TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

LEARNER GUIDE

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Topic elements to be covered include

1. KM-02-KT01: Hand tools and power tools (24%)

2. KM-02-KT02: Marking-off equipment (20%)
3. KM-02-KT03: Lifting equipment (22%)
4. KM-02-KT04: Soldering equipment and wiring techniques (20%)
5. KM-02-KT05: Equipment for riveting (14%)
Assessments

The only way to establish whether you are competent and have accomplished the learning
outcomes is through continuous assessments. This assessment process involves interpreting
evidence about your ability to perform certain tasks. You will be required to perform certain
procedures and tasks during the training programmer and will be assessed on them to certify your
competence.

This module includes assessments in the form of self-evaluations/activities and exercises. The
exercises, activities and self-assessments will be done in pairs, groups or on your own. These
exercises/activities or self-assessments (Learner workbook) must be handed to the facilitator. It
will be added to your portfolio of evidence, which will be proof signed by your facilitator that you
have successfully performed these tasks.

Listen carefully to the instructions of the facilitator and do the given activities in the time given to
you.

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 This icon means that other books are available for further information on a
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References

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of the guide.
Important

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demonstrate understanding of module content. Shows transference of
Activities
knowledge and skill.

This icon represents any exercise to be completed on a specific topic at home by

you or in a group.
Exercises
Tasks/Projects An important aspect of the assessment process is proof of competence. This can
be achieved by observation or a portfolio of evidence should be submitted in
this regard.

An important aspect of learning is through workplace experience. Activities with

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Activities
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 KM-02-KT01: Hand tools and power tools (24%)

KT0101 Types, uses and care of hand tools

KT0102 Types, uses and care of portable power tools
KT0103 Types, uses and care of fixed power tools

Hand tools and power tools

Basic Tools Needed for Installation

• Angle finder

• Torpedo level

• Fish tape

• Chalk line

• Cordless drill (14.4V or greater), multiple batteries

• Unibit and multiple drill bits (wood, metal, masonry)

• Hole saw

• Hole punch

• Torque wrench with deep sockets

• Nut drivers (most common PV sizes are 7/16”, ½”, 9/16”)

• Wire strippers

• Crimpers

• Needle-nose pliers

• Lineman's pliers

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 • Slip-joint pliers

• Small cable cutters

• Large cable cutters

• AC/DC multimeter

• Hacksaw

• Tape measure

• Blanket, cardboard or black plastic to keep modules from going “live” during installation

• Heavy duty extension cords

• Caulking gun

• Fuse Pullers

Additional Tools to Consider (especially for multiple installations)

• DC clamp-on ammeter

• Reciprocating saw / Jig saw

• Right angle drill

• Conduit bender

• Large crimpers

• Magnetic wristband for holding bits and parts

• C-clamps

• Stud finder

• Pry bar

Tools for Battery Systems

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 • Hydrometer or Refractometer

• Small flashlight (to view electrolyte level)

• Rubber apron

• Rubber gloves

• Safety goggles

• Baking Soda (to neutralizer any acid spills)

• Turkey Baster

• Funnel

Types, uses and care of hand tools

Although solar systems require common household tools such as a screw driver, hammer rails
and so on, there are specialized tools designed specifically for solar installations. Some tools are
designed for simple applications such as disconnecting solar connections, while others are more
complex such as wire crimping die sets. For those who are working in a do it yourself
environment, you will primarily need to be concerned with tools for physical applications such as

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installing racking, most counties require you to have an electrician check and prepare the final
connections prior to turning the system on. That being said, having a good set of wire cutters
and pliers will be needed if you choose to do any part of the electrical installation process. Unlike
disconnect tools, these pliers and die sets can be used in other wire applications are not limited
to exclusively solar arrays.

Other tools that are not commonly thought of is safety equipment. Rope, harnesses, safety
glasses, gloves, earplugs, boots, hard hats and protective clothing are all designed to keep you
safe while working in your installation environment. Working with multiple people is another
safety measure that is highly recommended, we also suggest that any equipment you use to
reach your roof are checked prior to use. Faulty ladders and old rope can not only cause bodily
harm, but may also be a factor for damaged system components. On those sunny days, some
sun block may also be a welcome addition to your set of equipment for personal protection.

In terms of sight design, permit services generally require you to have detailed plans on the
layout, orientation and design of your entire system. These plans are meant to save you both
time and money and should be followed to ensure that you meet county requirements for the
system. Proposing a system with a three-foot set-back then making the system two and half feet

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back can cause you to be denied for your final okay on turning your system on. Assessing your
system design can be accomplished through site tools, or through a third party who generates a
design for your system based on an aerial view of your roof top.

Different rooftop applications may also require different tools. For pitched roof installations, a
cordless drill and impact driver, drill bits, sockets, utility knife and caulking gun will cover most
your essentials. Flat roof installations are simple due to the racking equipment typically used, in
most cases a ballast system where weights instead of connectors hold the PV array in place. For
tilt leg systems such as those produced by Iron Ridge, installers should plan to have the same
tools needed in a rooftop application in hand. Ground mount installations are more depth and
require holes to be dug to anchor posts in concrete. In addition to concrete, installers should
also be aware that they will need to source the piping for any ground-based application as
manufacturers do not include poles for any ground based application. In terms of the racking
itself, most racking manufacturers produce components that have one socket size, they also
typically recommend a torque wrench to install all of the bolts in the system to ensure that they
are all set to the correct setting and match one another. Although this may be slightly more time
consuming, it will ultimately ensure that your system is installed correctly, with all components
firmly in place.

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Grounding your racking system has become fairly integrated into racking applications. Grounding
lugs, bolts and even integrated grounding into the railing system are now common place, and
most installers will not need to source these grounding components from outside sources.
Checking all wiring connections and utilizing the tools mentioned above will also be essential
before turning your system in the on position and enjoying your new clean, renewable energy
source.

The prime function of instruments and test equipment is to help installation and maintenance
personnel ensure dependability, efficiency, and profitability of electrical systems and equipment.
They are the tools that allow measurements, rather than visual inspections, to determine the
status of electrical components and systems. The equipment in this category can range from
simple handheld items to precise laboratory instruments. All, however, require a degree