone solar power

A stand-alone solar system the solar panels are not connected to a grid but instead are used to
charge a bank of batteries. These batteries store the power produced by the solar panels and
then your electrical loads draw their electricity from these batteries. Stand-alone solar power
systems have been used for a long time in areas where no public grid is available. However, the
real growth in solar power systems in the last 5 years has been in grid connect systems. Why is
this? Because most people live in areas that are connected to a public grid and stand-alone
systems are much, much more expensive than grid connect systems because batteries are very
expensive. It is my hope that in the future we will see a fall in battery prices and that stand-
alone systems will be used more. However, batteries will need to become a lot cheaper for this
to happen.

10
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A grid connect system is one that works in with the local utility grid so that when your solar
panels produce more solar electricity than your house is using the surplus power is fed into the
grid. With a grid connect solar power system when your house requires more power than what
your solar panels are producing then the balance of your electricity is supplied by the utility
grid. So, for example if your electrical loads in your house were consuming 20 amps of power
and your solar power was only generating 12 amps then you would be drawing 8 amps from the
grid. Obviously at night all of your electrical needs are supplied by the grid because with a grid
connect system you do not store the power you generate during the day.

With a stand-alone solar system the solar panels are not connected to a grid but instead are
used to charge a bank of batteries. These batteries store the power produced by the solar
panels and then your electrical loads draw their electricity from these batteries. Stand alone
solar power systems have been used for a long time in areas where no public grid is available.
However, the real growth in solar power systems in the last 5 years has been in grid connect
systems. Why is this? Because most people live in areas that are connected to a public grid and
stand-alone systems are much, much more expensive than grid connect systems because
batteries are very expensive. It is my hope that in the future we will see a fall in battery prices
and that stand-alone systems will be used more. However, batteries will need to become a lot
cheaper for this to happen.

Components of the two systems

Solar PV Systems: Overview of the Main Components

11
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The conversion of solar radiation to usable electric power is a process of high technical
complexity. Photovoltaic modules are the core of the system, but they are only one of the
components necessary to carry out the energy conversion process - by themselves, they are
incapable of producing a safe, usable and reliable electric output. This article will describe the
main components of a solar photovoltaic system.

Photovoltaic Array

This is the core of the system, composed of several solar modules which are in turn composed
of solar cells. Each solar cell is an individual energy conversion unit, which produces a DC
voltage whenever it receives light. It is important to note that photovoltaic modules generate
voltage in response to any light source, not only sunlight. By connecting the modules in one or
more series circuits, their DC voltage output can be aggregated into a single electric supply.

Crystalline silicon PV modules compose the majority of the photovoltaic market. There are also
emerging alternatives such as thin-film Cadmium Telluride modules, but they account for only a
12
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
small percentage of the market. Regardless of the technology, the working principle is the
same: using a material that is capable of providing a voltage output in response to incident
light.

Battery Bank

Solar PV systems occasionally produce energy at times when it isn't needed, for example if a
home is empty at the moment of production. If this happens, the surplus can be either sold to
the electric utility or stored in batteries. There are two main reasons for deciding to use battery
storage:

• Maximizing savings - If the production surplus is sold to the electric utility, the rate paid
is normally below the kWh price charged for consumption. Some PV system owners may
prefer to store the surplus in order to use it when needed, and save the full price of
each kilowatt-hour instead of selling them at a reduced rate.
• Backup power - A battery bank can store energy for electric service interruptions.
• Batteries tend to raise the cost of a PV system considerably. This means that savings are
only feasible if there is a drastic energy price increase during peak demand hours.
Otherwise, batteries actually make solar power more expensive.

Power Conditioning Unit

Providing protection against electric faults such as short circuits or line-to-ground faults. This is
typically accomplished with thermal-magnetic circuit breakers, which are available for direct
current, alternating current, or both.

Combining the DC supply that is provided by PV modules and converting it into an AC supply,
which can be synchronized with the electric utility or used to power home appliances. The
conversion from DC to AC is carried out with an inverter.

Controlling energy input and output for the battery bank, by means of a charge controller. If the
system doesn't use batteries, this element is omitted.

13
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
DC AND AC disconnect

For safety reasons, electric systems must be equipped with a manual disconnection device. This
is normally used to protect technical personnel from electric shock during system maintenance.
In addition, a manual disconnection switch allows any user to interrupt the circuit if there is an
emergency.

Main Panel (AC)

This is where all electric loads in the building are connected, and protected with circuit
breakers. Once the output from the PV system has been converted to AC power of the
adequate frequency, it can be connected to the main panel to provide energy along with the
electric utility.

Electric Meter

When PV systems are implemented, the electric meter must be upgraded to a model with net
metering capabilities. That is, the meter must be able to measure the energy flow and its
direction. This allows the exported kWh to be subtracted from the consumed kWh when the
homeowner is billed by the electric utility company.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0101 Describe stand-alone systems and grid-connected systems

• IAC0102 Identify their main components and describe their functions
• IAC0103 Explain the principles of operation of these two systems

14
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT02: Solar radiation (5%)

KT0201 Sun as energy source

KT0202 Distribution of solar radiation
KT0203 Direct and diffuse radiation
KT0204 Angle definition
KT0205 Sun position and solar spectrum
KT0206 Solar radiation on an inclined plane
KT0207 Ground reflection
KT0208 Measuring solar radiation
KT0209 Tracking PV rays

Sun as energy source

The energy of the sun is the original source of most of the energy found on earth. We get solar
heat energy from the sun, and sunlight can also be used to produce electricity from solar
(photovoltaic) cells. The sun heats the earth's surface and the Earth heats the air above it,
causing wind.

What is the energy of the sun?

The sun generates energy from a process called nuclear fusion. During nuclear fusion, the high
pressure and temperature in the sun's core cause nuclei to separate from their electrons.
Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form one helium atom. During the fusion process, radiant energy is
released.

The sun is made up of about 80% hydrogen, 20% helium and only 0.1% other elements. Its
radiant power comes from nuclear fusion processes, during which the sun loses 4.3 million
tones of mass each second. This mass is converted into radiant energy. Each square meter of

15
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
the sun’s surface emits a radiant power of 63.1 MW, which means that just a fifth of a square
kilometer of the sun’s surface emits an amount of energy equal to the global primary energy
demand on earth. Fortunately, only a small part of this energy reaches the earth’s surface. Solar
irradiance decreases with the square of the distance to the sun. Since the distance of the earth
to the sun changes during the year, solar irradiance outside the earth’s atmosphere also varies
between 1325 W/m² and 1420 W/m². The annual mean solar irradiance is known as the solar
constant and is 1367±2 W/m². On Mars, which is further from the sun than Earth, solar
irradiance is below 600 W/m² – a factor to be considered when designing PV-powered satellites
for the Mars orbit. Only a surface that is perpendicular to the incoming sun’s rays receives this
level of irradiance. Outside the atmosphere, and therefore not subject to its influence, solar
irradiance has only a direct component – all solar radiation is virtually parallel

Irradiance, Irradiation and Illuminance

Various different terms are used when dealing with solar radiation. However, these terms are
often used incorrectly, even by some solar specialists. The total specific radiant power, or
radiant flux, per area that reaches a Spectrum AM 0 (extraterrestrial) Spectrum AM 1.5
(terrestrial) receiver surface is called irradiance. Irradiance is measured in W/m² and has the
symbol E. When integrating the irradiance over a certain time period it becomes solar
irradiation. Irradiation is measured in either J/m² or Wh/m², and represented by the symbol H.
For daylighting purposes, only the visible part of the sunlight is considered. The analogous
quantity to the irradiance for visible light is the illuminance. This uses the unit lm/m²
(lumen/m²) or lx (lux).

Solar Spectrum

It is the surface temperature of the sun that mainly characterizes the solar spectrum. This
spectrum defines the corresponding spectral irradiance for all wavelengths of sunlight. Visible
light, with wavelengths between 0.4 µm and 0.75 µm, has a 46% share of the spectrum,
16
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
infrared light 47%, and ultraviolet light only 7% (see Figure 1). The earth’s atmosphere reduces
the irradiance that reaches the earth’s surface. Ozone, water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb
radiation with certain wavelengths as it passes through the atmosphere. The significant
reduction in mainly the ultraviolet and infrared parts of the spectrum is a result of this
absorption.

Direct and Diffuse Irradiance

Other atmospheric particles reflect or scatter sunlight. Only a part of the extraterrestrial beam
irradiance reaches the earth’s surface directly (see Figure 2). The scattered part of the
irradiance has no direction. Only direct irradiance can be used for concentrating solar systems,
but non-concentrating systems can also use the scattered, or diffuse irradiance. The so-called
global irradiance Eg on a horizontal surface on earth consists of the direct Edir and diffuse
irradiance Edif. On a tilted plane, there is another irradiance component Eref, which is that
component reflected from the ground. The average ground reflection is about 20% of the global
irradiance. Hence, the irradiance Etilt on the tilted plane consists of three components, Etilt =
Edir + Edif + Eref.

17
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A surface perpendicular to the incoming direct sunlight usually gets the highest possible
irradiance. Normally, it is below 1000 W/m²; higher values are only possible in particular
situations, such as if snow or clouds reflect sunlight onto the receiver surface.

Distribution of solar radiation

Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation. For higher, or lower, wavelengths the radiation
produced by the Sun decreases. Within this range, the region from around 1000 Angstroms up
to around 4000 Angstroms is the ultraviolet and this radiation is generally absorbed in the
atmosphere of the Earth by the ozone layer.

What is spectral distribution of solar radiation?

Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation. The spectral distribution has a shape known as a black
body curve with the peak occurring at around 5000 Angstroms - in the middle of the range of
wavelengths which we are able to see. For higher, or lower, wavelengths the radiation
produced by the Sun decreases.

What is Solar Radiation?

18
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun. It provides light and heat for
the Earth and energy for photosynthesis. This radiant energy is necessary for the metabolism of
the environment and its inhabitants . The three relevant bands, or ranges, along the solar
radiation spectrum are ultraviolet, visible (PAR), and infrared. Of the light that reaches Earth’s
surface, infrared radiation makes up 49.4% of while visible light provides 42.3% 9. Ultraviolet
radiation makes up just over 8% of the total solar radiation. Each of these bands has a different
impact on the environment.

The amount and intensity of solar radiation that a location or body of water receives depends
on a variety of factors. These factors include latitude, season, time of day, cloud cover and
altitude. Not all radiation emitted from the sun reaches Earth’s surface. Much of it is absorbed,
reflected or scattered in the atmosphere. At the surface, solar energy can be absorbed directly
from the sun, called direct radiation, or from light that has been scattered as it enters the
atmosphere, called indirect radiation.

How is Solar Radiation Measured?

Wavelengths cycles are measured in nanometers (nm) from peak to peak. The shorter the
wavelength, the more energy it has. Blue light has more energy than red light.

19
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Solar radiation is measured in wavelengths or frequency. As light travels in a wave, a
wavelength is defined as the distance from peak to peak and is measured in nanometers (nm).
Frequency is defined as wavelength cycles per second and is expressed in hertz (Hz). Bands with
shorter wavelengths produce higher frequencies. Likewise, the longer the wavelength, the
longer it will take to complete a cycle, which produces a lower frequency.

The energy of the wavelength increases with the frequency and decreases with the size of the
wavelength. In other words, shorter wavelengths are more energetic than longer ones. This
means that ultraviolet radiation is more energetic than infrared radiation. Due to this extra
energy, shorter wavelengths tend to cause more harm than longer wavelengths 16. The more
energy a wavelength has, the easier it is to disrupt the molecule that absorbs it. Ultraviolet light
(which has the highest energy) can cause damage to DNA and other important cellular
structures.

20
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all types of radiation 5. The part of the spectrum
that reaches Earth from the sun is between 100 nm and 1 mm. This band is broken into three
ranges: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation. Ultraviolet contains wavelengths between
100-400 nm. Visible light falls within the range of 400-700 nm, and infrared light contains
wavelengths from 700 nm to over 1 mm 1. In the visible light spectrum, the colors are
determined by the length. Longer wavelengths appear red while shorter wavelengths are
blue/violet as they range closer to the ultraviolet spectrum.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Nearly all of UV-C, half of UV-B and some of UV-C radiation is absorbed by ozone in the
stratosphere before it can reach the surface.

Ultraviolet radiation can be separated into three wavelength ranges: UV-A, UV-B and UV-C. All
wavelengths of ultraviolet light can directly affect the DNA of water inhabitants as well as
generate harmful photochemical. The shorter the wavelength, the more damage it is capable of
causing.

UV-C includes wavelengths between 100 and 280 nm. This radiation range only makes up 0.5%
of all solar radiation, but it can cause the most damage to organisms. However, most of this
short-wave radiation is absorbed by stratospheric gases (ozone), and very little reaches the
surface

21
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Nearly all of UV-C, half of UV-B and some of UV-C radiation is absorbed by ozone in the
stratosphere before it can reach the surface.

Direct and diffuse radiation

Direct Radiation vs Diffuse Radiation

"Direct radiation" is also sometimes called "beam radiation" or "direct beam radiation". ...
"Diffuse radiation", on the other hand, describes the sunlight that has been scattered by
molecules and particles in the atmosphere but that has still made it down to the surface of the
earth.

What parts of solar radiation are measured?

The total or global solar radiation striking a collector has two components, direct beam
radiation and diffuse radiation. Additionally, radiation reflected by the surface in front of a
collector contributes to the solar radiation received. But unless the collector is tilted at a steep
angle from the horizontal and the ground is highly reflective (e.g., snow), this contribution is
small.

22
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
As the name implies, direct beam radiation comes in a direct line from the sun. For sunny days
with clear skies, most of the solar radiation is direct beam radiation. On overcast days, the sun
is obscured by the clouds and the direct beam radiation is zero.

Diffuse radiation is scattered out of the direct beam by molecules, aerosols, and clouds.
Because it comes from all regions of the sky, it is also referred to as sky radiation. The portion
of total solar radiation that is diffuse is about 10% to 20% for clear skies and up to 100% for
cloudy skies.

The type of data needed and the funds available help determine the number and kinds of
instruments used at a site to measure solar radiation. A complete solar radiation monitoring
station has instrumentation for measuring three quantities:

• total or global radiation on a horizontal surface

• diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface
• direct beam radiation.

Measuring all three quantities provides sufficient information for understanding the solar
resource and for rigorous quality assessment of the data. Any two of the measured quantities
can be used to calculate a range of acceptable values for the third. Many monitoring stations
also have equipment for measuring solar radiation on tilted and tracking surfaces and for
measuring meteorological parameters such as ambient temperature, relative humidity, and
wind speed and direction.

A station with a lower level of funding may only measure two quantities; the third is calculated.
For example, the direct beam component can be derived by subtracting the diffuse radiation
from the global radiation and applying trigonometric relationships to account for the position of
the sun. The trade-off for this approach is that the calculated direct beam data are less accurate
than if the direct beam data were measured.

23
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Historically, many stations have measured only the global radiation on a horizontal surface. This
necessitates calculating both the diffuse and direct beam solar radiation, which results in less
accurate values for these two quantities than if they were measured.

In the absence of any solar radiation measurements, we employ models using meteorological
data such as cloudiness and minutes of sunshine to estimate solar radiation. Although much
less accurate, this is often the only option we have for locations where solar radiation is not
measured. Cloudiness data are based on observations by a trained meteorologist, who looks at
the sky and estimates the amount of cloud cover in tenths. A clear sky rates a cloud cover value
of 0 tenths, and an overcast sky rates a cloud cover value of 10 tenths. Minutes of sunshine are
recorded by an instrument that measures the time during the day when the sun is not obscured
by clouds.

To investigate the spectral distribution of solar radiation, an instrument called a

spectroradiometer measures the solar radiation intensity at discrete wavelengths.
Spectroradiometers are complex and relatively expensive instruments, and their operation and
maintenance require significant effort. Consequently, spectroradiometers are not routinely
used for long-term data collection. Rather, they help establish data bases that have sufficient
information to validate models that predict the spectral distribution based on meteorological
data and the position of the sun.

Angle definition

In reference to solar energy systems: the angle a ray of sun makes with a line perpendicular to a
surface; for example, a surface directly facing the sun has an angle of incidence of zero, and a
surface parallel to the sun (such as a sunrise striking a horizontal rooftop) has an angle of
incidence of 90°.

24
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
How does the tilt angle and/or orientation of the PV panel affect system performance?

Photovoltaic (PV) panels collect solar radiation directly from the sun, from the sky, and from
sunlight reflected off the ground or area surrounding the PV panel. Orienting the PV panel in a
direction and tilt to maximize its exposure to direct sunlight will optimize the collection
efficiency. The panel will collect solar radiation most efficiently when the sun's rays are
perpendicular to the panel's surface. The angle of the sun varies throughout the year, as
illustrated in Figure 9. Therefore, the optimal tilt angle for a PV panel in the winter will differ
from the optimal tilt angle for the summer. This angle will also vary by latitude.

Range of midday sun angles at 33° north latitude

Sun position and solar spectrum

What is the meaning of solar spectrum?

Solar Spectrum. Solar spectra are defined by an air mass (AM) value, which is a measure of the
length of the path through the earth's atmosphere that the solar radiation travels

The Solar Spectrum

The Sun emits radiation from X-rays to radio waves, but the irradiance of solar radiation peaks
in the visible wavelengths (see figure below). Common units of irradiance are Joules per second
per m2 of surface that is illuminated per nm of wavelength (e.g., between 300 nm and 301 nm),
or W m–2 nm–1 for the plot below. These units are the units of spectral irradiance, which is

25
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
also simply called irradiance, but as a function of wavelength. To get the total irradiance in units
of W m–2, the spectral irradiance should be integrated over all the wavelengths.

Note the following for the solar spectrum:

• About half of the energy is in the visible wavelengths below 0.7 μm. We can tell this by
doing a quick integration.
• O3 and O2 absorb much of the UV irradiance below 300 nm high in the atmosphere.
• About 70% of the visible irradiance makes it all the way to sea level.
• O3 absorbs a little of the visible irradiance.
• A significant fraction of the visible irradiance is scattered by clouds and aerosol. Some is
reflected back out into space so that this portion never deposits energy in the Earth
system.
• There are large wavelength bands in which water vapor, CO2, and O3 absorb infrared
irradiance.

For solar wavelengths at which the absorptivity is high, the solar irradiance at sea level is small.
Note that the big absorbers of infrared irradiance are water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone.

26
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Sunlight

Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared,
visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through Earth's atmosphere, and is
obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When the direct solar radiation is not
blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat.
When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The
World Meteorological Organization uses the term "sunshine duration" to mean the cumulative
time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per
square meter. Other sources indicate an "Average over the entire earth" of "164 Watts per
square meter over a 24-hour day".

The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects, as it is both a
requisite for vitamin D3 synthesis and a mutagen.

27
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Solar radiation on an inclined plane

Solar radiation on inclined surface

The power incident on a PV module depends not only on the power contained in the sunlight,
but also on the angle between the module and the sun. The amount of solar radiation incident
on a tilted module surface is the component of the incident solar radiation which is
perpendicular to the module surface.

Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface

The power incident on a PV module depends not only on the power contained in the sunlight,
but also on the angle between the module and the sun. When the absorbing surface and the
sunlight are perpendicular to each other, the power density on the surface is equal to that of
the sunlight (in other words, the power density will always be at its maximum when the PV
module is perpendicular to the sun). However, as the angle between the sun and a fixed surface
is continually changing, the power density on a fixed PV module is less than that of the incident
sunlight.

The amount of solar radiation incident on a tilted module surface is the component of the
incident solar radiation which is perpendicular to the module surface. The following figure
shows how to calculate the radiation incident on a tilted surface (Smodule) given either the
solar radiation measured on horizontal surface (Shoriz) or the solar radiation measured
perpendicular to the sun (Sincident).

28
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of
energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. However, the technical
feasibility and economical operation of these technologies at a specific location depends on the
available solar resource.

Basic principles

Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation
that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:

• Geographic location
• Time of day
• Season
• Local landscape
• Local weather.

Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° (just
above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's
surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel
through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the

29
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
frigid polar regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas
receive no sun at all during part of the year.

The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the sun during part of the
year. When the sun is nearer the Earth, the Earth's surface receives a little more solar energy.
The Earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the
northern hemisphere. However, the presence of vast oceans moderates the hotter summers
and colder winters one would expect to see in the southern hemisphere as a result of this
difference.

The 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis of rotation is a more significant factor in determining the
amount of sunlight striking the Earth at a particular location. Tilting results in longer days in the
northern hemisphere from the spring (vernal) equinox to the fall (autumnal) equinox and longer
days in the southern hemisphere during the other 6 months.

Countries such as the United States, which lie in the middle latitudes, receive more solar energy
in the summer not only because days are longer, but also because the sun is nearly overhead.
The sun's rays are far more slanted during the shorter days of the winter months. Cities such as
Denver, Colorado, (near 40° latitude) receive nearly three times more solar energy in June than
they do in December.

The rotation of the Earth is also responsible for hourly variations in sunlight. In the early
morning and late afternoon, the sun is low in the sky. Its rays travel further through the
atmosphere than at noon, when the sun is at its highest point. On a clear day, the greatest
amount of solar energy reaches a solar collector around solar noon.

Diffuse and direct solar radiation

30
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by:

• Air molecules
• Water vapor
• Clouds
• Dust
• Pollutants
• Forest fires
• Volcanoes.

This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without
being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar
radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam
radiation by 10% on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick, cloudy days.

Measurement

Scientists measure the amount of sunlight falling on specific locations at different times of the
year. They then estimate the amount of sunlight falling on regions at the same latitude with
similar climates. Measurements of solar energy are typically expressed as total radiation on a
horizontal surface, or as total radiation on a surface tracking the sun.

Radiation data for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems are often represented as kilowatt-hours
per square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may also be expressed as watts
per square meter (W/m2).

Radiation data for solar water heating and space heating systems are usually represented in
British thermal units per square foot (Btu/ft2).

31
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Ground reflection

What is solar reflection?

The solar reflectance (SR) is the surface capability to reflect solar radiation back to the
hemisphere where the solar source is located, integrated over the entire solar spectrum,
including specular and diffuse reflection components.

Solar Radiation Reflected from Exterior Surfaces

Energy Plus has an option to calculate beam and sky solar radiation that is reflected from
exterior surfaces and then strikes the building. This calculation occurs if “with Reflections” is
used on the Solar Distribution option in the Building object. For zones with detailed daylighting,
these reflections are also considered in the daylight illuminance calculations.

The reflecting surfaces fall into three categories:

Shadowing surfaces. These are surfaces like overhangs or neighboring buildings entered with
objects Shading: Site: Detailed, Shading: Building: Detailed, or Shading: Zone: Detailed

These surfaces can have diffuse and/or specular (beam-to-beam) reflectance values that are
specified with the Shading Property: Reflectance object.

Exterior building surfaces. In this case one section of the building reflects solar radiation onto
another section (and vice-versa)

Opaque building surfaces (walls, for example) are assumed to be diffusely reflecting. Windows
and glass doors are assumed to be secularly reflecting. The reflectance values for opaque
surfaces are calculated by the program from the Solar Absorptance and Visible Absorptance
values of the outer material layer of the surface’s construction. The reflectance values for
windows and glass doors are calculated by the program from the reflectance properties of the
individual glass layers that make up surface’s construction assuming no shading device is
present and taking into account inter-reflections among the layers.

32
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The ground surfaces. Beam solar and sky solar reflection from the ground is calculated even if
“with Reflections” is not used (the default). But in this case the ground plane is considered
unobstructed, i.e., the shadowing of the ground by the building itself or by obstructions such as
neighboring buildings is ignored. This shadowing is taken into account only if “With Reflections”
is used in the Solar Distribution field (in “Building” input object) . In this case the user-input
value of ground view factor is not used.

Examples of solar reflection from shadowing surfaces in the Shading series of input objects.
Solid arrows are beam solar radiation; dashed arrows are diffuse solar radiation. (a) Diffuse
reflection of beam solar radiation from the top of an overhang. (b) Diffuse reflection of sky solar
radiation from the top of an overhang. (c) Beam-to-beam (specular) reflection from the façade
of an adjacent highly-glazed building represented by a vertical shadowing surface.

33
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Solar reflection from building surfaces onto other building surfaces. In this example beam solar
reflects from a vertical section of the building onto a roof section. The reflection from the
window is specular. The reflection from the wall is diffuse.

34
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Shadowing by the building itself affects beam solar reflection from the ground. Beam-to-diffuse
reflection from the ground onto the building occurs only for sunlit areas, A and C, not for
shaded area, B. Shadowing by the building also affects sky solar reflection from ground (not
shown).

Diffuse Reflection of Beam Solar and Sky Solar Radiation

A ray-tracing method is used to calculate beam solar and sky solar radiation that is diffusely
reflected onto each of a building’s exterior surfaces (walls, roofs, windows and doors), called
here “receiving surfaces.” The calculation begins by generating a set of rays proceeding into the
outward hemisphere at each receiving point on a receiving surface. Then it determinines
whether each ray hits the sky, ground or an obstruction. The radiance at the hit point from
reflection of incident beam or sky solar is determined and the contribution of this radiance to
the receiving surface is calculated, added to the contribution from other hit points, and
averaged over the receiving points. Separate calculations are done for beam-to-diffuse and sky
solar reflection from all obstructions and beam-to-diffuse and sky solar reflection from the
ground

Measuring solar radiation

Solar Radiation and How It Is Measured

Before talking about concentration of light for practical purposes, it would be good for us to
review what kinds of natural radiation are available to us and how that radiation is
characterized and measured.

The fraction of the energy flux emitted by the sun and intercepted by the earth is characterized
by the solar constant. The solar constant is defined as essentially the measure of the solar
energy flux density perpendicular to the ray direction per unit are per unit time. It is most
precisely measured by satellites outside the earth atmosphere. The solar constant is currently
estimated at 1367 W/m2 [cited from Stine and Harrigan, 1986]. This number actually varies by
3% because the orbit of the earth is elliptical, and the distance from the sun varies over the
35
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
course of the year. Some small variation of the solar constant is also possible due to changes in
Sun's luminosity. This measured value includes all types of radiation, a substantial fraction of
which is lost as the light passes through the atmosphere [IPS - Radio and Space Services].

As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets absorbed, scattered, reflected, or
transmitted. All these processes result in reduction of the energy flux density. Actually, the
solar flux density is reduced by about 30% compared to extraterrestrial radiation flux on a
sunny day and is reduced by as much as 90% on a cloudy day. The following main losses should
be noted:

• absorbed by particles and molecules in the atmosphere - 10-30%

• reflected and scattered back to space - 2-11%
• scattered to earth (direct radiation becomes diffuse) - 5-26% [Stine and Harrigan, 1986]

As a result, the direct radiation reaching the earth surface (or a device installed on the earth
surface) never exceeds 83% of the original extraterrestrial energy flux. This radiation that
comes directly from the solar disk is defined as beam radiation. The scattered and reflected
radiation that is sent to the earth surface from all directions (reflected from other bodies,
molecules, particles, droplets, etc.) is defined as diffuse radiation. The sum of the beam and
diffuse components is defined as total (or global) radiation.

It is important for us to differentiate between the beam radiation and diffuse radiation when
talking about solar concentration in this lesson, because the beam radiation can be
concentrated, while the diffuse radiation, in many cases, cannot.

Short-wave radiation, in the wavelength range from 0.3 to 3 μm, comes directly from the sun. It
includes both beam and diffuse components.

Long-wave radiation, with wavelength 3 μm or longer, originates from the sources at near-
ambient temperatures - atmosphere, earth surface, light collectors, other bodies.

36
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The solar radiation reaching the earth is highly variable and depends on the state of the
atmosphere at a specific locale. Two atmospheric processes can significantly affect the incident
irradiation: scattering and absorption.

Scattering is caused by interaction of the radiation with molecules, water, and dust particles in
the air. How much light is scattered depends on the number of particles in the atmosphere,
particle size, and the total air mass the radiation comes through.

Absorption occurs upon interaction of the radiation with certain molecules, such as ozone
(absorption of short-wave radiation - ultraviolet), water vapor, and carbon dioxide (absorption
of long-wave radiation - infrared).

Due to these processes, out of the whole spectrum of solar radiation, only a small portion
reaches the earth surface. Thus most of x-rays and other short-wave radiation is absorbed by
atmospheric components in the ionosphere, ultraviolet is absorbed by ozone, and not-so
abundant long-wave radiation is absorbed by CO2. As a result, the main wavelength range to be
considered for solar applications is from 0.29 to 2.5 μm

37
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The amount of solar radiation on the earth surface can be instrumentally measured, and
precise measurements are important for providing background solar data for solar energy
conversion applications.

There are two important types of instruments to measure solar radiation:

• Pyrheliometer is used to measure direct beam radiation at normal incidence. There are
different types of pyrheliometers.
• Based on their design, the above listed instruments measure the beam radiation coming
from the sun and a small portion of the sky around the sun. Based on the experimental
studies involving various pyrheliometer design, the contribution of the circumsolar sky
to the beam is relatively negligible on a sunny day with clear skies. However, a hazy sky
or a uniform thin cloud cover redistributes the radiation so that contribution of the
circumsolar sky to the measurement may become more significant.
• Pyranometer is used to measure total hemispherical radiation - beam plus diffuse - on a
horizontal surface. If shaded, a pyranometer measures diffuse radiation. Most of solar
resource data come from pyranometers.
• Photoelectric sunshine recorder. The natural solar radiation is notoriously intermittent
and varying in intensity. The most potent radiation that creates the highest potential for
concentration and conversion is the bright sunshine, which has a large beam
component. The duration of the bright sunshine at a locale is measured, for example, by
a photoelectric sunshine recorder. The device has two selenium photovoltaic cells, one
of which is shaded, and the other is exposed to the available solar radiation. When there
is no beam radiation, the signal output from both cells is similar, while in bright
sunshine, signal difference between the two cells is maximized.

38
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Tracking PV rays

What is PV tracking?

PV Tracking is an option on many controllers. When a control loop is in MANUAL, with PV

Tracking turned on, the controller setpoint (SP) will follow the PV. When the loop is returned to
AUTO, there is no sudden movement of the process, because the PV is already at setpoint

Photovoltaic (PV) panels are typically mounted at a fixed orientation. They can, however, be
made to track the sun to maximize the incident solar radiation. PV tracking systems are
classified according to the number of axes of rotation and the frequency with which the
adjustments are made

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0201 Explain the concepts of irradiance, insolation, energy content and the solar
constant
• IAC0202 Explain the difference between direct and diffuse radiation
• IAC0203 Explain the concept of angle definition and identify some of the symbols used
to depict the angles
• IAC0204 Explain the relationship between solar altitude and air mass
• IAC0205 Describe solar positions and air mass (AM) in different places in the world
• IAC0206 Explain the concept of the solar spectrum and describe how the sun‟s position
affects the solar spectrum
• IAC0207 Identify the factors that reduce the passage of light through the earth's
atmosphere
• IAC0208 Explain the impact of angle of inclination on solar radiation
• IAC0209 Explain the concept of ground reflection in terms of the albedo value
• IAC0210 Identify the instruments used to measure radiation and describe their accuracy
• IAC0211 Describe the advantages of tracking PV arrays and identify tracker systems

39
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT03: The photovoltaic effect (5%)

KT0301 Operation of a solar cell

KT0302 Design and function of a crystalline silicon solar cell

Operation of a solar cell

Solar Cell Operation. Solar cells convert light energy into electrical energy either indirectly by
first converting it into heat, or through a direct process known as the photovoltaic effect

How solar cells work

Since a solar cell is the only generator in a solar PV system, it is one of the most important parts
in a solar PV system. In the following paragraphs, a simple introduction of a solar cell and how it
operates is discussed, with reference links for better understanding.

40
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A solar cell: A solar cell is a solid-state electrical device (p-n junction) that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity (DC) using the photovoltaic effect. The process of conversion first
requires a material which absorbs the solar energy (photon), and then raises an electron to a
higher energy state, and then the flow of this high-energy electron to an external circuit. Silicon
is one such material that uses such process. A solar cell structure is shown in figure 1 and a
solar panel configuration

PV cells: PV cells are most commonly made of silicon, and come in two common varieties,
crystalline and thin-film cells, as detailed in table 1.

41
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A p-n junction: It is formed by joining p-type (high concentration of hole or deficiency of
electron) and n-type (high concentration of electron) semiconductor material. Due to this
joining, excess electrons from n-type try to diffuse with the holes of p-type whereas excess hole
from p-type try to diffuse with the electrons of n-type. Movement of electrons to the p-type
side exposes positive ion cores in the n-type side, while movement of holes to the n-type side
exposes negative ion cores in the p-type side, resulting in an electron field at the junction and
forming the depletion region.

A light-generated current: Generation of current in a solar cell, known as the “light-generated

current,” involves two important processes.

• Absorption of incident photons to create electron-hole pairs. Electron-hole pairs will

generate in the solar cell provided that the incident photon has an energy greater than
that of the band gap. However, electrons (in the p-type material), and holes (in the n-
type material) are meta-stable and will only exist, on average, for a length of time equal
to the minority carrier lifetime before they recombine. If the carrier recombines, then
the light-generated electron-hole pair is lost and no current or power can be generated.
• Collection of these carriers by the p-n junction prevents this recombination by using a p-
n junction to spatially separate the electron and the hole. The carriers are separated by
the action of the electric field existing at the p-n junction. If the light-generated minority
42
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 carrier reaches the p-n junction, it is swept across the junction by the electric field at the
junction, where it is now a majority carrier. If the emitter and base of the solar cell are
connected together (i.e., if the solar cell is short-circuited), then the light-generated
carriers flow through the external circuit.

Photovoltaic effect: The collection of light-generated carriers does not by itself give rise to
power generation. In order to generate power, a voltage must be generated as well as a
current. Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a process known as the “photovoltaic effect.” The
collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a movement of electrons to the
n-type side and holes to the p-type side of the junction. Under short circuit conditions, the
carriers exit the device as light-generated current.

Design and function of a crystalline silicon solar cell

What is crystalline silicon solar cells?

Crystalline silicon is the dominant semiconducting material used in photovoltaic technology for
the production of solar cells. These cells are assembled into solar panels as part of a
photovoltaic system to generate solar power from sunlight.

Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaics

Characteristics of crystalline silicon photovoltaics

• Crystalline silicon photovoltaics is the most widely used photovoltaic technology.

Crystalline silicon photovoltaics are modules built using crystalline silicon solar cells (c-
Si), developed from the microelectronics technology industry.
• Crystalline silicon solar cells have high efficiency, making crystalline silicon photovoltaics
an interesting technology where space is at a premium.

43
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Crystalline silicon solar cells

There are two types of crystalline silicon solar cells used in crystalline silicon photovoltaics:

• Mono-crystalline silicon, produced by slicing wafers from a high-purity single crystal

ingot
• Multi-crystalline silicon, made by sawing a cast block of silicon first into bars and then
into wafers

Silicon Solar Cell Parameters

For silicon solar cells, the basic design constraints on surface reflection, carrier collection,
recombination and parasitic resistances result in an optimum device of about 25% theoretical
efficiency. A schematic of such an optimum device is shown below.

44
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 Basic schematic of a silicon solar cell. The top layer is referred to as the emitter and the bulk
material is referred to as the base

Basic Cell Design Compromises

Substrate Material

Bulk crystalline silicon dominates the current photovoltaic market, in part due to the
prominence of silicon in the integrated circuit market. As is also the case for transistors, silicon
does not have optimum material parameters. In particular, silicon's band gap is slightly too low
for an optimum solar cell and since silicon is an indirect material, it has a low absorption co-
efficient. While the low absorption co-efficient can be overcome by light trapping, silicon is also
difficult to grow into thin sheets. However, silicon's abundance, and its domination of the
semiconductor manufacturing industry has made it difficult for other materials to compete.

Cell Thickness

(100-500 µm)

45
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
An optimum silicon solar cell with light trapping and very good surface passivation is about 100
µm thick. However, thickness between 200 and 500µm are typically used, partly for practical
issues such as making and handling thin wafers, and partly for surface passivation reasons.

Doping of Base

(1 Ω·cm)

A higher base doping leads to a higher Voc and lower resistance, but higher levels of doping
result in damage to the crystal.

Reflection Control

(front surface typically textured)

The front surface is textured to increase the amount of light coupled into the cell.

Emitter Dopant

(n-type)

N-type silicon has a higher surface quality than p-type silicon so it is placed at the front of the
cell where most of the light is absorbed. Thus, the top of the cell is the negative terminal and
the rear of the cell is the positive terminal.

Emitter Thickness

(<1 μm)

46
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A large fraction of light is absorbed close to the front surface. By making the front layer very
thin, a large fraction of the carriers generated by the incoming light are created within a
diffusion length of the p-n junction.

Doping Level of Emitter

(100 Ω/☐)

The front junction is doped to a level sufficient to conduct away the generated electricity
without resistive loses. However, excessive levels of doping reduce the material's quality to the
extent that carriers recombine before reaching the junction.

Grid Pattern.

(fingers 20 to 200 µm width, placed 1 - 5 mm apart)

The resistivity of silicon is too high to conduct away all the current generated, so a lower
resistivity metal grid is placed on the surface to conduct away the current. The metal grid
shades the cell from the incoming light so there is a compromise between light collection and
resistance of the metal grid.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0301 Explain the concept of intrinsic conductivity using the atomic theory
• IAC0302 Describe the design and function of a crystalline silicon solar cell
• IAC0303 Explain the concept of energy balance

47
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
KM-11-KT04: Solar cell types (13%)

KT0401 Crystalline silicon

KT0402 Monocrystalline (single-crystal) silicon cells
KT0403 Polycrystalline silicon cells
KT0404 Polycrystalline UMG silicon cells
KT0405 Ribbon pulled silicon cells
KT0406 Texturing and anti-reflection coating
KT0407 Front contacts
KT0408 Back contacts
KT0409 Alternatives for wafer production
KT0410 High performance cells (manufacturing processes - float-zone method,
optimised cell structures, surface passivation, selective emitters, edge isolation,
back surface field, point contacts, back-contacted solar cells [types include
MWT, EWT and back-contact (IBC) solar cells]; polarisation effect [HIT solar
cells, transparent solar cells, spherical solar cells, silver cells])
KT0411 Thin-film cell technology
KT0412 Amorphous silicon cells
KT0413 Micromorphous solar cells
KT0414 Copper indium diselenide (CIS) cells
KT0415 Cadmium telluride cells (CdTe)
KT0416 Nano-structured solar cells (nano-structured CIS cells, organic solar cells: dye-
sensitised nano-crystalline cells)
KT0417 Concentrator solar cells and concentrating systems
KT0418 Comparison of solar cell types and trends

48
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Crystalline silicon

Crystalline silicon (c-Si) is the crystalline forms of silicon, either polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si,
consisting of small crystals), or monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si, a continuous crystal).
Crystalline silicon is the dominant semiconducting material used in photovoltaic technology for
the production of solar cells. These cells are assembled into solar panels as part of a
photovoltaic system to generate solar power from sunlight.

In electronics, crystalline silicon is typically the monocrystalline form of silicon, and is used for
producing microchips. This silicon contains much lower impurity levels than those required for
solar cells. Production of semiconductor grade silicon involves a chemical purification to
produce hyperpure polysilicon followed by a recrystallization process to grow monocrystalline
silicon. The cylindrical boules are then cut into wafers for further processing.

Single Crystalline Silicon

The majority of silicon solar cells are fabricated from silicon wafers, which may be either single-
crystalline or multi-crystalline. Single-crystalline wafers typically have better material
parameters but are also more expensive. Crystalline silicon has an ordered crystal structure,
with each atom ideally lying in a pre-determined position. Crystalline silicon exhibits predictable
and uniform behaviour but because of the careful and slow manufacturing processes required,
it is also the most expensive type of silicon.

49
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The regular arrangement of silicon atoms in single-crystalline silicon produces a well-defined
band structure. Each silicon atom has four electrons in the outer shell. Pairs of electrons from
neighbouring atoms are shared so each atom shares four bonds with the neighbouring atoms.

50
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Single crystalline silicon is usually grown as a large cylindrical ingot producing circular or semi-
square solar cells. The semi-square cell started out circular but has had the edges cut off so that
a number of cells can be more efficiently packed into a rectangular module.

Crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) cells are used in the largest quantity of all types of solar
cells on the market, representing about 90% of the world total PV cell production in 2008.
Crystalline silicon solar cells are also expected to have a primary role in the future PV market.
This article reviews the current technologies used for the production and application of
crystalline silicon PV cells. The highest energy conversion efficiency reported so far for research
crystalline silicon PV cells is 25%. Standard industrial cells, however, remain limited to 15–18%
with the exception of certain high-efficiency cells capable of efficiencies greater than 20%.
High-efficiency research PV cells have advantages in performance but are often unsuitable for
low-cost production due to their complex structures and the lengthy manufacturing processes
required for fabrication. Various technologies for mono- and polycrystalline PV cells are
compared and discussed with respect to the corresponding material technologies, such as
silicon ingot and wafer production. High energy conversion efficiency and low processing cost
can only be achieved simultaneously through the development of advanced production
technologies and equipment, and some of the latest technologies that could lead to efficiencies
of greater than 25% and commercially viable production costs are reviewed.

Monocrystalline (single-crystal) silicon cells

What is monocrystalline silicon solar cells?

Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of silicon ingots, which are cylindrical in shape. To
optimize performance and lower costs of a single monocrystalline solar cell, four sides are cut
out of the cylindrical ingots to make silicon wafers, which is what gives monocrystalline solar
panels their characteristic look.

51
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Monocrystalline

This is the oldest and most developed of the three technologies. Monocrystalline panels as the
name suggests are created from a single continuous crystal structure. A Monocrystalline panel
can be identified from the solar cells which all appear as a single flat color.

Construction

They are made through the Czochralski method where a silicon crystal ‘seed’ is placed in a vat
of molten silicon. The seed is then slowly drawn up with the molten silicon forming a solid
crystal structure around the seed known as an ingot. The ingot of solid crystal silicon that is
formed is then finely sliced ingot what is known as a silicon wafer. This is then made into a cell.

The Czochralski process results in large cylindrical ingots. Four sides are cut out of the ingots to
make silicon wafers. A significant amount of the original silicon ends up as waste.

Polycrystalline silicon cells

Polycrystalline

52
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Polycrystalline or Multicrystalline is a newer technology and its manufacturing process can vary.

Construction

Polycrystalline also starts as a silicon crystal ‘seed’ placed in a vat of molten silicon. However,
rather than draw the silicon crystal seed up as with Monocrystalline, the vat of silicon is simply
allowed to cool. This is what forms the distinctive edges and grains in the solar cell.

Polycrystalline cells were previously thought to be inferior to monocrystalline because they

were slightly less efficient. However, because of the cheaper method by which they can be
produced — coupled with only slightly lower efficiencies — they have now become the
dominant technology on the residential solar panels market.

Underpinning the new record for p-type multicrystalline solar cells has been the continued
quality improvements of pulticrystalline wafers that have helped pushed standard 60-cell
pulticrystalline panels from 240W to 300W over the last 5 years.

Polycrystalline cells are now very close to monocrystalline cells in terms of efficiency.

53
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Polycrystalline UMG silicon cells

What is polycrystalline solar cells?

Polycrystalline Solar Panels. Polycrystalline solar cells are blended together from multiple
pieces of silicon. Poly solar panels are slightly less efficient than mono panels due to
imperfections in the surface of the solar cells. Of course, they're cheaper to manufacture which
means they cost less for the end user

Polycrystalline solar cells are blended together from multiple pieces of silicon. Smaller bits of
silicon are molded and treated to create the solar cell. This process is less wasteful because
hardly any raw material is thrown out during manufacturing.

The blended makeup of the cells gives poly panels their iconic blue color. If you look at them up
close, you’ll see the texture and color is uneven due to the way the cells are made.

Ribbon pulled silicon cells

String Ribbon technology is a technique where the ribbon is pulled from the silicon melt
between two wires, it is not capable of achieving the same electrical performance as
conventional wafer technology. Wafer technologies have reached as high as 25% in laboratory
conditions.

54
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Texturing and anti-reflection coating

What types of materials are currently used as anti-reflective coatings?

In brief, among the best materials that act as antireflection coatings, in particular for optical
devices are silicon nitride, silica (SiO2), Titania and zinc oxide. There several techniques to
fabricate them, which mainly depend on the type of application.

An antireflective or anti-reflection (AR) coating is a type of optical coating applied to the

surface of lenses and other optical elements to reduce reflection. In typical imaging systems,
this improves the efficiency since less light is lost due to reflection. In complex systems such as
telescopes and microscopes the reduction in reflections also improves the contrast of the
image by elimination of stray light. This is especially important in planetary astronomy. In other
applications, the primary benefit is the elimination of the reflection itself, such as a coating on
eyeglass lenses that makes the eyes of the wearer more visible to others, or a coating to reduce
the glint from a covert viewer's binoculars or telescopic sight.

55
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Bare silicon has a high surface reflection of over 30%. The reflection is reduced by texturing and
by applying anti-reflection coatings (ARC) to the surface1. Anti-reflection coatings on solar cells
are similar to those used on other optical equipment such as camera lenses. They consist of a
thin layer of dielectric material, with a specially chosen thickness so that interference effects in
the coating cause the wave reflected from the anti-reflection coating top surface to be out of
phase with the wave reflected from the semiconductor surfaces. These out-of-phase reflected
waves destructively interfere with one another, resulting in zero net reflected energy. In
addition to anti-reflection coatings, interference effects are also commonly encountered when
a thin layer of oil on water produces rainbow-like bands of color.

Front contacts

The front contact has a major impact on the electrical and optical properties of perovskite solar
cells. The front contact is part of the junction of the solar cell and must provide lateral charge
transport to the terminals and should allow for an efficient light incoupling, while having low
optical losses. The complex requirements of the perovskite solar front contact will be described
56
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
and the optics of the front contact will be investigated. It will be shown that the front contact
has a distinct influence on the short-circuit current and energy conversion efficiency. Metal
oxide films were investigated as potential front contacts. The incoupling of light in the solar cell
is investigated by three-dimensional finite-difference time-domain optical simulations and
optical measurements of experimentally realized self-textured zinc oxide films

Back contacts

What is back contact solar cell?

Interdigitated back-contact (IBC) is a solar cell in which the entire emitter is located at the rear
of the cell. IBC solar cells are also known as back junction or point contact solar cells.

Rear Contact Solar Cells

Rear contact solar cells achieve potentially higher efficiency by moving all or part of the front
contact grids to the rear of the device. The higher efficiency potentially results from the
reduced shading on the front of the cell and is especially useful in high current cells such as
concentrators or large areas. There are several configurations.

Interdigitated back contact solar cells (IBC)

Rear contact solar cells eliminate shading losses altogether by putting both contacts on the rear
of the cell. By using a thin solar cell made from high quality material, electron-hole pairs
generated by light that is absorbed at the front surface can still be collected at the rear of the
cell 1. Such cells are especially useful in concentrator applications where the effect of cell series
resistance is greater.

57
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
An additional benefit is that cells with both contacts on the rear are easier to interconnect and
can be placed closer together in the module since there is no need for a space between the

cells.

Alternatives for wafer production

Photolithography, also called optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in

microfabrication to pattern parts on a thin film or the bulk of a substrate (also called a wafer). It
uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask (also called an optical mask) to a
photosensitive (that is, light-sensitive) chemical photoresist on the substrate. A series of
chemical treatments then either etches the exposure pattern into the material or enables
deposition of a new material in the desired pattern upon the material underneath the
photoresist. In complex integrated circuits, a CMOS wafer may go through the
photolithographic cycle as many as 50 times.

High performance cells (manufacturing processes - float-zone method, optimised cell

structures

What is the most efficient solar cell?

SunPower produces the highest efficiency monocrystalline solar panels available. Our X22 has a
record-breaking efficiency of up to 22.8 percent, making it the best performing panel on the
market today. Polycrystalline panel efficiency typically ranges from 15 to 17 percent.
58
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
High-Efficiency Solar Cell

The innovation allows a multi-junction solar cell to be developed without the constraint of
lattice matching, and with a low-cost, robust silicon wafer as the supporting bottom substrate
and bottom cell. This approach enables a cell that is simultaneously lower in cost, more rugged,
and more efficient than existing space-based photovoltaic cells. This high-efficiency solar
technology takes advantage of inexpensive silicon wafers and provides a more robust design for
next-generation solar cells in space. For terrestrial applications, it can provide unprecedented
efficiencies for auxiliary power units in vehicles, solar roof tiles, power plants, and smart grid
systems.

Benefits

• High efficiency: Expected conversion efficiencies of 30% to over 40%

• Low-cost materials: Substrate material is a low-cost silicon wafer as compared to
materials used for space-based photovoltaic cells
• Easy to manufacture: Photovoltaic cells can be manufactured on a large scale
• Low environmental impact: Zero greenhouse gasses are emitted
• Robust: The cell features a rugged design for space applications

Applications

• Space-based and military power systems

• Unmanned aerial vehicles
• Satellites
• Solar aircraft
• Auxiliary power units for vehicles
• Electric vehicle charging stations
• PV distributed generation for smart grid systems
• Building-integrated photovoltaics
• Utility-scale PV power plants
• Communications systems
59
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Thin-film cell technology

A thin-film solar cell is a second-generation solar cell that is made by depositing one or more
thin layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or
metal. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including cadmium
telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si,
TF-Si).

Film thickness varies from a few nanometers (nm) to tens of micrometers (µm), much thinner
than thin-film's rival technology, the conventional, first-generation crystalline silicon solar cell
(c-Si), that uses wafers of up to 200 µm thick. This allows thin film cells to be flexible, and lower
in weight. It is used in building integrated photovoltaics and as semi-transparent, photovoltaic
glazing material that can be laminated onto windows. Other commercial applications use rigid
thin film solar panels (interleaved between two panes of glass) in some of the world's largest
photovoltaic power stations.

What are the main thin-film solar panel manufacturers?

These are the leading manufacturers of thin-film PV:

• First Solar – The top thin-film manufacturer, First Solar dominates the CdTe technology
space. To date, First Solar has only served the commercial market, offering low-cost
installations at the mass scale for businesses, institutions and solar power plants.
Holding the world record for CdTe cell efficiency at 18.7%, this manufacturing behemoth
is also offering an impressive 25-year warranty. First Solar thin film is also known for its
gorgeous aesthetic designs such as their frameless, glass on glass model that boasts
increased panel output due to its hyper-reflective glass coating.
• SoloPower – The San Jose solar firm is known for versatility and ultra-lightweight design,
making it an ideal candidate for building-integrated photovoltaics (where the panel is

60
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 integrated into a building’s envelope, often along vertical surfaces). SoloPower is one of
the world leaders in CIGS manufacturing.
• Sharp – Sharp Solar is a global leader in thin-film, having been in business for over 50
years, and is the top manufacturer of a-Si technology. The Japanese firm is known for
being one of the first innovators in solar cell development and has been contributing to
research and development for cell and module efficiency improvements of PV
technology since 1959.
• Solar Frontier – The world’s top manufacturer for CIGS thin-film, Solar Frontier also hails
from Japan. This manufacturing giant is partially responsible for the strong forecasted
growth for CIGS PV installations worldwide. Their world record conversion efficiency for
thin film (22.4%), achieved in 2015, has certainly boosted outlooks. If thin-film continues
to scale in the commercial sector and penetrate the residential market, CIGS will be the
technology that can achieve it. Sharp Solar has stated that they have the capability to
produce a 30% efficiency CIGS cell – a feat that would revolutionize the concept of thin-
film solar.
•

Amorphous silicon cells

Amorphous silicon thin-film cells are the oldest and most mature type of thin-film. They are
made of noncrystalline silicon, unlike typical solar-cell wafers. Amorphous silicon is cheaper to
manufacture than crystalline silicon and most other semiconducting materials.

61
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Lightweight

• The thin film nature of amorphous silicon make it incredibly light and adaptable to
different surfaces as a simple/cost effective installation

• No requirements for glass or rigid framing

• Critical in portable applications

Flexible

• Thin film solar panels are incredibly flexible due to PowerFilm’s unique manufacturing
process
• Allow numerous configurations and applications for solar material

Light Sensitivity

• Amorphous Si collects more energy in lower light situations than other technologies
• Specific Power Film material will work in indoor light down to 200 lux
• Outperforms crystalline and other thin film technologies in many real-world
environments collecting energy in cloudy, shady, hazy environments where crystalline
panels will not

How Are They Made?

Amorphous silicon panels are formed by vapor-depositing a thin layer of silicon material –
about 1 micrometer thick – on a substrate material such as glass or metal. Amorphous silicon
can also be deposited at very low temperatures, as low as 75 degrees Celsius, which allows for
deposition on plastic as well.

62
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
In its simplest form, the cell structure has a single sequence of p-i-n layers. However, single
layer cells suffer from significant degradation in their power output (in the range 15-35%) when
exposed to the sun. The mechanism of degradation is called the Staebler-Wronski Effect, after
its discoverers.

Better stability requires the use of a thinner layers in order to increase the electric field
strength across the material. However, this reduces light absorption, hence cell efficiency. This
has led the industry to develop tandem and even triple layer devices that contain p-i-n cells
stacked one on top of the other.

One of the pioneers of developing solar cells using amorphous silicon is Uni-Solar. They use a
triple layer system (see illustration below) that is optimized to capture light from the full solar
spectrum).

Micromorphous solar cells

Micromorph cells are thin film solar cells based on a multijunction–architecture consisting of
two solar cells that are stacked on top of each other. While the thin amorphous silicon top cell
absorbs the blue light, the thicker microcrystalline silicon bottom cell absorbs the red and near-
infrared light, allowing this so-called tandem cell to cover a wider range of the solar spectrum.

63
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Copper indium diselenide (CIS) cells

Copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) is a I-III-VI2 semiconductor material composed of

copper, indium, gallium, and selenium. The material is a solid solution of copper indium
selenide (often abbreviated "CIS") and copper gallium selenide. It has a chemical formula of
CuIn(1-x)Ga(x)Se2 where the value of x can vary from 0 (pure copper indium selenide) to 1
(pure copper gallium selenide). CIGS is a tetrahedrally bonded semiconductor, with the
chalcopyrite crystal structure, and a bandgap varying continuously with x from about 1.0 eV (for
copper indium selenide) to about 1.7 eV (for copper gallium selenide).

64
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Cadmium telluride cells (CdTe)

What is cadmium telluride solar cell?

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics describes a photovoltaic (PV) technology that is based
on the use of cadmium telluride, a thin semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert
sunlight into electricity.

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics describes a photovoltaic (PV) technology that is based
on the use of cadmium telluride in a thin semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert
sunlight into electricity. Cadmium telluride PV is the only thin film technology with lower costs
than conventional solar cells made of crystalline silicon in multi-kilowatt systems.

65
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
On a lifecycle basis, CdTe PV has the smallest carbon footprint, lowest water use and shortest
energy payback time of any current photo voltaic technology. CdTe's energy payback time of
less than a year allows for faster carbon reductions without short-term energy deficits.

The toxicity of cadmium is an environmental concern mitigated by the recycling of CdTe

modules at the end of their life time. Though there are still uncertainties regarding the recycling
of CdTe modules and the public opinion is skeptical towards this technology. The usage of rare
materials may also become a limiting factor to the industrial scalability of CdTe technology in
the mid-term future. The abundance of tellurium—of which telluride is the anionic form—is
comparable to that of platinum in the earth's crust and contributes significantly to the module's
cos

Nano-structured solar cells (nano-structured CIS cells, organic solar cells: dye-sensitised nano-
crystalline cells)

What are nano solar cells?

Nanocrystal solar cells are solar cells based on a substrate with a coating of nanocrystals. The
nanocrystals are typically based on silicon, CdTe or CIGS and the substrates are generally silicon
or various organic conductors.

Nanostructured solar cells are very important in renewable energy sector as well as in
environmental aspects, because it is environment friendly. The nano-grating structures (such as
triangular or conical shaped) have a gradual change in refractive index which acts as a
multilayer antireflective coating that is leading to reduced light reflection losses over
broadband ranges of wavelength

Nanocrystal solar cells are solar cells based on a substrate with a coating of nanocrystals. The
nanocrystals are typically based on silicon, CdTe or CIGS and the substrates are generally silicon
or various organic conductors. Quantum dot solar cells are a variant of this approach, but take

66
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
advantage of quantum mechanical effects to extract further performance. Dye-sensitized solar
cells are another related approach, but in this case the nano-structuring is part of the substrate.

Previous fabrication methods relied on expensive molecular beam epitaxy processes, but
colloidal synthesis allows for cheaper manufacture. A thin film of nanocrystals is obtained by a
process known as "spin-coating". This involves placing an amount of the quantum dot solution
onto a flat substrate, which is then rotated very quickly. The solution spreads out uniformly,
and the substrate is spun until the required thickness is achieved.

Concentrator solar cells and concentrating systems

What is concentrated PV cell?

Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) (also known as concentration photovoltaics) is a photovoltaic

technology that generates electricity from sunlight. Unlike conventional photovoltaic systems, it
uses lenses or curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, highly efficient, multi-junction (MJ)
solar cells

Types of Concentrator Photovoltaics (CPV)

Low Concentration PV

Low concentration PV systems have a solar concentration of 2 to 100 suns. In a low CPV, the
flow of heat is usually low enough that the cells do not require active cooling. In fact, after
modelling and experimenting with the standard solar modules it has been discovered that no
tracking or even cooling modifications are required if the concentration level is low.

Besides, low-concentration PV systems are often using a simple booster reflector, which helps
in increasing the solar electric output by over 30 percent compared to non-concentrator PV
systems. Based on experimental results from LCPV systems in Canada, the energy gains over 40

67
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
percent using the prismatic glass while 45 percent were gained using the traditional crystalline
silicon photovoltaic modules.

Medium Concentration PV

The medium concentration Pv ranges its concentrations from 100 to 300 suns, and these CPV
systems require either an active or passive cooling and two-axis solar tracking which makes the
PV material more complex than the low concentrator PV.

High Concentration PV

High concentration photovoltaics short for HCPV are PV systems that utilize concentrating
optics which consists of fresnel lenses or the so-called dish reflectors. These concentrate
sunlight to 1,000 suns or more intensities. The solar cells of higher concentrator PV need high-
capacity of heat sinks to avoid thermal destruction as well as to manage life expectancy and
temperature-related electrical performance. To further aggravate the concentrated cooling
design, the heat sink must use passive cooling, or else, there will be a reduction in the overall
conversion efficiency of power needed for the active cooling.

Advantages and Disadvantages of CPV

Advantages

• Has a greater potential for efficiency increase in the next few years and could lead to
greater improvements in land area use.
• Waste heat can be possible to use for large mirror systems with active cooling
• Smaller cell sizes can hamper the large fluctuations in module price due to
semiconductor price variations

68
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Has two-axis tracking that can significantly increase the production of energy
throughout the day
• Can withstand high efficiencies under direct normal irradiance
• No cooling water needed for passive cooling
• Low energy payback time
• Low cost per watt of manufacturing capital
• Low-temperature coefficient
• High potential for cost reduction
• Less PV material
• Modular – kW to GW scale

Disadvantages

• Strong cost decrease of competing technologies for electricity production

• Tracking systems is complex as sufficient accuracy and reliability are required.
• It can only function properly under direct beam radiation
• It can only be used in regions with high DNI
• CPV cannot be installed on rooftops, easily
• Lack of technology standardization

What are concentrating photovoltaics?

One of the ways to increase the output from the photovoltaic systems is to supply concentrated
light onto the PV cells. This can be done by using optical light collectors, such as lenses or
mirrors. The PV systems that use concentrated light are called concentrating photovoltaics
(CPV). The CPV collect light from a larger area and concentrate it to a smaller area solar cell.

69
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Lower efficiency CPV technologies may employ silicon, CdTe, and CIGS (copper indium gallium
selenide) cells, but the highest efficiencies can be achieved with multi-junction cells. Field
efficiencies for these multi-junction cells are in the 30% range, and laboratory tests have
achieved upwards of 40% efficiency (Kurtz, 2011).

The CPV can only use direct beam radiation and cannot use diffuse radiation (diffused from
clouds and atmosphere). Therefore, these systems are suited best for areas with high direct
normal irradiance. For proper light concentration, sun tracking is needed for achieving high cell
performance. Tracking is especially critical for high concentration systems. In general, the CPV
can be classified into low-concentration, medium-concentration, and high-concentration.

Comparison of solar cell types and trends

Monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels

When you evaluate solar panels for your photovoltaic (PV) system, you will encounter two main
categories of panel options: monocrystalline solar panels (mono) and polycrystalline solar
panels (poly). Both types of panels produce energy from the sun, but there are some key
differences to be aware of.

Monocrystalline solar panels and polycrystalline solar panels: it's all about the cells

70
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Both monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels serve the same function in the overall
solar PV system: they capture energy from the sun and turn it into electricity. They are also
both made from silicon, which is used for solar panels because it is an abundant, very durable
element. Many solar panel manufacturers produce both monocrystalline and polycrystalline
panels.

Both monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels can be good choices for your home, but
there are key differences between the two types of technology that you should understand
before making your final solar purchase decision. The main difference between the two
technologies is the type of silicon solar cell they use: monocrystalline solar panels have solar
cells made from a single crystal of silicon, while polycrystalline solar panels have solar cells
made from many silicon fragments melted together.

Monocrystalline solar panels

Monocrystalline solar panels are generally thought of as a premium solar product. The main
advantages of moncrystalline panels are higher efficiencies and sleeker aesthetics.

To make solar cells for monocrystalline solar panels, silicon is formed into bars and cut into
wafers. These types of panels are called “monocrystalline” to indicate that the silicon used is
single-crystal silicon. Because the cell is composed of a single crystal, the electrons that
generate a flow of electricity have more room to move. As a result, monocrystalline panels are
more efficient than their polycrystalline counterparts.

Polycrystalline solar panels

Polycrystalline solar panels generally have lower efficiencies than monocrystalline options, but
their advantage is a lower price point. In addition, polycrystalline solar panels tend to have a
blue hue instead of the black hue of monocrystalline panels.

71
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Polycrystalline solar panels are also made from silicon. However, instead of using a single
crystal of silicon, manufacturers melt many fragments of silicon together to form the wafers for
the panel. Polycrystalline solar panels are also referred to as “multi-crystalline,” or many-crystal
silicon. Because there are many crystals in each cell, there is to less freedom for the electrons
to move. As a result, polycrystalline solar panels have lower efficiency ratings than
monocrystalline panels.

Monocrystalline vs. polycrystalline solar panels: which are right for you?

Saving money is one of the best reasons to solar, and whether you choose mono or poly solar
panels, you’ll be decreasing your electricity bills. The option you choose comes down to your
personal preferences, space constraints, and the financing option you choose.

• Personal preferences: If the color of your solar panels is important to you, remember
that monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels tend to appear differently on your
roof. The typical monocrystalline panel will tend to have a darker black color, while the
typical polycrystalline panel will tend to have a bluer color. If where your panels were

72
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 manufactured is important to you, then ensure you know enough about company that
made your mono or poly solar panels.
• Space constraints: You should prefer higher-efficiency solar panels if your PV system
size is limited by the amount of space available on your roof. Because of this, paying the
extra cost for more efficient monocrystalline panels that can help you maximize your
electricity production will make more sense in these scenarios. Alternatively, if you have
a lot of roof space or are installing ground-mounted solar, then lower-efficiency
polycrystalline can be a more economic option.
• Solar financing: How you finance your system can also play a part in determining which
type of panel you choose. For example, if you choose a power purchase agreement
(PPA), you pay per kilowatt-hour for the electricity produced by the system. This means
that, above any type of equipment you’re being offered, your monthly payments will
determine your savings. By contrast, if you are buying your system, paying more for
high-efficiency monocrystalline panels can result in higher returns on your solar
investment.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0401 Explain the use of silicon in crystalline solar cells

• IAC0402 Describe polycrystalline, monocrystalline and amorphous cells in detail
• IAC0403 Discuss thin-film technology
• IAC0404 Briefly describe each of the other solar cell types

73
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT05: Electrical properties of solar cells (5%)

KT0501 Equivalent circuit diagrams of solar cells (additional solar cell models, the
effective solar cell model)
KT0502 Spectral sensitivity
KT0503 Efficiency of solar cells and PV modules

Equivalent circuit diagrams of solar cells (additional solar cell models, the effective solar cell
model)
A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid-state electrical device
that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Which is a
physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose
electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a
particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving a detailed description of its solar
energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more
importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s output
performance and solar efficiency.

Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity. With increasing
demand for a clean energy source and the sun’s potential as a free energy source, has made
solar energy conversion as part of a mixture of renewable energy sources increasingly
important. As a result, the demand for efficient solar cells, which convert sunlight directly into
electricity, is growing faster than ever before.

Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are made made almost entirely from silicon that has been processed
into an extremely pure crystalline form that absorbs the photons from sunlight and then
74
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
releases them as electrons, causing an electric current to flow when the photoconductive cell is
connected to an external load. There are a variety of different measurements we can make to
determine the solar cell’s performance, such as its power output and its conversion efficiency.

The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the relationship
between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V characteristics curve. The
intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell controls the current ( I ), while the
increases in the temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).

Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage equals power, so
we can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the voltage for a
photovoltaic device.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation of
a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the
existing conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information required
to configure a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point (MPP)
as possible.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

75
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current
and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-
circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level.

With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its
minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open
circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the
positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum
(zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells
short circuit current, or Isc.

Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current ( Isc
) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ). In other words, the
maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at closed

76
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there
must be a point somewhere in between were the solar cell generates maximum power.

However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power
reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell
generates maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green
rectangle. This is the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a
photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.

The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in the I-V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the
open circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–
0.95)Isc. Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual
output power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.

Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar cell or panel. But
many photovoltaic arrays are made up of smaller PV panels connected together. Then the I-V
curve of a PV array is just a scaled up version of the single solar cell I-V characteristic curve as
shown.

Solar Panel I-V Characteristic Curves

77
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel
combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array
panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if
connected together in parallel then the current increases. The electrical power in Watts,
generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still be the product of the voltage
times the current, ( P = V x I ). However, the solar panels are connected together, the upper
right-hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of the array.

The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array

The electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic array are summarised in the relationship
between the output current and voltage. The amount and intensity of solar insolation (solar
irradiance) controls the amount of output current ( I ), and the operating temperature of the
solar cells affects the output voltage ( V ) of the PV array. Solar cell I-V characteristic curves that
summarise the relationship between the current and voltage are generally provided by the
panels manufacturer and are given as:

Solar Array Parameters

• VOC = open-circuit voltage: – This is the maximum voltage that the array provides when
the terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit condition). This value is

78
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 much higher than Vmp which relates to the operation of the PV array which is fixed by
the load. This value depends upon the number of PV panels connected together in
series.
• ISC = short-circuit current – The maximum current provided by the PV array when the
output connectors are shorted together (a short circuit condition). This value is much
higher than Imp which relates to the normal operating circuit current.
• MPP = maximum power point – This relates to the point where the power supplied by
the array that is connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its maximum value,
where MPP = Imp x Vmp. The maximum power point of a photovoltaic array is
measured in Watts (W) or peak Watts (Wp).
• FF = fill factor – The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that the
array can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the product of the
open-circuit voltage times the short-circuit current, ( Voc x Isc ) This fill factor value gives
an idea of the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to 1 (unity), the more
power the array can provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.
• %eff = percent efficiency – The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio between
the maximum electrical power that the array can produce compared to the amount of
solar irradiance hitting the array. The efficiency of a typical solar array is normally low at
around 10-12%, depending on the type of cells (monocrystalline, polycrystalline,
amorphous or thin film) being used.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current for different
levels of insolation and temperature and can tell you a lot about a PV cell or panel’s ability to
convert sunlight into electricity. The most important values for calculating a particular panels
power rating are the voltage and current at maximum power.

Some solar panels are rated at slightly higher or lower voltages than others of the same
wattage value, and this affects the amount of current available and therefore the panels MPP.
Other parameters also important are the open circuit voltage and short circuit current ratings
from a safety point of view, especially the voltage rating. An array of six panels in series, while

79
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
having a nominal 72-volt (6 x 12) rating, could potentially produce an open-circuit voltage of
over 120 volts DC, which is more than enough to be dangerous.

Photovoltaic I-V characteristics curves provide the information needed for us to configure a
solar power array so that it can operate as close as possible to its maximum peak power point.
The peak power point is measured as the PV module produces its maximum amount of power
when exposed to solar radiation equivalent to 1000 watts per square metre, 1000 W/m2 or
1kW/m2.

Spectral sensitivity
Spectral sensitivity is the relative efficiency of detection, of light or other signal, as a function
of the frequency or wavelength of the signal.

In visual neuroscience, spectral sensitivity is used to describe the different characteristics of the
photopigments in the rod cells and cone cells in the retina of the eye. It is known that the rod
cells are more suited to scotopic vision and cone cells to photopic vision, and that they differ in
their sensitivity to different wavelengths of light. It has been established that the maximum
spectral sensitivity of the human eye under daylight conditions is at a wavelength of 555 nm,
while at night the peak shifts to 507 nm.

In photography, film and sensors are often described in terms of their spectral sensitivity, to
supplement their characteristic curves that describe their responsivity. A database of camera
spectral sensitivity is created and its space analyzed. For X-ray films, the spectral sensitivity is
chosen to be appropriate to the phosphors that respond to X-rays, rather than being related to
human vision.

In sensor systems, where the output is easily quantified, the responsivity can be extended to be
wavelength dependent, incorporating the spectral sensitivity. When the sensor system is linear,
its spectral sensitivity and spectral responsivity can both be decomposed with similar basis

80
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
functions. When a system’s responsivity is a fixed monotonic nonlinear function, that
nonlinearity can be estimated and corrected for, to determine the spectral sensitivity from
spectral input–output data via standard linear methods.

The responses of the rod and cone cells of the retina, however, have a very context-dependent
(coupled) nonlinear response, which complicates the analysis of their spectral sensitivities from
experimental data. In spite of these complexities, however, the conversion of light energy
spectra to the effective stimulus, the excitation of the photopigment, is quite linear, and linear
characterizations such as spectral sensitivity is therefore quite useful in describing many
properties of color vision.

Spectral sensitivity is sometimes expressed as a quantum efficiency, that is, as probability of

getting a quantum reaction, such as a captured electron, to a quantum of light, as a function of
wavelength. In other contexts, the spectral sensitivity is expressed as the relative response per
light energy, rather than per quantum, normalized to a peak value of 1, and a quantum
efficiency is used to calibrate the sensitivity at that peak wavelength. In some linear
applications, the spectral sensitivity may be expressed as a spectral responsivity, with units
such as amperes per watt

Efficiency of solar cells and PV modules

What is the efficiency of solar cells?
If a solar panel has 20 percent efficiency, that means it’s capable of converting 20 percent of
the sunshine hitting it into electricity. The highest efficiency solar panels can reach almost 23
percent efficiency. But the average efficiency of solar panels falls between the 15 to 18 percent
efficiency range.
What is the efficiency of solar panels?
Solar panel efficiency is a measurement of how much of the sun’s energy a certain panel can
convert into usable electricity. This is done by capturing the electrical current generated when
sunshine interacts with silicon or thin film cells inside a solar panel.

81
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
These solar cells are tightly packed alongside each other inside glass rectangles designed to
attract sunlight. You can read more about how solar panels are manufactured in this post. Then
the energy is converted, sent to your circuit breaker box and distributed throughout the house.

Solar panel efficiency: what you need to know

Solar panel efficiency is a measurement of a solar panel’s ability to convert sunlight into usable
electricity. Given the same amount of sunlight shining for the same duration of time on two
solar panels with different efficiency ratings, the more efficient panel will produce more
electricity than the less efficient panel. Solar panel efficiency is determined by the production
of electricity by solar cells, which is in turn influenced by the cells’ composition, electrical
configuration, surrounding components, and more.

Given the same amount of sunlight shining for the same duration of time on two solar panels
with different efficiency ratings, the more efficient panel will produce more electricity than the
less efficient panel. Solar panel efficiency is determined by the production of electricity by solar
cells, which are in turn influenced by composition, electrical configuration, surrounding
components, and more.

In practical terms, for two solar panels of the same physical size, if one has a 21% efficiency
rating and the other has a 14% efficiency rating, the 21% efficient panel will produce 50% more
kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity under the same conditions as the 14% efficient panel. Thus,
maximizing energy use and bill savings is heavily reliant on having top-tier solar panel efficiency.

Many consumers and people in the solar industry consider solar panel efficiency to be the most
important criterion when assessing a solar panel’s quality. While it is an important criterion, it’s
not the only one to consider while you evaluate whether to install a particular solar panel. Solar
panel efficiency relates to the ability of the panel to convert energy at a low cost and high
supply rate.

82
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
How efficient are solar panels?
Most solar panels are between 15% and 20% efficient, with outliers on either side of the range.
High-quality solar panels can exceed 22% efficiency in some cases (and almost reach 23%!), but
the majority of photovoltaic panels available are not above 20% efficiency.

Most efficient solar panels: the top 5

Here are the top five best solar panel manufacturers in 2019 ranked based on the highest
efficiency solar panel they have to offer:

• SunPower (22.8%)
• LG (21.7%)
• REC Solar (21.7%)
• CSUN (21.2%)
• Solaria (20.5%)
The most efficient solar panels on the market today have efficiency ratings as high as 22.8%,
whereas the majority of panels range from 15% to 17% efficiency rating. SunPower panels are
known for being the most efficient solar panel brand available on the market. Though they will
come with a higher price tag, SunPower will often be the consumer favorite for anyone
concerned with efficiency as a primal metric of interest. However, check out Exhibit 1 to learn
about all the top brands and the most efficient solar panels you can get your hands on.

Looking for the most efficient solar panels on the market? Get free solar quotes on the
EnergySage Marketplace for top quality solar equipment.
Maximum Production or Maximum Offset: If your goal is to maximize the amount of electricity
your system produces or want to ensure you buy the least amount of electricity from the utility,
but the amount of roof space you have available to install solar panels is limited in size, you
may choose to install higher efficiency solar panels. This will ensure you get the maximum
production from your solar panel system.

83
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Cost vs. Value: More efficient solar panels tend to cost more than their less efficient
counterparts. You may want to analyze whether that upfront cost difference is justified by the
increased saving achieved by generating more electricity over the lifespan of your solar energy
system. Increased electricity production means you have to buy less power from your utility
and in some states, may also generate higher SREC income.

What determines solar panel efficiency?

There are several factors that determine how efficient a solar panel is. At its core, solar panel
efficiency is determined by how much incoming sunlight the solar panel can convert into usable
electricity. But what factors into that end conversion rate? There are several items that solar
cell researchers and manufacturers consider when designing and producing efficient solar
panels:

• Material – the type of material (monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, cadmium

telluride, etc.) impacts how light converts to electricity
• Wiring and busing – the organization of wires and “busbars” on a solar panel that
actually capture and transfer electricity impacts efficiency
• Reflection – if light is reflected away from a solar panel, it’s efficiency may be lowered.
This is why the glass layer on top of silicon solar cells is so important.
Additionally, factors like being able to absorb light on both sides of a cell (bifacial solar panels)
and being able to absorb variable wavelengths of light (multijunction solar panels) change the
efficiency equation for solar panels. All in all, there are a multitude of levers that scientists and
researchers can pull when working on improving solar panel efficiency. In the end, it’s all about
converting more incoming sunlight into electricity.

How efficient are solar panels? Efficiency comparison tables

The two tables below present different views of the solar panel efficiency characteristics of the
leading manufacturers who sell solar panels in the United States. Most panel manufacturers
produce several solar panel models which range in efficiency ratings. The leading brands in this

84
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
category will be those that utilize high-efficiency solar cells such as LG and SunPower (who have
battled back and forth for the world solar efficiency record) who are widely considered to be
the top panel brand on the market for solar efficiency. However, it’s important to understand
the difference between setting a maximum efficiency record and maintaining strong and
consistent average solar energy efficiency ratings. Therefore, the following efficiency table
breaks down the best ways to compare different solar panel options by module efficiency
metrics.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0501 Discuss two solar cell models using circuit diagrams

• IAC0502 Explain spectral sensitivity of different solar cells
• IAC0503 Explain efficiency of solar cells and PV modules

85
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT06: PV modules (10%)

KT0601 Cell stringing

KT0602 Glass and cell encapsulation (EVA, PVB, PTFE, lonomer, TPU, acrylates or
silicon (TPSE), new module concepts)
KT0603 Module junction boxes and connection cables
KT0604 Module frames
KT0605 Types of modules and classification of modules (substrate, frame structure,
construction-specific additional functions etc.)
KT0606 Design options for PV modules (cell type, glass size, cell coverage, glass
type, glass format, cell shape, cell contacting, encapsulation material, cell
background etc.)
KT0607 Wiring symbols
KT0608 Module characteristics
KT0609 Irradiance dependence and temperature characteristics
KT0610 Hot spots, bypass diodes and shading
KT0611 Electrical characteristics of thin-film modules
KT0612 Expansion and contraction of modules

Cell stringing

What is PV cell and PV module?

A PV module is an assembly of photovoltaic cells mounted in a framework for installation.

Photovoltaic cells use sunlight as a source of energy and generate direct current electricity. A
collection of PV modules is called a PV Panel, and a system of Panels is an Array.

Basic Concepts of Solar Panel Wiring (aka Stringing)

To have a functional solar PV system, you need to wire the panels together to create an
electrical circuit through which current will flow, and you also need to wire the panels to the
86
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
inverter that will convert the DC power produced by the panels to AC power that can be used in
your home and sent to the grid. In the solar industry. This is typically referred to as “stringing”
and each series of panels connected together is referred to as a string.

Series vs. Parallel Stringing

There are multiple ways to approach solar panel wiring. One of the key differences to
understand is stringing solar panels in series versus stringing solar panels in parallel. These
different stringing configurations have different effects on the electrical current and voltage in
the circuit.

Connecting Solar Panels in Series

Stringing solar panels in series involves connecting each panel to the next in a line (as illustrated
in the left side of the diagram above).

87
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Just like a typical battery you may be familiar with, solar panels have positive and negative
terminals. When stringing in series, the wire from the positive terminal of one solar panel is
connected to the negative terminal of the next panel and so on.

When stringing panels in series, each panel additional adds to the total voltage (V) of the
string but the current (I) in the string remains the same.

One drawback to stringing in series is that a shaded panel can reduce the current through the
entire string. Because the current remains the same through the entire string, the current is
reduced to that of the panel with the lowest current.

Connecting Solar Panels in Parallel

Stringing solar panels in parallel (shown in the right side of the diagram above) is a bit more
complicated. Rather than connecting the positive terminal of one panel to the negative
terminal of the next, when stringing in parallel, the positive terminals of all the panels on the
string are connected to one wire and the negative terminals are all connected to another wire.

When stringing panels in parallel, each additional panel increases the current (amperage) of the
circuit, however, the voltage of the circuit remains the same (equivalent to the voltage of each
panel). Because of this, a benefit of stringing in series is that if one panel is heavily shaded, the
rest of the panels can operate normally and the current of the entire string will not be reduced.

Glass and cell encapsulation (EVA, PVB, PTFE, lonomer, TPU, acrylates or silicon (TPSE), new
module concepts)

The most common method of the process for the encapsulation of solar modules on the
current market is the method of laminated encapsulation. Normally, the method of laminated

88
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
encapsulation is to put the Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) on the front and back sides of the cells
as encapsulation materials.

Encapsulation Technique

The most common method of the process for the encapsulation of solar modules on the
current market is the method of laminated encapsulation. Normally, the method of laminated
encapsulation is to put the Ethylene Vinyl

Acetate (EVA) on the front and back sides of the cells as encapsulation materials. Its properties
include thermal stability, low temperature resistance, moisture resistance, light penetrability
and transparency and its main purpose is to protect the cells. In addition, put a white low iron
intensifier glass on the EVA as a wrapper plate. It can withstand wind pressure, earthquake,
snow, rain and hailstone. Also, put the polymer membrane as a back sheet.

Finally, melt the EVA with the vacuum laminator, then assemble the aluminum frame and patch
board.

Solar Panel Applications

A solar panel application product that we can see them in our lives, such as solar leaf lights,
solar arrow indicator lights, building integrations, and solar streetlamps. Solar leaf lights can
decorate the scenic resort without contamination, for example, the sky bridge in Nantou city.
Solar arrow indicator lights can be seen on the freeways, signposts, milestones and traffic lights.
Moreover, we can see solar streetlamps in the parks or the sides of the streets. Finally, building
integrations can be used as structural materials to replace top roofs, walls and windows. The
building integrations have the sun light efficiency and they can reduce the surface temperature
of the building.

Module junction boxes and connection cables

What is solar junction box?

89
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A photovoltaic (PV) junction box is an important part of the solar panels. The junction box is an
enclosure on the module where the PV strings are electrically connected. Solar panel (PV)
junction box.

The junction box is often an overlooked piece of the solar panel. Usually pre-installed on the
backside of a solar module, installers pay it little mind until connecting panels.

The PV junction box has a simple, but important role: housing all the electric bits on a solar
panel and protecting them from the environment. Wires connect to diodes inside, providing an
easy way to link panels together.

PV Junction Box

A photovoltaic (PV) junction box is an important part of the solar panels. The junction box is an
enclosure on the module where the PV strings are electrically connected.

Solar panel (PV) junction box

How is the junction box connected to the solar panel?

A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel (TPT) with silicon adhesive. It wires
the (usually) 4 connectors together and is the output interface of the solar panel.

90
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
How to connect the solar panel junction box to the solar array?

With the use of a junction box, it becomes easy to connect the solar panel to array. Usually
cables with MC4 / MC5 connectors at the end are used

PV junction box connector – Sunlont

A good junction box keeps corrosion at the terminals to a minimum, as it will exclude water
coming in

How does the PV junction box protect the solar panel?

91
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Most photovoltaic junction boxes have diodes. The function of the diodes is to keep the power
flow going in one direction, and prevent power from feeding back into the panels when there’s
no sunshine.

Module frames

Why is the frame of a solar panel important?

The majority of solar panels are fitted with aluminium frames which provide mounting
attachment points and protection for the edges of the glass laminate. Importantly, the
expansion and contraction ratio of aluminium and glass are different and hence the materials
used to join them together are important to avoid stress build up.

Most manufacturers use butyl rubber or flexible double-sided tapes which allow some
movement but ensure the glass is retained within the frame. Obviously, the long-term adhesion
strength and UV stability of these materials is crucial and cost saving measures through the use
of inferior materials have demonstrated rapid failure of the bond. The old rule, you get what
you pay for applies. The frame itself can come in various types from double walled and highly
rigid, to quite thin walled and relatively flexible. Both serve the same purpose when attached
securely to quality mounting systems. In double walled frames, it is important that the cavity
92
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
between the walls is vented so that water can evaporate and ice cannot build up inside and
split the frame in cold climates.

Types of modules and classification of modules (substrate, frame structure, construction-

specific additional functions etc.)

What are some common types of solar PV and storage installations?

There are three main types of solar PV and storage systems: grid-tied, grid/hybrid and off-grid.
They all have their advantages and disadvantages and it really comes down to the customer’s
current energy supply and what they want to get out of the system.

Grid-tied system

A grid-tied system is a basic solar installation that uses a standard grid-tied inverter and does
not have any battery storage. This is perfect for customers who are already on the grid and
want to add solar to their house. These systems can qualify for state and federal incentives
which help to pay for the system. Grid-tied systems are simple to design and are very cost

93
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
effective because they have relatively few components. The main objective of a grid-tied
system is to lower your energy bill and benefit from solar incentives.

One disadvantage of this type of system is that when the power goes out, so does your system.
This is for safety reasons because linemen working on the power lines need to know there is no
source feeding the grid. Grid-tied inverters have to automatically disconnect when they don’t
sense the grid. This means that you cannot provide power during an outage or an emergency
and you can’t store energy for later use. You also can’t control when you use the power from
your system, such as during peak demand time.

But if a customer has a basic grid-tied system, they are not out of luck if they want to add
storage later. The solution is doing an AC-coupled system where the original grid tied inverter is
coupled with a battery back-up inverter. This is a great solution for customers who want to
install solar now to take advantage of incentives, but aren’t ready to invest in the batteries just
yet.

A customer can benefit from net-metering because when the solar is producing more than they
are using, they can send power back to the grid. But in times when the loads are higher than
what the solar is producing, they can buy power from the utility. The customer is not reliant on
the solar to power all of his or her load. The main take away is that when the grid goes down,
the solar is down as well and there’s no battery back-up in the system.

94
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Grid-tied system with battery back-up

The next type of system is a grid tied system with battery back-up, otherwise known as a grid-
hybrid system. This type of system is ideal for customers who are already on the grid who know
that they want to have battery back-up. Good candidates for this type of system are customers
who are prone to power outages in their area, or generally just want to be prepared for
outages.

With this type of system, you get the best of both worlds because you’re still connected to the
grid and can qualify for state and federal incentives, while also lowering your utility bill. At the
same time, if there’s a power outage you have back up. Battery based grid-tied systems provide
power during an outage and you can store energy for use in an emergency. You are able to back
up essential loads such as lighting and appliances when the power is out. You can also use
energy during peak demand times because you can store the energy in your battery bank for
later use.

Cons of this system are that they cost more than basic grid-tied systems and are less efficient.
There are also more components. The addition of the batteries also requires a charge controller

95
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
to protect them. There must also be a sub panel that contains the important loads that you
want to be backed up.

Not all the loads that the house uses on the grid are backed up with the system. Important
loads that are needed when the grid power is down are isolated into a back-up sub panel.

Off-grid system

Off-grid systems are great for customers who can’t easily connect to the grid. This may be
because of geographical location or high cost of bringing in the power supply. In most cases, it
doesn’t make much sense for a person connected to the grid to completely disconnect and do
an off-grid system.

The benefits of an off-grid system is that a person can become energy self-sufficient and can
power remote places away from the grid. You also have fixed energy costs and won’t be getting
a bill from your energy use. Another neat aspect of off grid system is that they are modular and
you can increase the capacity as your energy needs grow. You can start out with a small,
budget-conscious system and add on over time.

96
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Because the system is your only source of power, many off-grid systems contain multiple
charging sources such as solar, wind and generator. You have to consider weather and year-
round conditions when designing the system. If your solar panels are covered in snow, you
need to have another way to keep your batteries charged up. You also will most likely want to
have a back-up generator just in case your renewable sources are not enough at times to keep
the batteries charged.

One disadvantage is that off-grid systems may not qualify for some incentive programs. You
have to also design your system to cover 100% of your energy loads, and hopefully even a little
bit more. Off-grid systems have more components and are more expensive than a standard
grid-tied system as well.

Design options for PV modules (cell type, glass size, cell coverage, glass type, glass format, cell
shape, cell contacting, encapsulation material, cell background etc.)

Solar Panel Design Ideas

1—Solar Façade

This house pushes the envelope with wall-to-wall solar cells (literally). The exterior surface is
covered with thin-film copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) panels. A CIGS system will be
97
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
slightly less efficient than the typical silicon-based PV system, but it will perform better in
cloudy weather.

2—Solar Shingles

About 500 solar shingles make up the 5.8-kilowatt (kW) PV system on this home's roof. Not only
does this CIGS-based technology blend in seamlessly with traditional asphalt roofing materials,
it is also easy to install on new home construction or during a full reroofing. This option is worth
considering if you're willing to pay about a third more than the average solar installation.

3— Solar Porch

It's almost dreamy looking up through the array of bifacial photovoltaic panels that cover this
house's porch. The 8.2 kW PV system provides clean energy as well as shade, filtered daylight,
and protection from the elements. With its hybrid crystalline silicon and ultra-thin amorphous
silicon technology, the bifacial system performs best in high-temperature locations.

4— Solar Skylight

These see-through solar panels appear to be skylights, but they also generate clean energy for
this home. The system is composed of high efficiency crystalline silicon PV cells integrated into
an architectural glass. Additional benefits of this approach include glare control, effective
daylighting, and even a subtle patterning to prevent bird collisions.

5—Solar Shade

This house introduces flexibility into the façade with a PV system that flows from the roof down
the southernmost exterior wall. Borrowing from an approach often used on sail boats, this

98
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
design creates shade with flexible monocrystalline modules that are light weight and resistant
to harsh conditions, such as salt water. Think beach when it comes to this style.

Wiring symbols

Electrical Symbols

Symbol Component name Meaning

Wire Symbols

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open

99
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay

Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet

SPDT Relay

Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols

Earth Ground Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock protection.

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols

Resistor (IEEE) Resistor reduces the current flow.

100
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)

Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.

Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor / Rheostat (IEEE)

Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.

Variable Resistor / Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when

Thermistor
temperature changes

Photoresistor / Light dependent Photo-resistor - change resistance with light

resistor (LDR) intensity change

Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

101
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of the

Generator
generator

Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

Controlled Voltage Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current of other

Source circuit element.

Controlled Current Generates current as a function of voltage or current of other

Source circuit element.

Meter Symbols

102
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 Voltmeter Measures voltage. Has very high resistance. Connected in parallel.

Ammeter Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance. Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Module characteristics

What are the characteristics of solar cells?

The basic characteristics of a solar cell are the short-circuit current (ISC), the open-circuit
voltage (VOC), the fill factor (FF) and the solar energy conversion efficiency (η). The influence of
both the diode saturation current density and of ISC on VOC, FF and η is analyzed for ideal solar
cells.

PV Module Performance Characteristics

We recall from previous classes that in order for us to understand Photovoltaic technology, we
need to understand its main properties at the cell level such as the Photovoltaic effect, the P-N
Junction to simply convert light into electricity, and how PV performance is measured in terms
of current and voltage (I-V) curve, Filling factor (FF), and efficiency.

Modules and Panels

Solar modules or solar panels are two commonly used terms in the solar industry. Many people
use these terms interchangeably, but there is a small difference that should be discussed. A
module is the series and/or parallel interconnection of solar cells in a circuit, on a panel. The
term solar panel is more exclusive to the rectangular, rigid packaging frame. Most standard
crystalline modules can be called solar panels. In general, all solar panels are solar modules, but
103
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
the opposite is not always true. For example, a thin-film silicon solar cell that is packaged as a
flexible laminate is a solar module, but it is not a panel.

Array

Another important term to consider is PV array. When modules are installed as a system, that
layout is called an array. Arrays can also be connected in parallel or in series similar to modules
and cells.

A Module's Main Parameters

Since a solar module is nothing but an interconnection of solar cells, similar parameters are
defined such as module Efficiency, module Fill Factor, Maximum Power Point (MPP) Voltage
and Current (Vmpp) and (Impp), Open Circuit Voltage (Voc), and Short Circuit Current (Isc).

Voltage and Current of a Module

As we can see, the total voltage of a PV module is nothing but a scale version of the cell voltage
(multiplied by a number of cells connected in series), while the total current is a scaled version
of the cell current (multiplied by a number of strings of cells connected in parallel).

Module I-V characteristics

Previously, we learned about the I-V (J-V in some references, “J” being the current density,
current per unit area) curve at the solar cell level. However, in PV systems, we are more
interested in the total current and voltage that the PV module can generate, so we define the
Module I-V curve, or the current-voltage curve, as it is illustrated in Figure 2.1. The curve
indicates the voltage and current at different operating conditions. For example, the highest
current corresponds to the short-circuit condition (when a PV module's positive and negative
terminals are connected without load, causing very high current to pass), while the highest

104
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
voltage occurs at open-circuit condition (when a PV module's positive and negative terminals
are not connected to any load, causing no current to pass). If we observe the current and
voltage starting at the open-circuit condition (where voltage is maximum and current is zero),
and as we increase the load of the circuit, the current starts increasing and the voltage falls
down until it reaches the value of zero at short-circuit condition (where the current is
maximum). The knee of the curve indicates the operating condition in which current and
voltage result in maximum power point (MPP). The voltage and current values at MPP are
referred to as "Vmpp” and “Impp,” respectively.

Irradiance dependence and temperature characteristics

How does temperature affect the efficiency of a PV cell?

The main effect of temperature on solar panels is that it reduces the efficiency of the solar cells
at converting solar energy (sunlight) into electricity. In other words, the chemical reactions that
occur within the solar panels are more efficient at cooler temperatures than at hot
temperatures

Effect of Temperature

Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in
temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the
semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with
increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in the material.
Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor
band gap, reduction in the bond energy also reduces the band gap. Therefore increasing the
temperature reduces the band gap.

In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open-circuit
voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.

105
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Hot spots, bypass diodes and shading

What is a Hot Spot on a solar panel?

Hot spots are areas of high temperature that affect only one zone of the solar panel and result
in a localized decrease in efficiency, and therefore, lower output power and accelerated
material degradation in the area affected by the high temperature.

Key Points to avoid Solar Panels Hot Spots

In a photovoltaic installation with solar panels, one of the things we must fear most and avoid
everything is the effect of hot spots. The following is an analysis of some of the most common
causes and the consequences they can have for a self-consumption, isolated or grid-connected
solar PV systems.

What is a Hot Spot on a solar panel?

106
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Hot spots are areas of high temperature that affect only one zone of the solar panel and result
in a localized decrease in efficiency, and therefore, lower output power and accelerated
material degradation in the area affected by the high temperature.

As we already know, solar panels generate energy and hot spots can arise when, for a number
of reasons that we are going to see, some of that energy is dissipated, rather than generated, in
a localized area. It is as if the solar cells in the affected area were consuming energy instead of
generating it.

In addition, to top it all off, hot spots are generally unstable and will usually intensify until the
overall performance of the panel is eventually nullified.

Why do hot spots appear?

The reasons for the appearance of hot spots are multiple and can be classified into functional or
operational.

Functional reasons can be divided into two areas:

• Cell mismatch, which occurs when cells of different current are connected in series.
• Damage or poor quality of the solar cell, which can occur during manufacture, due to
the fact that the silicon cell will be subjected to a stressful process during rolling,
handling and transportation.

107
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The operational reasons for the hot spots are related to the design and operation of the
photovoltaic installation, and may include:

• Seasonal shadows on solar panels: An installer company may accept shading conditions
in winter to increase electricity production in summer. But as a result, the panels will
suffer systematic shading of the lower row of cells every morning and night during the
winter. If it is necessary to do so, then a possible solution would be to install the panels
in a horizontal orientation, which would allow the bypass diodes to be driven at critical
times and allow the generation of electricity while minimizing damage by hot spots,
even in winter. In addition to connecting the shaded series to different inverter inputs.
• Roof conditions: Roofs may have areas where shadows are cast. When the cells of a
photovoltaic panel are completely shaded (by system design), this can mean that bypass
diodes are not used, resulting in an increase in temperature that will degrade the panel.
• Partial shading due to trees or vegetation.
• Dirt and sand: Photovoltaic panels can become dirty from dust, suspended sand, dirt
and other contaminating impurities during their service life. Your maintenance company
should identify situations that require cleaning by making periodic visits to the facility.
The frequency of cleaning will depend largely on the weather, the conditions and terrain
surrounding the park, as well as whether or not the solar panels have drainage corners.

If the operating current of the overall series string approaches the short-circuit current of the
"bad" cell, the overall current becomes limited by the bad cell. The extra current produced by
the good cells then forward biases the good solar cells. If the series string is short circuited,
then the forward bias across all of these cells reverse biases the shaded cell. Hot-spot heating
occurs when a large number of series connected cells cause a large reverse bias across the
shaded cell, leading to large dissipation of power in the poor cell. Essentially the entire
generating capacity of all the good cells is dissipated in the poor cell. The enormous power
dissipation occurring in a small area results in local overheating, or "hot-spots", which in turn
leads to destructive effects, such as cell or glass cracking, melting of solder or degradation of
the solar cell.

108
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Electrical characteristics of thin-film modules

Characteristics of thin film photovoltaics

Thin film photovoltaic modules produce power at low cost per watt. They are ideal for large
scale solar farms, as well as Building Integrated Photovoltaic applications (BIPV). They benefit
from generating consistent power, not only at elevated temperatures, but also on cloudy,
overcast days and at low sun angles.

109
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Technical features of thin film solar panels

110
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Thin film solar panels consist of amorphous solar cells. They are characterized by a simple
production process, low weight, and flexibility of use.

However, they have the least efficiency compared to the available solar modules on the
market. Therefore, they are less powerful than silicon solar panels. For this, they are much less
expensive. Therefore, thin film modules are particularly suitable for use in large and flat areas.

They can also be used in diffused or weak lighting conditions, and they are less heat-sensitive.
Thin film solar panels have a typical intense initial degradation, which is considered from the
manufacturers by the display of its performance.

Advantages and disadvantages of thin film solar panels

111
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Are suitable for use in diffuse und weak lighting Shorter lifetime
conditions and large surfaces

Cheap Lower efficiency

Less material consumption The installation is difficult, due to missing frames

Less susceptive to dirt (frameless)

Simple production process Intense initial degradation

Temperature-resistant Higher space requirement, to achieve the same

performance like the crystalline modules

Very lightweight Less stable

Expansion and contraction of modules

How to deal with thermal expansion and contraction of rooftop solar systems

Typically, solar panels have accounted for temperature swing, and the mechanical expansion
and contraction associated with it, through flexibility in construction materials and, on a
relatively small scale, in each module. To appropriately account for temperature fluctuations on
a system level, however, the racking must also be considered.

The issue becomes most critical when mechanically attached materials, such as aluminum rails
and a wood deck, expand at different rates. A steel roof with metal purlins whose structure
remains in the shade is also worth considering. How elevated the array is above the roof will

112
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
also influence how much ventilation it gets, contributing to temperature. This is important
because attachments can loosen their water seals or shear standoffs and hardware over time.
For a full set of calculations, please visit SunModo’s website for an application note. In general,
the rules of thumb mentioned below are useful.

If the installation location is determined to be a mild climate with ambient temperature change
of less than 60°F across the year, then creating a thermal measure every 80 in. is suggested. In
extreme climates (101 to 130°F ambient change) and moderate climates (60 to 100°F ambient
change) this should be accounted for at every 40 in. Systems with shorter rails experience less
accumulated change than engineered deflection values can handle.

thermal-splice-gauge

Installers have two options. An installation can be designed as separate arrays with stand offs
and end clamps stopping and starting at the thermal break. Or installers can use a thermal
splice, sliding clip and bonding strap, which makes the array appear continual.

113
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
If the latter option is chosen, it is imperative that the gap be set correctly. Over-setting the gap
would create a problem almost as bad as no thermal break at all: the rails could become
disconnected. So it is important to note the gap chart (see figure 1) and use an IR temp gun to
account for the actual installation temperature of which the expanding and contracting rails will
begin their movement.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0601 Explain how cells are strung together

• IAC0602 Describe briefly the different types of glass encapsulation
• IAC0603 Describe the module junction box in terms of location, use and types
• IAC0604 Describe the module frames in terms of use, mounting and types
• IAC0605 Describe the different types of modules and design options
• IAC0606 Draw the wiring symbol used for solar cells, solar cell string, PV module, string
of PV modules, PV sub-array and PV array
• IAC0607 Discuss briefly the characteristics of different types of modules
• IAC0608 Discuss the relationship between irradiation, temperature, power and voltage
• IAC0609 Explain hot spot and shading and the role of diodes in these instances
• IAC0610 Explain the electrical characteristics of thin-film modules
• IAC0611 Explain the aspect of expansion and contraction of modules

114
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT07: PV junction/string boxes, smart boxes, string diodes, connectors and fuses
(8%)

KT0701 PV junction/string boxes

KT0702 Smart boxes
KT0703 String diodes
KT0704 Connectors
KT0705 Fuses
KT0706 Telemetry/intelligence

PV junction/string boxes

What is PV junction box?

A photovoltaic (PV) junction box is an important part of the solar panels. The junction box is an
enclosure on the module where the PV strings are electrically connected. Solar panel (PV)
junction box.

How to Evaluate A Solar Combiner Box

The combiner box is a device that combines the output of multiple strings of PV modules for
connection to the inverter. It is typically used in the larger commercial and utility scale PV
power plants (greater than 500kW). The combiner box commonly houses the input overcurrent
protection fuse assemblies for several strings (from as few as three strings to as many as 52), as
well as the combined bus of those inputs into a single main output. Today’s combiner box may
also house several other components for the site, such as a DC disconnect, surge protective
devices and, in some cases, string monitoring hardware.

115
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
There are several key elements to pay close attention to when specifying or evaluating a string
combiner box. The first element is the enclosure. Most string combiners are available in
outdoor-rated enclosures, typically NEMA 3R, 4 or 4X, with NEMA 3R being the minimum
requirement. More typical today is a NEMA 4 steel or NEMA 4X non-metallic enclosure. In high
humidity areas, or areas with a large swing in humidity, you might consider adding a
condensation or breather vent that will allow pressure equalization to the enclosure, but
prevent water molecules from entering it.

The enclosure is often one of the more expensive components in the string combiner but it’s
important because it has a direct impact on the life of the combiner. The enclosure’s mounting
position, size and color directly affects the internal temperatures. Lighter colors typically absorb
less solar radiation than darker colors.

Mounting on a north facing wall in the shade is recommended, as direct sunlight can
significantly increase internal combiner temperatures, reducing reliability and life of internal
components. Size can also have an impact. Comparing two combiner designs with the same
internal components, the combiner in the larger enclosure allows the larger air volume and
surface area inside the enclosure to assist in better cooling of internal components. Smaller is
not better for long string combiner life. Larger enclosures also make field wiring easier by
allowing more room to work during installation and maintenance.

116
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Output wire bend radius is another element to pay close attention to when specifying or
evaluating a string combiner box. The NEC and UL have requirements for wire bend radius
spacing inside a string combiner. There are both opposite wall and adjacent wall bend radius
requirements that are determined by the size of the terminal or lug that your output wire is
landing to. Larger lugs require more space. In the larger utility scale PV sites, many installers
choose to use aluminum conductors for the large gauge output wires from the combiner to the
inverter due to aluminum cost being much less than copper—especially when dealing with
hundreds of feet of conductor. However, the aluminum conductor requires a larger gauge than
the equal length copper for similar voltage drop, which requires larger terminals or lugs inside
the combiner. This drives the requirement for longer bend radius, and consequently a larger
combiner enclosure. Bending the large conductors in the field is time consuming and often
wastes material, so using a combiner design that enables a straight shot to the output terminal
without a bend can save installation time and reduce mechanical stress on components inside
the string combiner.

Smart boxes

Solar string combiner boxes

In a photovoltaic system, the modules are arranged in strings and fields depending on the type
of inverter used, the total power and the technical characteristics of the modules.

ABB offers a plug and play solution that accommodates overcurrent protection devices,
disconnectors and surge protective devices (SPDs) in one solar combiner box. Depending on the
application, combiners are equipped with monitoring devices to measure current, voltage and
temperature to ensure the availability of the strings and to maximize generation. The string
combiner boxes form subsystems that can be standardized according to the number of strings,
voltage and rated current.

ABB offers different product ranges, each dedicated to specific installation conditions with
typical configurations.

117
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Main benefits

• Solar string combiners improve safety of solar panels and the entire photovoltaic plant
• Solar combiner box, also called DC switchboard, as plug and play solution factory-
assembled with the monitoring device, fuse disconnectors with fuse links, surge
protective devices and switch disconnectors
• Global availability ensures on-site delivery at any part of the world
• Six different enclosure sizes flexibility to cover the range up to 32 strings

Main Features

• Factory-assembled combiner box solutions for all residential, commercial and utility-
scale applications with single string, or up to 32 strings in 1000V and 1500VDC;
monitoring optional
• Solar string combiners are built with Gemini thermoplastic outdoor enclosures due to its
great mechanical strength
• Protection against dust, heavy seas or powerful jets of water, chemicals and high UV
rays thanks to its mechanical features: IP66, IK10 and GWT 750°C
• Electrical features: double insulation (Class II), Ui/Ue: 1000V DC/1500V D
• Depending on site conditions Gemini enclosures can be floor standing or wall mounted

String diodes

What is a blocking diode used for?

Blocking Diode: A blocking diode allows the flow of current from a solar panel to the battery but
prevents/blocks the flow of current from battery to solar panel thereby preventing the battery
from discharging.

What is a Diode

118
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A diode uses a semiconductor material, usually silicon, with two terminals attached. It's
function in it's simplest form is to allow electricity to pass in one direction but not the other.

Blocking Diodes

The diagram to the right shows a simple setup with two panels charging a battery (for simplicity
no controller is shown) with a blocking diode in series with the two panels, which are also wired
in series. When the sun shines, as long as the voltage produced by the two panels is greater
than that of the battery, charging will take place.

However, in the dark, when no voltage is being produced by the panels, the voltage of the
battery would cause a current to flow in the opposite direction through the panels, discharging
the battery, if it was not for the blocking diode in the circuit.

Blocking diodes will be of benefit in any system using solar panels to charge a battery. Blocking
diodes are usually included in the construction of solar panels so further blocking diodes are
not required

By-Pass Diodes

119
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Now let's consider what happens if one of the panels in the above diagram is shaded. Not only
will that panel not be producing any significant power, but it will also have a high resistance,
blocking the flow of power produced by the unshaded panel.

This is where by-pass diodes come into play as shown in the diagram to the right. Now, if one
panel is shaded, the current produced by the unshaded panel can flow through a by-pass diode
to avoid the high resistance of the shaded panel.

By-pass diodes will not be of use unless panels are connected in series to produce a higher
voltage. They are most likely to be of benefit where an MPPT Controller or String Inverter
involves panels connected in series to produce voltages well above that items minimum input
voltage.

Some solar panels are constructed with the cells divided into groups, each group having a built-
in by-pass diode.

Shading of part of a panel may be cuased by a tree branch, debris, or snow.

Connectors

120
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
These connectors are found on the positive and negative module whips and are used to
connect modules into series strings. PV connectors are also used to form the DC home-run to
the inverter. In systems using DC optimizers or microinverters, PV connectors are used to
connect the module to the module-level device.

What are solar connectors?

MC4 connectors are single-contact electrical connectors commonly used for connecting solar
panels. The MC4 and compatible products are universal in the solar market today, equipping
almost all solar panels

PV Connectors:

To maintain code compliance, it is imperative that PV connectors are UL rated for

interminability. In recent years, this required little forethought as the majority of modules came
from the factory with common connectors like Staubli MC4 or Amphenol. Change is afoot.
Today many module manufacturers have turned to generic PV connectors. Furthermore, some
string combiners and inverter DC wiring boxes are now offered in pre-wired configuration with
PV connectors already in place. Although these connectors are fully inter-matable with their
MC4 and Amphenol H4 counterparts, in most cases the union between these connectors is NOT

121
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
a UL rated connection. Many inspectors have begun to notice this discrepancy which forces
contractors to find a solution.

PV connectors make and model is commonly listed on module data sheets. If you see “MC4
compatible” then you are most likely dealing with a generic connector. Contact your CivicSolar
account manager for confirmation.

MLPE PV Connector

Enphase IQ MC4 or Amphenol H4 UTX

SolarEdge MC4
SMA Power+ (Tigo TS4R) MC4
Chilicon MC4

Fuses

Fuses are required to protect cables and PV modules from line-line, line-ground and mismatch
faults. The sole purpose is to prevent fire and safely open a faulted circuit if an overcurrent
event were to occur.

How to properly fuse a solar PV system

The first thing to know is that fuses and circuit breakers are primarily used to protect the
system wiring from getting too hot and catching fire. Secondly, they also are used to protect
devices from catching fire or from becoming more seriously damaged if there is a short circuit.

A good example is a 12V lead acid battery. If a short develops in your AC/DC inverter for
instance, a fuse between it and the battery will prevent a possible explosion of the battery and

122
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
it will cut the circuit fast enough to prevent the wires from catching fire or getting dangerously
hot. In this case, the battery, wires, and AC/DC inverter will be safely disabled by the fuse.

Solar Panel fusing

Commercially made solar panels over 50 watts have 10-gauge wires capable of handling up to
30 amps of current flow. If you connect these panels in series, there will be no increase in
current flow so fusing is not required for this string. This is not the case when you have panels
connected in parallel, as when connected in parallel the system current is additive. For
instance, if you have 4 panels each capable of up to 15 amps, then a short in one panel can
draw all 60 amps towards that short-circuited panel. This will cause the wires leading to that
panel to far exceed 30 amps causing that wire-pair to potentially catch fire. In the case of
panels in parallel, a 30-amp fuse is required for each panel. If your panels are smaller than 50
watts, and use only 12-gauge wires, and 20-amp fuses are required.

Parallel/Combiner Box fusing

In a parallel system a combiner box is used that holds the fuses/breakers to each panel, plus
one or more “combined” fuse leading to the charge controller or grid tie inverter (see figure).
When sizing this “combined” fuse/breaker, we must first determine the worst-case current that
will flow based on our specific panels.

123
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Telemetry/intelligence

Remote telemetry or data collection projects are often sited a distance away from the
nearest mains supply.

• Off-grid solar or wind generated power offers a cost-effective remote power solution,
capable of being deployed in the remotest of locations.
• Modern telemetry, RTU and data monitoring equipment is becoming increasingly
efficient, requiring relatively small amounts of power to record and transmit data.
• The cost of any stand-alone power system is directly related to the amount of power
required. As a result, remote solar or wind powered telemetry systems are becoming
increasingly viable.

124
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Most off-grid power systems consist of solar PV panels and sometimes a wind
generator. Both of these sources are used to charge deep cycle batteries, via charge
controlled

Solar Powered Telemetry

A long-term and uninterrupted monitoring of the environmental and geological data is being
implemented by many countries for the purpose of safeguarding the environment and wildlife.
In such remote ecologically vulnerable areas, utilizing telemetry-applications is the only option
to implement an unattended monitoring system so that the requirement on cost and safety can
be satisfied. Like any other system, the telemetry-applications systems also need power to
function. But the coverage rate of the power grid in these areas is usually lower than the
average level and often not available. In these cases, solar powered systems become the most
feasible option in terms of stability, reliability and ease of maintenance. Moreover, they are
increasingly becoming the best solution for power supply of telemetry-applications systems.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

125
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
• IAC0701 Describe the functions of PV junction/string boxes, smart boxes, string diodes,
connectors and fuses
• IAC0702 Explain telemetry/intelligence system of smart boxes

126
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT08: Inverters (13%)

KT0801 Wiring symbols, inverter symbols (single and three phase)

KT0802 Internal circuit diagrams
KT0803 Self-commuted inverters (with high frequency, transformerless)
KT0804 Specifications, characteristics and properties of inverters (different efficiencies
like conversion, static, Euro, Californian, overall)
KT0805 Grid-connected inverter types and construction sizes in various power classes
(multiple MPP trackers [multi-string concept]; master slave concept in low
power ranges, three phase concept in low power ranges, thin-film optimised
inverters, back-up inverters or inverters optimised for self-use, medium voltage
inverter)
KT0806 Stand-alone inverters (sine-wave and square-wave)
KT0807 Telemetry/intelligence of inverters

Wiring symbols, inverter symbols (single and three phase)

Solar Power Inverter Symbol

In practical terms, the inverter allows us to run electric drills, computers, vacuum cleaners,
mains lighting, and most electrical appliances that can be plugged into the wall sockets. If the
power inverter is big enough, then larger appliances such as freezers, refrigerators, and
washing machines can also be used. All these standard 120- or 240-volt AC appliances can be
powered directly from either the PV solar array, or by converting the power stored in backup
batteries using the appropriately sized solar power inverter. Inverter operation is quiet and its
127
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
output power is available whenever it is needed so now stand-alone battery systems can run
just about any standard commercial appliance, 24 hours a day.

While a single inverter may well be sufficient for a domestic installation, multiple units become
the norm as we advance up the power scale and their efficiency, reliability, and safety are
major concerns of the system designer.

Central Inverter Configuration

Central Inverter Configuration – Several branches of the array are connected together in
parallel. The complete output of the array is converted to AC through a single central solar
power inverter and then fed to the grid. The single inverter is presented with a DC input voltage
and current which may be quite large depending upon the configuration of the array.

This type of inverter configuration gives good efficiency, low cost, average reliability and since
the PV panels within the same array are evenly matched, the maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) selected by the inverter for the whole array ensures that all the PV panels operate at, or
close too, their maximum power output.

Branch Inverter Configuration

128
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Branch Inverter Configuration – Each branch or string has its own inverter attached. Then each
single branch can have a different number of PV panels, different panel types, positions,
orientations or suffer from full or partial shading. The result is that each inverter produces a
different power output relative to its connected array.

Therefore the array cannot be efficiently characterised by one single maximum power point
(MPP), as each inverter will operate at a different maximum power point with respect to the
others. The main advantage of this type of power inverter configuration is that each solar
branch can be at a different location or position and not all together in one single array.

Individual Inverter Configuration

Individual Inverter Configuration – Each photovoltaic solar panel has its own power inverter.
This enables the inverter to select the optimum power point for the panel giving very good
efficiency but at a higher cost per kWp. More components in the array means lower reliability
and more maintenance.

129
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
An increasing number of solar panel manufacturers are offering individual PV panels with solar
power inverters built directly into the PV panel, making each solar panel its own complete AC
power source allowing it to be plugged directly into the mains grid.

Grid connected solar power inverters synchronise the electricity they produce with the local
grids AC grade electricity, allowing the system to feed the solar made electricity directly into
the grid, usually through a second electricity kWh “net” meter. Most grid connected power
inverters are designed to operate without backup batteries, but battery-based inverter models
also are available. The battery-based inverters for use in both stand alone and grid connected
solar systems, generally include an inbuilt battery charger, which is capable of charging a
battery bank directly from the grid during cloudy or bad weather.

High quality solar power inverters are available in sizes from a few 100 watts, for powering
lights, laptops and games consoles from your car, up to tens of kilowatts, for powering large
residential solar system with grid connected inverters being designed to automatically shut
down when there is no grid power available for safety reasons. Solar inverters are available in a
wide range of power sizes and voltage ratings to suit just about every combinations of
installation but there are basically three kinds of DC to AC solar power inverter: square wave,
modified sine wave, and pure sine wave

130
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Inverter Output Waveforms

Square Wave Solar Power Inverter

The Square Wave Solar Power Inverter is the simplest and the least expensive type of inverter
available. It is generally not used commercially due to its low quality of output power and very
large harmonics. Square wave inverters equipped with thyristor output stages chop and invert
(hence the name Inverter) the DC input positive power to generate a square wave alternating
positive to negative AC output signal that is later filtered to approximate a sine wave and
eliminate undesired harmonics. Cheaper square wave inverters may also use push-pull
transistor circuits with step-up transformers to produce the required output voltage. Square
wave inverters are really only used in small stand-alone PV systems that will run simple things
like lighting or hand tools with universal motors with no problem – but not much else.

Modified Sine Wave Solar Power Inverter

The Modified Sine Wave Solar Power Inverter also called a quasi-sine wave inverter, is basically
a modified square wave inverter which produces a square wave output with low harmonic
distortion and a small “OFF” time between the positive and negative half cycles as the inverter
switches polarity. Modified sine wave inverters are suitable for most types of electrical and

131
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
electronic loads, and are a popular type of inverter on the consumer market today due to their
good conversion efficiency, relatively low cost, and can be used in solar installations where
waveform shape is not too important. However, modified sine wave inverters may not allow
printers, copiers, light dimmers, rechargeable and variable tools to operate correctly due to the
switching action of the inverters output stage. Also some audio amplifiers and radios may
produce a low frequency background buzz due to the inverters output switching components.

Internal circuit diagrams

A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical

representation of an electrical circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of
components, while a schematic diagram shows the components and interconnections of the
circuit using standardized symbolic representations. The presentation of the interconnections
between circuit components in the schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the
physical arrangements in the finished device.

Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram, a circuit diagram shows the actual electrical
connections. A drawing meant to depict the physical arrangement of the wires and the
components they connect is called artwork or layout, physical design, or wiring diagram.

Circuit diagrams are used for the design (circuit design), construction (such as PCB layout), and
maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment

132
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Self-commuted inverters (with high frequency, transformerless)

What is self-commutated inverter?

A self-commutated inverter is one in which the means of commutation is included within the
inverter itself. This is the case for circuits including electronic power switches with turn-off
capability. Thus, a bipolar transistor, GTO thyristor, or power FET inverter is self-commutated.

Self-commutated inverters integrate electronic switches that are switched on and off directly
via the gate a number of times per period, thus greatly reducing reactive power consumption
and current harmonics. In lieu of thyristors, self-commutated inverters integrate the following
elements that act as rapid electronic switches:

• Gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs), which as their name suggests are thyristors that
can be turned off via a gate.
• Bipolar solid-state transistors.

133
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Power MOSFETs (power FETs with insulated gates).
• Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).

Nonetheless, the switching procedure used in self-commutated inverters tends to induce stand-
alone operation following a power failure. But as this is undesirable for inverters during grid-
connected system operation for reasons of safety, appropriate precautions need to be taken in
this regard.

To attain high efficiency, the semiconductor switches that are used need to be either fully
connected or completely cut off. Moreover, extremely steep-edged pulses should be used in
inverters that generate high-frequency interference, which is particularly pronounced in self-
commutated inverters that exhibit numerous switching cycles per period. Without adequate
filtering on both the DC and AC sides, such inverters induce extremely pronounced high-
frequency interference in the connected lines, and this in turn can interfere with radio
reception and the operation of other electronic appliances.

Specifications, characteristics and properties of inverters (different efficiencies like

conversion, static, Euro, Californian, overall)

Central Inverter

This is a PV array that consists of three strings, where each string has three series connected
modules. Before these strings are connected to the utility grid, a power conditioning unit is
required as an interface between the array and the grid. Designers can use one central inverter
as illustrated in Figure, where all strings are connected to the DC side of the inverter and the
single AC output is connected to the utility grid.

134
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Advantages of a Central Inverter

• The most traditional inverter topology

• Easy system design and implementation
• Low cost per Watt
• Easy accessibility for maintenance and troubleshooting

Disadvantages of a Central Inverter

• High DC wiring costs and power loss due to Voltage Drop.

• Single MPPT for the entire PV system
• System output can be drastically reduced in case of partial shading and string mismatch
• Difficult to add strings or arrays for future expansion
• Single failure point for the entire system
• Monitoring at array level

135
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Huge size! (It is a disadvantage because the bigger size requires more land and creates a
shading issue for the PV array.)

Grid-connected inverter types and construction sizes in various power classes

String Inverter

Now, we are moving to the String inverters as shown in Figure. Assuming the same PV array
that consists of three strings, another way to connect it to the grid is using three string inverter
as illustrated in Figure. In this case, each PV string is connected to a single string inverter at the
DC side, and all AC outputs of inverters are combined and connected to the utility grid.

As the name indicates, each string of PV modules has its own inverter. In this case, we are
moving closer to the PV modules level.

Advantages of a String Inverter

• Smaller in size when compared to central inverters

136
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Better MPPT capability per string
• Scalability for future expansion by adding parallel strings
• Short DC wires
• Monitoring at string level

Disadvantages of a String Inverter

• The installation requires special racking for the inverter for each string
• Poor flexibility at partial shading
• Higher per Watt cost than central inverter

Micro Inverter

Finally, let's look at the micro inverters. These are also referred to as module inverters. In this
case, each module has one dedicated inverter connected on the back of the module. The
module DC terminals are connected to the DC side of the inverter and then all AC wires of all
terminals are combined and then connected to the utility interconnection point as illustrated in
Figure

137
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
As the name suggests, each module has a dedicated inverter with an MPP tracker.

Advantages of Micro Inverters

• Resilience to partial shading effects as compared to the central and string inverters.
• MPPT at module level
• Highest system flexibility for future expansion
• Minimum DC wiring costs
• Monitoring at module level

Disadvantages of Micro Inverters

• High per Watt cost

• High maintenance costs
• Difficult access for maintenance since the installation is under the PV modules

Stand-alone inverters (sine-wave and square-wave)

What is a stand-alone inverter?

A stand-alone inverter is an electrical inverter that converts DC power stored in batteries to AC

power that can be used as needed.

A stand-alone inverter is an electrical inverter that converts DC power stored in batteries to AC

power that can be used as needed. Selecting an inverter for your power system based on the
maximum load you will be powering, the maximum surge required, output voltage required,
input battery voltage and optional features needed. High quality stand-alone inverters are
available in sizes from 100 watts, for powering notebook computers and fax machines from
your car, to 8000 watts, for powering an entire house or small commercial operation. The size
of an inverter is measured by its maximum continuous output in watts. This rating must be
larger than the total wattage of all of the AC loads you plan to run at one time. The size of the

138
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
inverter can be minimized if the number and size of the AC loads is kept under control. Wattage
of most AC loads can be determined from a tag or label on the appliance, usually located near
where the power cord enters, or from the owner's manual. If the inverter is expected to run
induction motors, like the ones found in automatic washers, dryers, dishwashers and large
power tools, it must be designed to surge, or deliver power many times its rating for short
periods of time while these motors start.

Stand-alone inverters are available with three basic power output waveforms: square wave,
modified square wave (sometimes called modified sine wave), and pure sine wave.
Synchronous inverters and utility companies deliver a pure sine wave.

• Square wave inverters have the lowest cost and efficiency. Modified square wave
output are an economical choice in power systems where waveform is not critical. Their
high surge capacity allows them to start large motors while their high efficiency makes
them economical with power when running small loads like a stereo or a small light.
They can power most lighting, televisions, appliances and computers very well.
However, this type of inverter may destroy some low cost rechargeable tools and
flashlights, and their waveform will not allow many laser printers, copiers, light
dimmers, and some variable speed tools to operate. Some audio equipment will have a
background buzz that may be annoying to music connoisseurs.
• Sine wave inverters have a slightly higher cost, but they can operate almost anything
that can be operated on utility power. They range in size from 150 watts for small
applications to 200,000 watts that can run a small village.

Telemetry/intelligence of inverters

An intelligent hybrid inverter or smart grid inverter is a trending generation of inverter for
solar applications using renewable energy for home consumption, especially for solar
photovoltaic installations. Some see this as a new technology, however in some parts of the
world the application of such products has been around since the 1990s. Electricity from solar

139
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
panels is generated only during the day, with peak generation around midday. Generation
fluctuates and may not be synchronized with a load's electricity consumption. To overcome this
gap between what is produced and what is consumed during the evening, when there is no
solar electricity production, it is necessary to store energy for later use and manage energy
storage and consumption with an intelligent hybrid (smart grid) inverter. With the development
of systems that include renewable energy sources and rising electricity prices, private
companies and research laboratories have developed smart inverters for synchronizing energy
production and consumption

Power Ratings of inverters

Inverters come in size ratings all the way from 50 watts up to 50,000 watts, although units
larger than 11,000 watts are very seldom used in household or other PV systems. The first thing
you have to know about your inverter is what will be the maximum surge, and for how long.
(More about 230 volts pumps etc later).

• Surge: All inverters have a continuous rating and a surge rating. The surge rating is
usually specified at so many watts for so many seconds. This means that the inverter will
handle an overload of that many watts for a short period of time. This surge capacity
will vary considerably between inverters, and different types of inverters, and even
within the same brand. It may range from as little as 20% to as much s 300%. Generally,
a 3 to 15-second surge rating is enough to cover 99% of all appliances - the motor in a
pump may actually surge for only 1/2 second or so.
• General Rules: The inverters with the lowest surge ratings are the high-speed electronic
switching type (the most common). These are typically from 25% to 50% maximum
overload. This includes most inverters made by Statpower, Exeltech, Power to Go, and
nearly all the inexpensive inverters in the 50 to 5000-watt range. The highest surge
ratings are the transformer based, low-frequency switchers. This includes most Xantrex,
Magnum, and Outback Power. Surge ratings on these can range up to 300% for short

140
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 periods. While high-frequency switching allows a much smaller and lighter unit, due to
the much smaller transformers used it also reduces the surge or peak capacity.
• Pros and Cons: Although the high-frequency switching type doesn't have the surge
capacity of the transformer based, they do have some definite advantages. They are
much lighter, usually quite a bit smaller, and (especially in the lower power ranges) they
are much cheaper. However, if you are going to run something like a submersible well
pump, you will need either very high surge capacity or you will need to oversize the
inverter above its typical usage, so that even at maximum surge the inverter will not
exceed its surge rating.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0801 Describe the functions of the inverter

• IAC0802 Identify and explain inverter symbols
• IAC0803 Draw the internal circuit diagram for an inverter and explain its operating
principles
• IAC0804 Discuss the different efficiencies and overload behaviour of inverters
• IAC0805 Discuss the inverter‟s recording of operation data
• IAC0806 Discuss the characteristics and properties of inverters
• IAC0807 Explain the principle of grid connection when using an inverter
• IAC0808 Describe the types of inverters
• IAC0809 Explain telemetry/intelligence system of inverters
• IAC0810 Explain how to interpret inverter data sheets

141
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT09: Cabling, wiring and connection systems, installation materials and switching
(direct current load switch [DC main switch] and AC switch disconnector) (8%)

KT0901 Module and string cables

KT0902 Connection systems
KT0903 DC main cable
KT0904 AC connection cable
KT0905 Installation materials (PG protective tubing, finned tubing, cable duct, cable
ties, cable clamps and nail clamps
KT0906 Direct current load switch (DC main switch)
KT0907 Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs)
KT0908 Residual current device (RCD)
KT0909 Isolation switches and grid integration
KT0910 Integration of decentralised feed-in sources in the grid management process
KT0911 Metering

Module and string cables

What Is String Sizing?

A panel string is a group of panels that are wired into a single input on your power inverter.
String sizing describes the calculations we make to determine how many panels we should plug
into one input for optimal efficiency.

A panel string is a group of panels that are wired into a single input on your power inverter.
String sizing describes the calculations we make to determine how many panels we should plug
into one input for optimal efficiency. A panel string is a group of panels wired into a single input
on your inverter

142
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Why Does String Sizing Matter?

Inverters operate within a specific input voltage range, called the operating range. Your panel
strings must output a voltage that falls within that range.

If the panels don’t supply enough voltage, the inverter won’t have enough power to turn on.

If too much voltage is supplied, you can damage your inverter and void the warranty.The
operating range is simply the range in which your inverter will properly function. In this range,
your inverter will turn on and deliver power to your appliances.

However, falling within the operating range just means the inverter is working — it doesn’t
guarantee you’re getting the most power you possibly can out of it.
143
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
To really optimize output, you want to fall within a narrower voltage range called the maximum
power point (MPP) range. This is the sweet spot in which your inverter runs at the peak
efficiency listed on its spec sheet.

How To Calculate String Size?

String sizing calculations depend on the specific voltage of your panels and inverter, as well as
outside factors like temperature

• Each panel has an output voltage. This is the voltage the panel sends to the inverter.
We’ll need to look at a few different figures:
• Open circuit voltage (Voc): The voltage supplied when the circuit is open—that is, when
current isn’t passing through the circuit. This state occurs when the inverter isn’t
powered on.
• Max Power voltage (Vmp): The voltage of the panel after it is turned on and operating
normally under load (current is flowing through the circuit).

On the inverter spec sheet, look for the rated MPP voltage range. This is the sweet spot for
ideal operation that I mentioned in the last section.

Also take note of the max DC input voltage. We’re especially concerned about this, because if
you exceed the max operating voltage, you’ll overload the inverter and potentially fry the
equipment. (We’ve seen it, unfortunately.) Going over the max operating voltage will void the
warranty on your inverter.

There is also a minimum DC voltage and a startup voltage requirement that needs to be met in
order to turn on the inverter. Typically, this won’t be an issue, since we want our strings to
operate well above the minimum, up in the MPP range where it works at higher efficiency.

144
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Connection systems

Simplified Grid Connected PV System

Grid connected PV systems always have a connection to the public electricity grid via a suitable
inverter because a photovoltaic panel or array (multiple PV panels) only deliver DC power. As
well as the solar panels, the additional components that make up a grid connected PV system
compared to a stand-alone PV system are:

• Inverter: The inverter is the most important part of any grid connected system. The
inverter extracts as much DC (direct current) electricity as possible from the PV array
and converts it into clean mains AC (alternating current) electricity at the right voltage
145
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 and frequency for feeding into the grid or for supplying domestic loads. It is important
to choose the best quality inverter possible for the budget allowed as the main
considerations in grid connected inverter choice are: Power – Maximum high and low
voltage power the inverter can handle and Efficiency – How efficiently does the inverter
convert solar power to AC power.
• Electricity Meter: The electricity meter also called a Kilowatt hour (kWh) meter is used
to record the flow of electricity to and from the grid. Twin kWh meters can be used, one
to indicate the electrical energy being consumed and the other to record the solar
electricity being sent to the grid. A single bidirectional kWh meter can also be used to
indicate the net amount of electricity taken from the grid. A grid connected PV system
will slow down or halt the aluminium disc in the electric meter and may cause it to spin
backwards. This is generally referred to as net metering.
• AC Breaker Panel and Fuses: The breaker panel or fuse box is the normal type of fuse
box provided with a domestic electricity supply and installation with the exception of
additional breakers for inverter and/or filter connections.
• Safety Switches and Cabling: A photovoltaic array will always produce a voltage output
in sunlight so it must be possible to disconnect it from the inverter for maintenance or
testing. Isolator switches rated for the maximum DC voltage and current of the array
and inverter safety switches must be provided separately with easy access to disconnect
the system. Other safety features demanded by the electrical company may include
earthing and fuses. The electrical cables used to connect the various components must
also be correctly rated and sized.
• The Electricity Grid: Finally, the electricity grid itself to connect too, because without
the utility grid it is not a Grid Connected PV System.

A grid connected system without batteries are the simplest and cheapest solar power setup
available, and by not having to charge and maintain batteries they are also more efficient. It is
important to note that a grid connected solar power system is not an independent power
source unlike a stand-alone system. Should the mains supply from the electrical grid be

146
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
interrupted, the lights may go out, even if the sun is shining. One way to overcome this is to
have some form of short-term energy storage built into the design.

Grid Connected System with Batteries

A small scale photovoltaic solar system that has storage batteries within its design, also
operates in conjunction with the local electricity company. The short-term peak demand is met
by the battery without drawing from the grid and paying the extra charge. When used in grid
connected PV systems, storage batteries can be classified into short term storage for a few
hours or days to cover periods of bad weather and long-term storage over several weeks to
compensate for seasonal variations in the solar irradiation between the summer and winter
months.

Grid Connected PV System with Battery Storage

147
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
So we can see from above, that a PV system with battery storage is basically the same as for the
previous grid connected PV system with the addition of the batteries and charge controller. The
battery charge controller, determines whether the power generated by the solar panels is
needed for home use, to run low voltage equipment and lighting or whether it will charge the
deep-cycle backup batteries to be used later on.

The DC current leaving the controller passes through the DC to AC inverter, transforming it into
electricity usable by general household appliances. Any surplus electricity not being consumed
or used by the home can be sent to the electricity companies power grid. It is better to run DC
rated lighting and appliances first directly off your solar system before the current is converted
to AC from the inverter. This will gain the most efficiency.

148
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Living with a grid connected solar PV system is no different than living with just the normal grid
power, except that some or all of the electricity that is consumed comes from the sun. PV solar
systems designed for grid connection are usually designed to meet at least half of a
homeowner’s electrical needs. Purchasing a home solar photovoltaic panel array large enough
to supply the entire electrical needs of a home would be extremely expensive with the solar
array taking up a large amount of space. The solar power generated by a grid connected system
is therefore only partial, with the remaining energy being made up by the power company.

DC main cable

What is DC cable?

The DC cable is used in the rectified DC transmission system, and the AC cable is often used in
the power frequency (domestic 50 Hz) power system. 2. Compared with the AC cable, the
power loss during the transmission of the DC cable is small.

The difference between DC cable and AC cable in power cable

The DC cable has the following characteristics compared with the AC cable.

• The system used is different. The DC cable is used in the rectified DC transmission
system, and the AC cable is often used in the power frequency (domestic 50 Hz) power
system.
• Compared with the AC cable, the power loss during the transmission of the DC cable is
small. The power loss of the DC cable is mainly the DC resistance loss of the conductor,
and the insulation loss is small (the size depends on the current fluctuation after
rectification); while the AC resistance of the low-voltage AC cable is slightly larger than
the DC resistance, the high-voltage cable is obvious, mainly because The proximity
effect and the skin effect, the loss of insulation resistance accounts for a large
proportion, mainly the impedance generated by the capacitor and the inductor.

149
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
• High transmission efficiency and low line loss.
• It is convenient to adjust the current and change the power transmission direction.
• Although the price of the converter equipment is higher than that of the transformer,
the cost of using the cable line is much lower than that of the AC cable. The DC cable is
positive and negative poles, and the structure is simple; the AC cable is three-phase
four-wire or five-wire system, the insulation safety requirements are high, the structure
is complex, and the cable cost is more than three times that of the DC cable.

150
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
DC cable is safe to use:

• The inherent characteristics of DC transmission, it is difficult to generate induced

current and leakage current, and it will not interfere with the electric field generated by
other cables.
• The single-core laying cable does not affect the cable transmission performance due to
the hysteresis loss of the steel structure bridge.
• It has higher interception capability and over-cut protection than DC cables of the same
structure.
• A straight, alternating electric field of the same voltage is applied to the insulation, and
the DC electric field is much safer than the AC electric field.
• The installation and maintenance of the DC cable is simple and the cost is low.

AC connection cable

Installing AC Wiring

151
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
AC Wiring Colors

The Enphase AC Trunk Cable uses standard wire colors for AC wiring and so will the standard
cable you buy. These are 240v circuits so there are two power lines.

• Black - Line 1 power

• Red - Line 2 power

AC Wire Type Choices

AC Wiring can be accomplished with a number of materials depending on situation and local
code requirements. The most accepted method from the JBOX to the combiner or disconnect
switch is 12AWG THHN (Stranded 12 gauge) copper in conduit. You can't really go wrong with
that.

152
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Some municipalities will allow single strands of hard 12 awg copper to be used but it's harder to
pull through conduit.

Conduit isn't necessary if you are wiring inside the building so 12/3 cable may be allowed. This
is the cheapest and easiest method.

There are also exterior rated cables that might be allowed without conduit but you should
check with your township

The basic message is that it's easy to ask the people who issue your building permit and follow
their advice.

J-BOX

Procedure

• Securely mount the JBOX to the rails(using the nut and bolt provided), the roof or to a
sidewall.

153
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Strip 3" of covering from the Enphase AC Trunk Cable then strip 1/2" of insulation from
each wire.
• Thread the Enphase AC Trunk Cable through the weatherproof connector on the J-BOX
and tighten the ring to secure it firmly.
• Select the approved method of "Home Run" wiring your municipality requires, discussed
above. Purchase the appropriate 1/2" weatherproof wiring connector for the type of
wiring selected and install in the J-BOX.
• Connect the red and black wires to the same colored wires you have selected to use for
the "Home Run" to the next component. Use provided wire nuts to secure the splices.
• Screw the weatherproof cover onto the J-BOX.

AC Combiner (Option)

The AC Combiner (sub panel) is used in kits with more than one J-BOX (5kw or larger). If your
kit has only one run of Enphase AC Trunk Cable and one J-BOX then skip this step (4kw or
smaller).

154
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Procedure

• Run two AC 12AWG wires from each J-BOX into a separate 2-pole 20amp breaker in the
AC Combiner.
• You will need weatherproof connectors to secure each wire running into and out of the
AC Combiner.
• As you can see from the diagrams on the web site, you connect similar colored wires to
each other. We recommend running four wires from the home electrical panel to the
combiner (Red, Black, White and Green/bare).
• Use the appropriately sized copper wire to carry the power from the combiner box to
your home electrical panel.

Installation materials (PG protective tubing, finned tubing, cable duct, cable ties, cable clamps
and nail clamps

Cable protection systems and accessories for every demand

No cable can meet the demands posed today in terms of abrasion resistance, tensile strength
and form consistency or impact resistance without having appropriate cable protection. Wire
conduits have to meet these demands and also provide protection against dirt and dampness
or resistance against extreme temperature loads.

From excellent flexibility, to high flame-retardant properties to exceptional mechanical

protection, thick-walled or thin-walled. Wherever cable protection is needed, there are unique
requirements. Whilst cable protection in plant and machinery construction requires high levels
of mechanical impact resistance and abrasion resistance, a wire conduit or braided sleeving
used in public buildings or in rolling-stock must meet the highest fire safety standards.

155
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
In addition to the outstanding material properties of the flexible cable protection conduits. For
each metallic or non-metallic cable conduit in the HelaGuard series, there are a number of
accessories available, for example:

• Locknuts
• Endcaps
• Clamps
• Sealing washers

Whether construction or retrofitting, for example with braided sleeves that can be re-opened
or closed, find the right cable protection solution for your application now.

156
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Direct current load switch (DC main switch)

What are load switches?

Integrated load switches from the TPS229xx family are integrated electronic relays used to turn
on and off power rails. Most basic load switches consist of four pins: input voltage, output
voltage, enable, and ground.

Shown below is a block diagram of a basic load switch. For a higher level of input or output
power protection, check out the Fuse devices, which include features such as overvoltage
shutdown, current limiting, and short circuit protection.

Hover over a block for additional information

157
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs)

What is the function of miniature circuit breaker?

A miniature circuit breaker (MCB) automatically switches off electrical circuit during an
abnormal condition of the network means in overload condition as well as faulty condition.
Nowadays we use an MCB in low voltage electrical network instead of a fuse

Nowadays we use an MCB in low voltage electrical network instead of a fuse. The fuse may not
sense it but the miniature circuit breaker does it in a more reliable way. MCB is much more
sensitive to overcurrent than fuse.

158
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Handling an MCB is electrically safer than a fuse. Quick restoration of supply is possible in case
of a fuse as because fuses must be re-wirable or replaced for restoring the supply. Restoration
is easily possible by just switching it ON. Let’s look at the working of the miniature circuit
breaker.

The working principle of MCB

Whenever continuous overcurrent flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and
deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip releases a mechanical latch. As this
mechanical latch is attached with the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature
circuit breaker contacts, and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the
circuit. To restart the flow of current the MCB must be manually turned ON. This mechanism
protects from the faults arising due to overcurrent or overload.

But during short circuit condition, the current rises suddenly, causing electromechanical
displacement of plunger associated with a tripping coil or solenoid. The plunger strikes the trip
lever causing immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker
contacts. This was a simple explanation of a miniature circuit breaker working principle.

159
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
An MCB is very simple, easy to use and is not generally repaired. It is just easier to replace. The
trip unit is the main part, responsible for its proper working. There are two main types of trip
mechanism. A bi-metal provides protection against overload current and an electromagnet
provides protection against short-circuit current.

MCB operation

If the circuit is overloaded for a long time, the bi-metallic strip becomes overheated and
deformed. This deformation of Bi-metallic strip causes, displacement of latch point. The moving
contact of the MCB is arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, that a little
displacement of latch causes, release of spring and makes the moving contact to move for
opening the MCB.

The current coil or trip coil is placed so that during short circuit fault the magneto-motive force
(mmf) of the coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and make the latch to be
displaced. Again, when operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by hand,
that means when MCB goes off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result
moving contact separated from fixed contact in the same manner

Residual current device (RCD)

What is an RCD?

An RCD, or residual current device, is a life-saving device which is designed to prevent you from
getting a fatal electric shock if you touch something live, such as a bare wire. It can also provide
some protection against electrical fires. RCDs offer a level of personal protection that ordinary
fuses and circuit-breakers cannot provide.

160
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
A residual-current device (RCD), or residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB), is a device that
quickly breaks an electrical circuit to prevent serious harm from an ongoing electric shock.

Table below aims to identify where each type of RCD can be used, together with the benefits
provided. However, before looking at Table 2 there are two other classifications of RCD that
need to be considered – general and time-delayed operation each having Type a.c., A or B
characteristics.

RCCB

(Residual Current Operated Circuit Breaker without Integral Overcurrent Protection)

A mechanical switching device designed to make, carry and break currents under normal
service conditions and to cause the opening of the contacts when the residual current attains a
given value under specified conditions.

It is not designed to give protection against overloads and/or short-circuits and must always be
used in conjunction with an overcurrent protective device such as a fuse or circuit breaker.

RCBO

(Residual Current Operated Circuit Breaker with Integral Overcurrent Protection)

A mechanical switching device designed to make, carry and break currents under normal
service conditions and to cause the opening of the contacts when the residual current attains a
given value under specified conditions.

161
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
In addition, it is designed to give protection against overloads and/or short-circuits and can be
used independently of any other overcurrent protective device within its rated short-circuit
capacity.

SRCD

(Socket-Outlet incorporating a Residual Current Device)

A socket-outlet for fixed installations incorporating an integral sensing circuit that will
automatically cause the switching contacts in the main circuit to open at a predetermined value
of residual current.

FCURCD

(Fused Connection Unit incorporating a Residual Current Device)

A fused connection unit for fixed installations incorporating an integral sensing circuit that will
automatically cause the switching contacts in the main circuit to open at a predetermined value
of residual current

PRCD

(Portable Residual Current Device)

A device comprising a plug, a residual current device and one or more socket-outlets (or a
provision for connection). It may incorporate overcurrent protection.

CBR

(Circuit Breaker incorporating Residual Current Protection)

A circuit breaker providing overcurrent protection and incorporating residual current protection
either integrally (an Integral CBR) or by combination with a residual current unit which may be
factory or field fitted.

162
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The RCBO and CBR have the same application, both providing overcurrent and residual current
protection. In general, the term RCBO is applied to the smaller devices whereas CBR is used for
devices throughout the current range, with ratings up to several thousand amperes, single and
multi-phase.

The RCBO and CBR are more strictly defined by the relevant standards.

RCM

(Residual Current Monitor)

A device designed to monitor electrical installations or circuits for the presence of unbalanced
earth fault currents. It does not incorporate any tripping device or overcurrent protection.

MRCD

(Modular Residual Current Device)

An independently mounted device incorporating residual current protection, without

overcurrent protection, and capable of giving a signal to trip an associated switching device

Matching the RCD to the load

The IEC 60755 standard defines four types of RCDs for AC applications. Each of these addresses’
different types, or combinations, of residual current waveforms.

• Type AC. These types of RCDs are used where the fault current is expected to be
sinusoidal and at the same frequency as the supply. For example, this will be the case

163
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 when a fault occurs on the supply conductors or when the load is resistive or linear.
These are considered general-purpose RCDs in many countries.
• Type A. Some kinds of loads, such as ones with a single-phase rectifying circuit like a
heating plate, will create a pulsating DC residual current. For these applications, a Type
A RCD is required, which can detect this kind of residual current. These can also
withstand a superimposed ‘smooth’ DC current up to 6 mA. They will also detect the
sinusoidal residual currents that the Type AC RCD can.
• Type F. In some applications there may be ‘composite’ residual currents, ranging from a
few to 1000 Hz. For example, circuits with single-phase motors being controlled by a
variable-speed drive, like a heat pump or air conditioner. For these applications, a Type
F RCD is required. These can also withstand superimposed smooth DC residual current
up to 10 mA. And they can also detect all of the residual currents detected by a Type A
RCD.
• Type B. Now let’s look at circuits with a 3-phase motor being controlled by a variable-
speed drive. This can include certain types of air conditioners, pumps, electric vehicle
chargers, or medical equipment requiring high precision movement. In these cases,
there can be residual current frequencies greater than 50 or 60 Hz, as well as non-
sinusoidal components, waveforms resulting from six-pulse-bridge rectifying circuits,
and even smooth DC. In this case, a Type B RCD is needed. Similar to a Type F, the Type
B can withstand superimposed smooth DC residual current up to 10 mA, as well as
detecting all the residual currents detected by a Type F.

In my next post, we’ll have a closer look at Type B RCDs, including how they work, their
applications, and coordinating with other RCD types. We’ll also have a look at a special ‘super
immunity’ Type SI RCD for high frequency earth leakage applications.

Isolation switches and grid integration

What does an isolation switch do?

164
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
An isolation switch is a manually operated mechanical switch which electrically isolates a circuit
from the main power; it helps to ensure that there is an efficient distribution of power

The Main Benefits of Using an Isolation Switch

An isolation switch is a manually operated mechanical switch which electrically isolates a circuit
from the main power; it helps to ensure that there is an efficient distribution of power. This
switch can be used to add more power to your vehicle as it separates your primary battery
system from your auxiliary battery; the isolator enables you to use accessories such as winches
without affecting the power in the primary battery.

The following are the main benefits of using an isolation switch:

• It enables you to charge a second battery from the electrical charging system of your
car.
• You can also charge different batteries simultaneously.
• You can isolate your secondary battery from the electronic devices in your car:
• This means that the power in your backup battery will be reserved and will not be
affected when you start your car.
• It enables you to use other devices in your car:
• If you have an isolation switch, you can use other devices and accessories without
having to disconnect from the primary power system in your car.
• When you stop your engine, you can still use the secondary battery and leave the
primary one fully charged.

165
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Integration of decentralised feed-in sources in the grid management process

Power grid management solution

The mass integration of solar energy in the power grids poses new challenges for the
dispatchers who are responsible for the production-consumption balance.

To meet these challenges, they need to know the level of photovoltaic production for the days
to come for a country and its regions and anticipate the risks of production drops for that day.

The end challenge is to optimise the reserves and to make better use of the transport and
interconnection capacities.

The solution implemented in several European countries uses our technological building bricks
SteadyMet (forecasts based on meteorological models) and SteadySat (forecasts using satellite
images), with, each time, the specificities linked to our customers’ operational and regulatory
requirements (a greater or lesser degree of aggregation, levels of uncertainty, time horizon,
etc).

Micro Grid / Distributed PV

It is essential to facilitate the integration of the photovoltaic productions without any risk for
the distribution network of electricity. Steady Eye generates solar generation forecasts for a set
of small rooftop installations.

How is solar energy stored in batteries?

Solar batteries work by storing energy produced by your solar panels and storing it as for later
use. In some cases, solar batteries have their own inverter and offer integrated energy
conversion. The higher your battery's capacity, the more solar energy it can store.

166
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
When you install a solar battery as part of your solar panel system, you are able to store excess
solar electricity at your home instead of sending it back to the grid. If your solar panels are
producing more electricity than you need, the excess energy goes towards charging the battery.
Later, when your solar panels aren’t producing electricity, you can draw down the energy you
stored earlier in your battery for night use. You’ll only send electricity back to the grid when
your battery is fully charged, and you’ll only draw electricity from the grid when your battery is
depleted.

What this means in practical terms is that homes with solar-plus-storage can store excess solar
power onsite for use later when the sun isn’t shining. As a bonus, since solar batteries store
energy at your home, they also offer short-term backup power in the event that there’s a
power outage in your area.

Metering

Net metering for home solar panels

What is net metering?

Net metering (also known as net energy metering or NEM) is a solar incentive that allows you to
store energy in the electric grid. When your solar panels produce more electricity than you
need, that energy is sent to the grid in exchange for credits. Then, at night or other times when
your solar panels are underproducing, you pull energy from the grid and use these credits to
offset the costs of that energy.

With the right size solar energy system, you can produce enough electricity to match your
home’s electricity use for the entire year. However, the amount of electricity your solar panels
produce will vary throughout the year. Net metering helps your account for these differences
by crediting you for the excess electricity your panels produce so you can use it later.

167
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0901 Describe module and string cables, connection systems, the DC main cable and
the AC connection cable and explain their functions
• IAC0902 Describe the installation materials and explain their functions
• IAC0903 Describe the impact of quality of cables in terms of system losses
• IAC0904 Explain the functions of direct current load switch (DC main switch), miniature
circuit breakers (MCBs), residual current device (RCD), isolation switches and grid
integration
• IAC0905 Describe the two types of residual current devices
• IAC0906 Elaborate on the integration of decentralised feed-in sources in the grid
management

168
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KM-11-KT10: Batteries (10%)

KT1001 Construction and operating principles

KT1002 Types and designs of lead-acid batteries (lead-acid gel batteries, stationary
tubular plate batteries [types OPzS and OPzV], block batteries with positive
plates [OGi block], excursus modern battery concepts – lithium-ion batteries
etc.)
KT1003 Batteries and system specifications
KT1004 Operating behaviour and characteristics of lead-acid batteries (voltage,
charging and discharging, state of charge)
KT1005 Ageing effects (acid stratification, sulphation, corrosion, studging, drying out)
KT1006 Battery replacement
KT1007 Battery safety and maintenance
KT1008 Recycling

Construction and operating principles

Battery Construction

A twelve-volt battery has six single cells in series producing a fully charged output voltage of
12.6 volts. A battery cell consists of two lead plates a positive plate covered with a paste of lead
dioxide and a negative made of sponge lead, with an insulating material (separator) in between

169
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The word battery simply means a group of similar components. In military vocabulary, a
“battery” refers to a cluster of guns. In electricity, a “battery” is a set of voltaic cells designed to
provide greater voltage and/or current than is possible with one cell alone.

The symbol for a cell is very simple, consisting of one long line and one short line, parallel to
each other, with connecting wires:

The symbol for a battery is nothing more than a couple of cell symbols stacked in series:

As was stated before, the voltage produced by any particular kind of cell is determined strictly
by the chemistry of that cell type. The size of the cell is irrelevant to its voltage. To obtain
greater voltage than the output of a single cell, multiple cells must be connected in series. The
total voltage of a battery is the sum of all cell voltages. A typical automotive lead-acid battery
has six cells, for a nominal voltage output of 6 x 2.0 or 12.0 volts:

170
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The cells in an automotive battery are contained within the same hard rubber housing,
connected together with thick, lead bars instead of wires. The electrodes and electrolyte
solutions for each cell are contained in separate, partitioned sections of the battery case. In
large batteries, the electrodes commonly take the shape of thin metal grids or plates and are
often referred to as plates instead of electrodes.

For the sake of convenience, battery symbols are usually limited to four lines, alternating
long/short, although the real battery it represents may have many more cells than that. On
occasion, however, you might come across a symbol for a battery with unusually high voltage,
intentionally drawn with extra lines. The lines, of course, are representative of the individual
cell plates:

How is the Size of the Battery Relevant?

171
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
If the physical size of a cell has no impact on its voltage, then what does it affect? The answer is
resistance, which in turn affects the maximum amount of current that a cell can provide. Every
voltaic cell contains some amount of internal resistance due to the electrodes and the
electrolyte. The larger a cell is constructed, the greater the electrode contact area with the
electrolyte, and thus the less internal resistance it will have.

Although we generally consider a cell or battery in a circuit to be a perfect source of voltage

(absolutely constant), the current through it dictated solely by the external resistance of the
circuit to which it is attached, this is not entirely true in real life. Since every cell or battery
contains some internal resistance, that resistance must affect the current in any given circuit:

The real battery shown above within the dotted lines has an internal resistance of 0.2 Ω, which
affects its ability to supply current to the load resistance of 1 Ω. The ideal battery on the left has
no internal resistance, and so our Ohm’s Law calculations for current (I=E/R) give us a perfect
value of 10 amps for current with the 1-ohm load and 10-volt supply. The real battery, with its
built-in resistance, further impeding the flow of current, can only supply 8.333 amps to the
same resistance load.

172
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The ideal battery, in a short circuit with 0 Ω resistance, would be able to supply an infinite
amount of current. The real battery, on the other hand, can only supply 50 amps (10 volts / 0.2
Ω) to a short circuit of 0 Ω resistance, due to its internal resistance. The chemical reaction inside
the cell may still be providing exactly 10 volts, but the voltage is dropped across that internal
resistance as current flows through the battery, which reduces the amount of voltage available
at the battery terminals to the load.

How to Connect Cells to Minimize the Battery’s Internal Resistance?

Since we live in an imperfect world, with imperfect batteries, we need to understand the
implications of factors such as internal resistance. Typically, batteries are placed in applications
where their internal resistance is negligible compared to that of the circuit load (where their
short-circuit current far exceeds their usual load current), and so the performance is very close
to that of an ideal voltage source.

If we need to construct a battery with lower resistance than what one cell can provide (for
greater current capacity), we will have to connect the cells together in parallel:

Essentially, what we have done here is to determine the Thevenin equivalent of the five cells in
parallel (an equivalent network of one voltage source and one series resistance). The equivalent
network has the same source voltage but a fraction of the resistance of any individual cell in the
original network. The overall effect of connecting cells in parallel is to decrease the equivalent
internal resistance, just as resistors in parallel diminish in total resistance. The equivalent
173
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
internal resistance of this battery of 5 cells is 1/5 that of each individual cell. The overall voltage
stays the same: 2.0 volts. If this battery of cells were powering a circuit, the current through
each cell would be 1/5 of the total circuit current, due to the equal split of current through
equal-resistance parallel branches.

Types and designs of lead-acid batteries (lead-acid gel batteries, stationary tubular plate
batteries [types OPzS and OPzV], block batteries with positive plates [OGi block], excursus
modern battery concepts – lithium-ion batteries etc.)

Lead Acid Battery Types

There are many variations of lead acid batteries. This article aims to clear up confusion
surrounding all the main types of lead acid batteries and they designated applications.

There are many variations of Lead Acid batteries. Each designed for its own particular
application with specific discharge and charge characteristics. These battery types are
specifically designed for a set designated end application.

It is important to pick the right lead acid battery for your particular application. Failure to do so
can reduce performance and in some instances irreversible damage to the battery, resulting in
a drastic reduction of its overall life span.

Generally speaking Lead Acid batteries are broken down into two main categories; Flooded (or
wet) Cells and Maintenance Free Sealed Lead Acid Batteries (SLA).

Flooded Lead Acid Batteries

174
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Flooded Lead Acid batteries are the most commonly found lead acid battery type and are
widely used in the automotive industry. They provide the most cost effective solution, as the
least cost per amp hour, of any lead acid battery type.

The modern wet cell comes in two styles; serviceable and maintenance free. Normal flooded
batteries require extra care and regular maintenance in the form of watering, equalising
charges and keeping the terminals clean. Flooded cells need to be mounted the right way up
and can be susceptible to spillage.

Transporting Flooded Lead Acid Batteries brings with it its own challenges. Classified as a
'dangerous good', flooded lead acid batteries require very specific transportation methods and
can only be shipped with accredited dangerous good certified shipping and courier companies.

Sealed Lead Acid Batteries

Commonly known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) or Sealed Lead Acid (SLA). SLA batteries
are available in a few different formats. Their principal manufacturing process, including
number of plates and plate thickness determines its designated end user application. SLA
batteries tend not to sulphate or degrade as easily as wet cells and are regarded the safest lead
acid battery to use.

Two main versions of Sealed Lead Acid Batteries (SLA) are commonly found. AGM (Absorbed
Glass Matt) and Gel Cell (gelified electrolyte).

175
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
AGM Sealed Lead Acid Battery

AGM batteries offer the best price point in the Valve Regulated Sealed lead acid variety. AGM
Sealed Lead Acid Batteries utilise an Absorbed Glass Matt (AGM) process which is superior to
traditional flooded technology. Fine, highly porous, micro-fiber glass separators absorb the
electrolyte, increasing efficiency by lowering internal resistance, which in turn boosts capacity.
Lower internal resistance also means that the battery can be recharged much faster than
conventional flooded or wet lead acid batteries. AGM batteries provide much larger capacity in
a smaller case size and are able to be mounted on their side and shipped using standard
shipping processes.

AGM batteries are found in many applications and are commonly used in; UPS, alarm and
telecommunications industries, golf carts and trundlers, mobility vehicles, performance
automotive and much more. As always, it is important to ensure you are selecting the right
AGM battery for your application. Although the voltage, capacity, dimensions and ratings may
be very similar across a range, each AGM battery has a specific application that they should be
used in.

Gel Sealed Lead Acid Types

A common misconception is that all "sealed" lead acid batteries are GEL. Gel VRLA batteries
contain a gelified electrolyte which differs to their AGM counterparts. Sulfuric acid is mixed
with silica fume, which makes the resulting mass gel-like and immobile. This creates a
176
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
completely maintenance free, non-spill able lead acid battery product. Unlike a flooded or wet-
cell lead acid battery, GEL cell batteries do not need to be kept upright and can be shipped
using standard shipping process'.

GEL's inherit design reduces electrolyte evaporation, spillage and subsequent corrosion issues
that are very common in flooded or wet-cell batteries. GEL batteries boast greater resistance to
extreme temperatures, shock, and vibration. They are capable of withstanding over discharging,
which typically causes irreversible damage to Flooded and some AGM batteries. They are ideal
in applications where a constant current is required such as golf carts, mobility, power bank and
RV power bank applications.

GEL are generally much more expensive than their AGM and Flooded counterparts. They have a
very low discharge rate (1% per month), but they require specific charging practices and need
to be charged with a GEL specific battery charger.

Deep Cycle Lead Acid Batteries

Deep Cycle Sealed Lead Acid batteries, as the name suggests, are specifically designed for deep
cycling applications. They contain fewer plates than their cranking or starting counterparts.
These plates are also much thicker. This reduces the total surface area, resulting in a battery
that provides lower max current, but is capable of a much deeper state of charge.

Deep cycle batteries are typically discharged to 50% of their capacity and recharged again. This
is known as the depth of discharge (DoD). This level of cycling is generally used in applications
where the battery is providing constant current for long periods of time. Such as golf carts,
mobility scooters, power banks, RV power banks, Solar energy systems etc.

177
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The basic formula that we follow when recommending a deep cycle battery is to suggest one
with a residual capacity approximately three times the estimated daily use. It is recommended
to bring Deep Cycle batteries back up to full charge every few months to maintain their levels
true capacity. Failure to do so will reduce the batteries life and over time it will provide lower
and lower capacity. Deep Cycle Lead Acid Batteries are usually catagorised by their amp hour
rating (AHr). Amp Hour is a measure of the battery’s capacity.

Batteries and system specifications

In order for lead acid cell to produce a voltage, it must first receive a (forming) charge voltage
of at least 2.1-volts/cell from a charger. Lead acid batteries do not generate voltage on their
own; they only store a charge from another source. This is the reason lead acid batteries are
called storage batteries, because they only store a charge. The size of the battery plates and
amount of electrolyte determines the amount of charge lead acid batteries can store. The size
of this storage capacity is described as the amp hour (AH) rating of a battery. A typical 12-volt
battery used in a RV or marine craft has a rating 125 AH, which means it can supply 10 amps of
current for 12.5 hours or 20-amps of current for a period of 6.25 hours. Lead acid batteries can
be connected in parallel to increase the total AH capacity.

In figure below, six single 2.1-volt cells have been connected in series to make the typical 12-
volt battery, which when fully charged will produce a total voltage of 12.6-volts.

178
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Lead Acid Battery Discharge Cycle

In figure # 3, above a fully charged battery is connected to a load (light bulb) and the chemical
reaction between sulfuric acid and the lead plates produces the electricity to light the bulb. This
chemical reaction also begins to coat both positive and negative plates with a substance called
lead sulfate also known as sulfation (shown as a yellow build-up on plates). This build-up of lead
sulfate is normal during a discharge cycle. As the battery continues to discharge, lead sulfate
coats more and more of the plates and battery voltage begins to decrease from fully charged
state of 12.6-volts (figure # 4).

In figure # 5 the battery is now fully discharged; the plates are almost completely covered with
lead sulfate (sulfation) and voltage has dropped to 10.5-volts.

179
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Lead sulfate (sulfation) now coats most of the battery plates. Lead sulfate is a soft material,
which can is reconverted back into lead and sulfuric acid, provided the discharged battery is
immediately connected to a battery charger. If a lead acid battery is not immediately
recharged, the lead sulfate will begin to form hard crystals, which can not be reconverted by a
standard fixed voltage (13.6 volts) battery converter/charger.

NOTE: Always recharge your RV or Marine battery as soon as possible to prevent loss of battery
capacity due to the build-up of hard lead sulfate crystals!

Lead Acid Battery Recharge Cycle

The most important thing to understand about recharging lead acid batteries is that a
converter/charger with a single fixed output voltage will not properly recharge or maintain your
battery. Proper recharging and maintenance require an intelligent charging system that can
vary the charging voltage based on the state of charge and use of your RV or Marine battery.
Progressive Dynamics has developed intelligent charging systems that solve battery problems
and reduce battery maintenance.

The discharged battery shown in figure # 6 on the next page is connected to a

converter/charger with its output voltage set at 13.6-volts. In order to recharge a 12-volt lead

180
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
acid battery with a fully charged terminal voltage of 12.6-volts, the charger voltage must be set
at a higher voltage. Most converter/chargers on the market are set at approximately 13.6-volts.
During the battery recharge cycle lead sulfate (sulfation) begins to reconvert to lead and
sulfuric acid.

During the recharging process as electricity flows through the water portion of the electrolyte
and water, (H2O) is converted into its original elements, hydrogen and oxygen. These gasses
are very flammable and the reason your RV or Marine batteries must be vented outside.
Gassing causes water loss and therefore lead acid batteries need to have water added
periodically. Sealed lead acid batteries contain most of these gasses allowing them to
recombine into the electrolyte. If the battery is overcharged pressure from these gasses will
cause relief caps to open and vent, resulting in some water loss. Most sealed batteries have
extra electrolyte added during the manufacturing process to compensate for some water loss.

The battery shown in figure # 7 above has been fully recharged using a fixed charging voltage of
13.6-volts. Notice that some lead sulfate (sulfation) still remains on the plates. This build-up will

181
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
continue after each recharging cycle and gradually the battery will begin to lose capacity to
store a full charge and eventually must be replaced. Lead sulfate build up is reduced if battery is
given an Equalizing Charge once every 10 discharge cycles or at least once a month. An
Equalizing Charge increases charging voltage to 14.4 volts or higher for a short period. This
higher voltage causes gassing that equalizes (re-mixes) the electrolyte solution.

Since most RV and Marine craft owners seldom remember to perform this function, Progressive
Dynamics has developed the microprocessor-controlled Charge Wizard. The Charge Wizard will
automatically provide an Equalizing Charge every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes, when the
battery is fully charged and not in use. Our 2000 Series of Marine Battery Chargers have the
Charge Wizard feature built-in.

One disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is the
recharge time is very long. A typical 125-AH RV or Marine battery will take approximately 80
hours to recharge at 13.6 volts. Increasing the charge voltage to 14.4-volts will reduce battery
recharge time for a 125-AH battery to 3-4 hours. Once a battery reaches 90% of full charge, the
voltage must be reduced from 14.4-volts to 13.6-volts to reduce gassing and water loss. The
optional Charge Wizard automatically senses when a battery has a very low state of charge and
automatically selects its BOOST MODE of operation. BOOST MODE increases the voltage of a
PD9100 Series converter/charger to 14.4 volts. When the battery reaches the 90% charge level,
the Charge Wizard automatically reduces the charge voltage down to 13.6 volts to complete the
charge. Again, this is a standard feature on our Marine Chargers.

Another disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is that
once it is fully charged, 13.6 volts will cause considerable gassing and water loss. To prevent this
from occurring the charging voltage must be reduced to 13.2-volts. The Charge Wizard will
automatically select its STORAGE MODE of operation (13.2-volts) once the battery reaches full
charge and remains unused for a period of 30 hours

182
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
At a charging voltage of 13.2 volts, the converter/charger will maintain a full charge, reduce
gassing and water loss. However, this lower voltage does not provide enough gassing to
prevent a battery condition called Battery Stratification. Battery Stratification is caused by the
fact that the electrolyte in the battery is a mixture of water and acid and, like all mixtures, one
component, the acid, is heavier than water. Therefore, acid will begin to settle and concentrate
at the bottom of the battery (see figure #8).

This higher concentration of acid at the bottom of the battery causes additional build-up of lead
sulfate (sulfation), which reduces battery storage capacity and battery life. In order to prevent
Battery Stratification, an Equalization Charge (increasing charging voltage to 14.4-volts) must be
applied periodically. The Charge Wizard automatically selects its EQUALIZATION MODE (14.4
volts) every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes.

Operating behaviour and characteristics of lead-acid batteries (voltage, charging and

discharging, state of charge)

Lead Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries are composed of a Lead-dioxide cathode, a sponge metallic Lead anode and
a Sulphuric acid solution electrolyte. This heavy metal element makes them toxic and improper
disposal can be hazardous to the environment.

The cell voltage is 2 Volts

183
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Discharge

During discharge, the lead dioxide (positive plate) and lead (negative plate) react with the
electrolyte of sulfuric acid to create lead sulfate, water and energy.

Charge

During charging, the cycle is reversed: the lead sulfate and water are electro-chemically
converted to lead, lead oxide and sulfuric acid by an external electrical charging source.

Many new competitive cell chemistries are being developed to meet the requirements of the
auto industry for EV and HEV applications.

Even after 150 years since its invention, improvements are still being made to the lead acid
battery and despite its shortcomings and the competition from newer cell chemistries the lead
acid battery still retains the lion's share of the high-power battery market.

Advantages

• Low cost.
• Reliable. Over 140 years of development.
• Robust. Tolerant to abuse.
• Tolerant to overcharging.
• Low internal impedance.
• Can deliver very high currents.
• Indefinite shelf life if stored without electrolyte.
• Can be left on trickle or float charge for prolonged periods.
• Wide range of sizes and capacities available.
• Many suppliers worldwide.
• The world's most recycled product.

Shortcomings

184
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Very heavy and bulky.
• Typical coulombic charge efficiency only 70% but can be as high as 85% to 90% for
special designs.
• Danger of overheating during charging
• Not suitable for fast charging
• Typical cycle life 300 to 500 cycles.
• Must be stored in a charged state once the electrolyte has been introduced to avoid
deterioration of the active chemicals.

Gassing is the production and release of bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen due to the
breakdown of water in the electrolyte during the charging process, particularly due to excessive
charging, causing loss of electrolyte. In large battery installations this can cause an explosive
atmosphere in the battery room. Because of the loss of electrolyte, Lead acid batteries need
regular topping up with water. Sealed batteries however are designed to retain and recombine
these gases.

Sulphation may occur if a battery is stored for prolonged periods in a completely discharged
state or very low state of charge, or if it is never fully charged, or if electrolyte has become
abnormally low due to excessive water loss from overcharging and/or evaporation. Sulphation
is the increase in internal resistance of the battery due to the formation of large lead sulphate
crystals which are not readily reconverted back to lead, lead dioxide and sulphuric acid during
re-charging. In extreme cases the large crystals may cause distortion and shorting of the plates.
Sometimes sulphation can be corrected by charging very slowly (at low current) at a higher than
normal voltage. Completely discharging the battery may cause irreparable damage.

Shedding or loss of material from the plates may occur due to excessive charge rates or
excessive cycling. The result is chunks of lead on the bottom of the cell, and actual holes in the
plates for which there is no cure. This is more likely to occur in SLI batteries whose plates are
composed of a Lead "sponge", similar in appearance to a very fine foam sponge. This gives a
very large surface area enabling high power handling, but if deep cycled, this sponge will quickly
be consumed and fall to the bottom of the cells. Toxic chemicals. Very heavy and bulky
185
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Lead acid batteries can work down to temperatures below -45 °C, however, like all batteries the
discharge rate and effective capacity are reduced at low temperatures. In the case of Lead acid
batteries, the capacity falls by about 1% per degree for temperatures below +20 °C so that at
the lowest temperatures cranking capacity is seriously impaired.

Decomposition of the Electrolyte Cells with gelled electrolyte are prone to deterioration of the
electrolyte and unexpected failure. Such cells are commonly used for emergency applications
such as UPS back up in case of loss of mains power. So as not to be caught unawares by an
unreliable battery in an emergency situation, it is advisable to incorporate some form of regular
self-test into the battery.

Charging

• Charge immediately after use.

• Lasts longer with partial discharges.
• Charging method: constant voltage followed by float charge.
• Fast charge not possible but charging time can be reduced using the V Taper charge
control method.

Applications

• Automotive and traction applications

• Standby/Back-up/Emergency power for electrical installations.
• Submarines
• UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies)
• Lighting
• High current drain applications.
• Sealed battery types available for use in portable equipment.
• Grid scale energy storage

186
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Varieties of Lead Acid Batteries

Over the year’s battery manufacturers have introduced a range of additives such as Calcium,
Antimony and Selenium to improve various battery performance parameters. For the same
reason, different cell and battery constructions have been developed to optimise various
aspects of battery performance.

Lead Calcium Batteries

Lead acid batteries with electrodes modified by the addition of Calcium providing the
following advantages:

• More resistant to corrosion, overcharging, gassing, water usage, and self-discharge, all
of which shorten battery life.
• Larger electrolyte reserve area above the plates.
• Higher Cold Cranking Amp ratings.
• Little or No maintenance.

Lead Antimony Batteries

Lead acid batteries with electrodes modified by the addition of Antimony providing the
following advantages:

• Improved mechanical strength of electrodes - important for EV and deep discharge

applications
• Reduced internal heat and water loss due to gassing, however the water loss is still
greater than the equivalent loss in Lead Calcium batteries.
• Longer service life than Calcium batteries.
• Easier to recharge when completely discharged.

Lower cost.

187
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Lead Antimony batteries have a higher self-discharge rate of 2% to 10% per week compared
with the 1% to 5% per month for Lead Calcium batteries.

Ageing effects (acid stratification, sulphation, corrosion, studging, drying out)

In lead–acid batteries, major aging processes, leading to gradual loss of performance, and
eventually to the end of service life, are: Anodic corrosion (of grids, plate-lugs, straps or posts).
Active mass degradation may lead to short-circuits. Sulfation may be the result of a loss of
water, and so forth

Loss of water.

Aging mechanisms are often inter-dependent. For example, corrosion of the grids will lead to
increased resistance to current flow, which will in turn impede proper charge of certain parts of
the active mass, resulting in sulfation. Active mass degradation may lead to short-circuits.
Sulfation may be the result of a loss of water, and so forth. The rates of the different aging
processes strongly depend on the type of use (or misuse) of the battery. Over-charge will lead
to accelerated corrosion and also to accelerated loss of water. With increasing depth-of-
discharge during cycling, positive active mass degradation is accelerated. Some aging
mechanisms are occurring only upon misuse. Short-circuits across the separators, due to the
formation of metallic lead dendrites, for example, are usually formed only after (excessively)
deep discharge. Stationary batteries, operated under float-charge conditions, will age typically
by corrosion of the positive grids. On the other hand, service life of batteries subject to cycling
regimes, will typically age by degradation of the structure of the positive active mass. Starter
batteries are usually aging by grid corrosion, for instance in normal passenger car use. However,
starter batteries of city buses, making frequent stops, may age (prematurely) by positive active
mass degradation, because the batteries are subject to numerous shallow discharge cycles.
Valve-regulated batteries often fail as a result of negative active mass sulfation, or water loss.
For each battery design, and type of use, there is usually a characteristic, dominant aging
188
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
mechanism, determining the achievable service life. Temperature has a strong influence on
aging. Grid corrosion rates, and rates of water loss due to evaporation or hydrogen evolution at
the negative plates (self-discharge), increase with increasing temperature. On the other hand, a
(moderate) temperature increase may improve service life in applications involving severe
cycling. Aging also depends on acid concentration (and concentration variations, for instance
due to acid stratification). In general, very low acid concentrations, as prevailing in the
discharged state, are harmful to the grids. On the other hand, at very high acid concentrations,
service life also decreases, in particular due to higher rates of self-discharge, due to gas
evolution, and increased danger of sulfation of the active material.

Battery replacement

Can I replace lead acid battery with lithium ion?

The substantial benefits that Lithium Ion technology offer over lead-acid technology means that
using Lithium Ion batteries is becoming an ever more popular choice. When considering
replacing an existing lead-acid battery bank by a Lithium Ion battery bank one needs to take a
couple of things into consideration.

Replacing traditional lead-acid with Lithium Ion

The substantial benefits that Lithium Ion technology offer over lead-acid technology means that
using Lithium Ion batteries is becoming an ever more popular choice.

When considering replacing an existing lead-acid battery bank by a Lithium Ion battery bank
one needs to take a couple of things into consideration. Although the term ‘drop-in
replacement’ is occasionally used in this case, it is actually never as simple as that.

To get the most from the Lithium Ion batteries stay within the recommended operating
conditions. Although the batteries are set up to do this automatically and safely, taking proper
care of your new batteries will prevent nuisances during use such as Lithium Ion batteries
disengaging themselves (by a safety relay). Things to take into consideration are:

189
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • The charge voltage of the battery bank needs to be checked and possibly changed.
Where low charge voltage will result in incompletely charged batteries, overly high
charge voltage will potentially push the Lithium Ion batteries outside their allowed
operating conditions.

• Battery monitoring needs to be shunt (Ah counting) based, not voltage based. Some
basic battery monitoring products base the battery status fully on voltage
measurement. In case of Lithium Ion batteries this will result in unreliable readings,
potentially leading to deep discharges. Only shunt-based monitoring devices that
incorporate a Lithium Ion battery type setting should be used.

Battery safety and maintenance

What is battery maintenance?

Refill flooded lead-acid batteries with distilled water every 2-4 weeks as needed. Regularly
check battery state of charge. Apply an equalization charge to flooded batteries every 90 days.
(Do not equalize sealed lead-acid or lithium batteries.) Clean terminal connections and cables to
prevent corrosion

Battery Maintenance Safety Tips

• Always wear protective eyewear and gloves. The electrolyte in flooded lead-acid
batteries contains sulfuric acid. The electrolyte can not only damage clothes, but it will
burn skin if left untreated. If you come into contact with the battery’s electrolyte, wash
and flush the area with water immediately. If it comes into contact with your eyes, flush
immediately with water for 15 minutes and promptly seek medical attention.

190
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
• Eliminate sources of sparks or flames. Charging lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen
and oxygen gases from the electrolyte. When performing maintenance on lead-acid
batteries, a spark or flame can ignite these gases and could cause the battery to
explode.
• Keep metal tools and jewelry away from batteries. Non-insulated tools or jewelry can
run the risk of arcing if accidental contact is made between a battery terminal and
grounded frame or another terminal. Also, gold or silver jewelry can become extremely
hot if contact is made. Always wear gloves and use insulated tools to remove terminals
and battery hold-downs.
• Use caution when removing a lead-acid battery. Lead acid batteries are heavy and
many accidental injuries occur when lifting or moving batteries by hand. Use a battery
carrier or make sure you have a good grip on the battery and have the strength to hold
it safely.
• Keep a neutralizing solution close by. A baking soda and water solution neutralizes the
sulfuric acid in the battery’s electrolyte. Create a small solution in a jar or container and
keep it close by. If some electrolyte is accidentally spilled, you can immediately use the
solution to clean the area, then rinse with water.
• Use the correct type of charger. Not all battery chargers are the same or work properly
on a flooded lead-acid battery. Refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations on how
to properly charge the battery and make sure your charger provides the best algorithm
that maximizes battery life and power output. Battery charging should always be done
in a well-ventilated area.
• Maintain electrolyte at proper levels. Never use a garden hose to fill batteries. Use only
distilled or deionized water in a watering pitcher, water caddy or an automated
watering system to properly fill batteries. Never fill battery cells above the level
indicator. If the electrolyte level is below the tops of the battery plates prior to charging,
add just enough water to cover them. Once the battery has been fully recharged, bring
the water level up to approximately ¼ inch from the bottom of the fill well indicator.
Never fill a low cell all the way to the fill well indicator before charging.
191
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • Store batteries in a cool, dry and ventilated area. If you store large quantities of
batteries, be sure the area is clear of any heat sources, flames, and sparks. Clearly post
“No Smoking” and “Flammable” signs in the area.
• Make sure battery vent caps are fully seated in place. Loose or improperly seated vent
caps can spill electrolyte and expose the gases inside the battery to conditions that
could cause an explosion.
• Dedicate an area for battery maintenance. Prevent accidents by dedicating an area for
battery maintenance that has properly insulated tools, protective wear, a wash station,
ventilation and plenty of workspace.

Recycling

Lead Acid.

The battery is broken apart in a hammer mill, a machine that hammers the battery into pieces.
The broken battery pieces are then placed into a vat, where the lead and heavy materials fall to
the bottom and the plastic floats.

How do lead-acid batteries get recycled?

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, specialized lead-acid battery recyclers
crush old batteries into nickel-sized pieces and separate out the different components. The
plastic in lead-acid batteries is mostly polypropylene (also known as PP or by the resin code #5),
which has a high heat tolerance. It can be recycled. The lead in the batteries is sold to
companies that make new batteries. The EPA estimates that up to 80% of the plastic and lead in
any new battery you purchase is recycled.

Where can I take an old lead-acid battery for recycling?

Since lead-acid batteries are so dangerous, states have made it easy to get them to recyclers.
Stores that sell new lead-acid batteries should take the old one and recycle it for you (nearly
every state has a law that requires them to do so). Places that sell car supplies, such as Napa
Auto Parts, Autozone and Firestore Complete Auto Care all offer recycling programs. The

192
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
battery retailer Batteries Plus also accepts them (along with several other types of batteries and
some small electronics, so see if you have anything else around the house you need to recycle
before you visit your local store). Check with locally owned retailers in your area to see if they
recycle lead-acid batteries. Household hazardous waste facilities should also accept lead-acid
batteries for recycling. Call ahead to find out when your local hazardous waste center is open
and if it has any fees. In some places household hazardous waste facilities are open nearly every
day, while in other communities they only open for collections once or twice a month. Many
towns have made hazardous waste drop-off free to encourage people to bring in materials
rather than dumping them, but some charge a small fee for the service. When you remove a
lead-acid battery from your vehicle, leave the lead cable ends attached. Check the battery to
make sure it is not leaking. If it is, immediately place it in a leak-proof container (you can buy
special battery boxes made of Fiberglas or plastic at auto parts stores). Battery acid can eat
through concrete, so if you must put it on the ground, see if you can find a sealed asphalt
surface. Clean up any leaks with lime or baking soda (the cleanup materials must then also be
treated as hazardous waste). While transporting the lead-acid battery to a recycler, place it in a
leak-proof container and make sure you keep it upright so the acid cannot leak out. If you have
more than one battery, separate them with a piece of wood or another material so the post
terminals do not touch each other.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC1001 Describe the construction, types and designs of batteries used in PV systems
• IAC1002 Explain the operating principles, operating behaviour and characteristics of
lead-acid batteries
• IAC1003 Discuss ageing effects on batteries
• IAC1004 Describe the criteria and specifications to be used when selecting batteries for
PV systems
• IAC1005 Describe the safety requirements when working with batteries
• IAC1006 Describe battery replacement procedures
• IAC1007 Describe battery maintenance and recycling procedures

193
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
KM-11-KT11: Charge Controllers (10%)

KT1101 Deep discharge protection and charging

KT1102 Series controller
KT1103 Shunt controllers
KT1104 MPP charge controllers
KT1105 Stand-alone inverters (sine-wave inverters, square-wave inverters, application
criteria for inverters in stand-alone systems)

194
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 KT1106 Telemetry/intelligence of charge controllers

Deep discharge protection and charging

12v Battery Discharge Protection Circuit

12v battery discharge protection circuit is a must and if you want to keep your battery as long
as possible let's have a go and share lead acid battery charging and discharging procedures.

Step 1: 12v Lead Acid Battery

195
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
When we say 12v battery often we refer to the car battery or any 12v lead acid battery in order
to power ower project with any 12v battery we have to understand that Undervoltage and
overvoltage is a must.

In order to do that protection, we will need an electronic protection circuit that will monitor the
battery voltage and prevent it from overcharging and accordingly overdischarging. In this
episode, we will concentrate on discharge protection. Normally a 12v battery has to be charged
between 13.5v and 14.4v and do not exceed 10.5v when we discharge it and to be safer and
extend the battery life when the voltage reaches 11v we have to disconnect the load and
recharge it accordingly.

Step 2: Battery Protection Circuit

196
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Batteries are typically made of six galvanic cells in a series circuit. Each cell provides 2.1 volts for
a total of 12.6 volts at full charge.Each cell of a lead storage battery consists of alternate plates
of lead (cathode) and lead coated with lead dioxide (anode) immersed in an electrolyte of
sulfuric acid solution. The actual standard cell potential is obtained from the standard reduction
potentials. This causes a chemical reaction that releases electrons, allowing them to flow
through conductors to produce electricity. As the battery discharges, the acid of the electrolyte
reacts with the materials of the plates, changing their surface to lead sulfate. When the battery
is recharged, the chemical reaction is reversed:

The lead sulfate reforms into lead dioxide. With the plates restored to their original condition,
the process may be repeated.

Step 3: Homemade 12v Battery Protection

Series controller

How to choose the perfect charge controller

The most important job of all solar charge controllers is to properly charge the batteries and to
give them as long a life as possible. There are two types of charge controllers:

• Pulse width modulation (PWM)

• Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

197
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
The difference between these two types of controllers is that the PWM is not as efficient the
MPPT. The MPPT is the most common these days and can gain you up to 30% more power than
the PWM controllers. The MPPT controllers also allow the strings of panels to be connected in
series for higher voltages, keeping the amperage lower and the wire size smaller, especially for
long-wire runs to the PV array.

When picking a charge controller there are a few steps that you must follow to make sure that
you get the right controller for the job. The best thing that you can do is to use the
manufacturer’s sizing tools that are offered on their web sites. The other option is to give the
manufacturer a call — their salespeople will usually be happy to help you to pick the best
controller.

If you need to make some quick calculations, the following information will be needed to
manually figure out the amperage of the controller needed:

The wattage of the solar array

• The battery-bank voltage (12, 24, or 48). Typical bank voltage because inverters are
offered in these voltages.
• Now Ohm’s Law comes into play: Amps x Volts = Watts
• Example: 3,000-watt array/48-volt battery bank = 62.5 amps, so you would need a
controller capable of 62.5 amps. Most controllers out there are either 60, 80 or 96 amps
so you would pick the controller with the next higher rating. In this case, it would be the
80 amp controller.

198
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Now if you know the amperage of the controller, and you would like to figure out how the
maximum solar array wattage that can go into the controller, you would also use Ohm’s law:

199
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Example: 80-amp controller x 48-volt battery bank = 3,840 watts of solar panels. Note that
most of the controllers will allow a bit more wattage to go into the controllers. This is where the
sizing tools or a call to the manufacture can help out.

The next thing that you must ensure is that we do not exceed the input voltage the controller
can take. Again, the manufacturer will dictate what the input voltage should be included in the
design. Temperature and open-circuit voltages have to be considered. Since PV open-circuit
voltage (Voc) goes higher as temperature drops, you will need to make sure the controller’s
input voltage ratings can handle this in the cold of winter. Manufacturer’s sizing tools will give
you the best design for the controllers.

Shunt controllers

What is shunt controller?

It is a shunt type controller which controls the power flow in transmission system and improves
the transient stability of power grids. This controller regulates the voltage at its terminals by
controlling the amount of reactive power injected into or absorbed from the power system

200
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
MPP charge controllers

What does an MPPT controller do?

PWM (pulse width modulation) and MPPT (maximum power point tracking) charge controllers
are DC to DC converters that take the voltage output from solar panels and convert them to a
more suitable voltage to charge a battery bank. This means that the output power (current x
voltage) will be reduced

What is MPPT?

An MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) charge controller optimizes the connection
between solar panels and your battery or the utility grid. The maximum power point (MPP) is

201
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
the ideal point on an IV curve where current and voltage multiply to provide the maximum
power that the given PV system can produce at a given moment.

Should I get a PWM or MPPT charge controller?

PWM (pulse width modulation) and MPPT (maximum power point tracking) charge controllers
are DC to DC converters that take the voltage output from solar panels and convert them to a
more suitable voltage to charge a battery bank. PWM charge controllers are typically older,
cheaper, simpler, and meant for smaller systems. MPPT charge controllers are newer, more
efficient, offer greater flexibility of design, can be built for larger systems, and typically offer
longer warranties from the manufacturer.

The main difference between MPPT and PWM charge controllers is that MPPT charge
controllers allow the PV array output voltage to be higher than that of the battery bank without
losing power. A typical PWM charge controller will only be able to regulate the output voltage

202
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
of a PV array, but not the current. A PWM charge controller will maintain about the same
current as the PV array. This means that the output power (current x voltage) will be reduced.
An MPPT charge controller will monitor the PV array for the maximum power point, and
attempt to use this information to not only regulate the output voltage of the PV array, but also
regulate the current. Typically, this means that it will lower the voltage, while increasing the
current at the same time and maintaining most of the overall output power.

The MPPT ability is essential for larger PV systems, as it allows for greater flexibility in system
design and performance. A typical battery voltage range is a multiple of 12V, typically going up
to 60V as an upper limit (12V, 24V, 36V, 48V, and 60V). A typical output voltage of a PV array
using 60 cell modules, is a multiple of about 30V (30V, 60V, and 90V). So, if we have a system
with 3 PV modules at about a 90V Vmp output, connected to a 48V battery bank, there is a
significant voltage difference that could result in power loss if current cannot be adjusted on
the output.

203
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Stand-alone inverters (sine-wave inverters, square-wave inverters, application criteria for
inverters in stand-alone systems)

What is a stand-alone inverter?

A stand-alone inverter is an electrical inverter that converts DC power stored in batteries to AC

power that can be used as needed.

Sine-Wave Inverters

What is a sine wave inverter?

An inverter is an electronic device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).
A sine wave is a continuous wave that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation. ... Pure Sine
inverters can power just about any AC appliance without risk of damage.

A modified sine wave inverter can be used for simple systems that don’t have any delicate
electronics or audio equipment that may pick up the choppy wave and produce a hum. Old

204
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
tube TVs and motors with brushes are usually ok with modified sine wave. Your digital clock will
likely act funky, and battery rechargers quite often just plain won’t work. Some equipment may
seem to be working fine, but may run hotter than with a pure sine wave and reduce the life of
it.

Take heed if you’re considering buying a modified square wave inverter to shave a few bucks
off your system costs. A whole raft of modern appliances won’t run as well and some not at all
on this waveform:

Laser printers, photocopiers, and anything with an electrical component called a thyristor

Anything with a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), like those used in some washing machine
controls

• A few laptop computers

• Some fluorescent lights with electronic ballasts
• Some battery chargers for cordless tools
• Some new furnaces and pellet heaters with microprocessor controls
• Digital clocks with radios
• Appliances having speed/microprocessor controls (like some sewing machines)
• X-10 home automation systems

205
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Medical equipment such as oxygen concentrators

In general, because the total harmonic distortion is higher in modified square wave inverters,
motors will run hotter (less efficiently, consuming up to 30% more energy than with pure sine
wave inverters), and likely not last as long. Additionally, a modified square wave inverter will
often cause a “buzz” to be heard from audio devices and sometimes other appliances like
ceiling fans and microwave ovens.

We liken using a modified sine wave inverter to running a car with square wheels versus a pure
sine wave inverter like running a car with round wheels. In the first case the ride is going to be
awful rough and depending on the sensitivity of the car’s occupants they may not survive the
ride.

Square-wave inverters

What is a square wave inverter?

The square wave inverter is a type of inverter which converts solar DC power to AC power. The
square wave inverter is simpler in design and more efficient than a sine wave inverter.
However, the square wave will not be appropriate for some loads, because the large harmonic
content can cause interference

Features Square Wave Inverter Sine Wave Inverter

Sine wave inverters are used to

Square wave inverters are
support household appliances
usually used to support motors
such as refrigerators ovens,
alone.
Supported Appliances computers, laptops, etc.

206
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 Square wave inverters are less
Sine inverters are highly safe to
Overall Safety Level reliable and also unsafe to use
use.
for appliances.

Square wave inverters produce Sine wave inverters produce

Noise Interference
a very loud noise when used. normal sound only.

Square wave inverters are less Sine wave inverters are more
Cost expensive than Sine wave expensive than Square wave
inverters. inverters.

Telemetry/intelligence of charge controllers

A solar controller or solar regulator is similar to the voltage regulator in your car. It regulates
the voltage and current coming from the solar panels going to the battery. Most “12 volts”
panels put out about 16 to 20 volts, so if there is no regulation the batteries will be damaged
from overcharging. Most batteries need around 14 to 14.5 volts to get fully charged.

Generally, there is no need for a Solar Controller with the small maintenance, or trickle charge
panels, such as the 1 to 5-watt solar panels. A rough rule is that if the panel puts out about 2
watts or less for each 50-battery amp-hours, then you don’t need one.

For example, a standard flooded golf car battery is around 210 amp-hours. So, to keep up a
series pair of them (12 volts) just for maintenance or storage, you would want a panel that is
around 4.2 watts. The popular 5-watt panels are close enough, and will not need a controller. If
you are maintaining AGM deep cycle batteries, such as the Concorde Sun Xtender then you can
use a smaller 2 to 2-watt panel.

207
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
This Solar Panel Charger Controller Regulator is specially designed to protect the battery, which
is able to keep the battery on full voltage condition and prevent the battery from overcharging,
over-discharging and supplying power to solar panels during nights.

Features
• Microcontroller digital accuracy
• Pulse Width Modulation charge mode (PWM) and State of Charge (SOC)
• Fully automatic operation and Electronic protections
• Detects day and night using the PV array, timer setting
• Double digital LED display, numbers equal to timer setting
• Temperature compensation, with inside temperature sensor
• Big terminals, big distance between terminals
• Light and Timer Control
• 12V / 24V Auto Intelligence
• Backplate cooling design

Protection

• Overcharging protection
• Can be used for all panels
• Over-discharging protection
• Short and Open Circuit protection
• Full specification available if required
• Fail Safe and cannot be damaged by accidental wiring mistakes
• Advanced design with simple plug and play technology. No need for complicated
adjustments

208
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
Specifications
• Rated charge current: 10A
• Rated load current: 10A
• Work voltage: 12/24V Auto Switch
• Over load, short circuit protection: 1.25 rated load current 60sec, 1.5 rated loads current
5sec
• Over load protection action: ≥3 Rated load current short circuit protection action.
• No load current: ≤6mA
• Load circuit voltage drop: ≤0.15 V
• Over voltage protection: 17V
• Work temperature: -35°C to +55°C
• Boost charge voltage: 14.6V (keep 10min)
• Direct charge voltage: 14.4V (keep 10min)
• Float charge voltage: 13.6V
• Charge return voltage: 13.2v
• Temperature compensation: -5mv/°C/cell (Boost charge, Direct charge, Float charge,
charge return voltage)
• Lower voltage indicate: 12.0V
• Over discharge voltage: 11.1V(no load)- real-time modified voltage by the discharge rate
• Over discharge return voltage: 12.6V
• Material: ABS engineering plastic (High strength, impact resistance, anti-aging,
corrosion-resistant)

Package Includes

• 1 Solar charge controller

• 1 User's manual

209
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
LED Indicator
Solar Panel Charge LED
• Green ON when solar is charging Battery
• Green blink when the syetem over voltage

Battery Power LED

• Green ON when battery level in the right range
• Green Slowly flashing when battery level full
• Yellow ON when battery level low
• RED ON when loads cut off
Load Output LED

210
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
 • RED ON when the output is on
• RED slowly flashing when it`s over load
• (the load amps is 1.24 times of rated current for 60 seconds,or the load amps is 1.5
times of rated current for 5 seconds)
• RED blink when the load is short -circuit

Light and Timer control Function

• Light control: When daylight starts to occur then the light source goes off. Meanwhile
the Solar Panels will charge the batteries. when there is no sunlight the garden light will
switch on.
• Time control: There is an eight hours’ time control,that means it will go off when the
Lights automatically switch off after 0-15 hours.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC1101 Describe the main function of a charge controller
• IAC1102 List the essential features expected from a modern charge controller
• IAC1103 Describe a deep discharge protector and explain its function
• IAC1104 Explain the 3- or 4-stage charging cycle
• IAC1105 Describe the functions and operating principles of series controllers, shunt
controllers and MPP charge controllers
• IAC1106 Explain telemetry/intelligence system of charge controllers

References
Silicon Based Thin Film Solar Cells

DOI: 10.2174/9781608055180113010014

eISBN: 978-1-60805-518-0, 2013

ISBN: 978-1-60805-456-5

211
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024
...www.analog.com › technical-documentation › data-sheets

212
Copyright reserved by West Coast College 2024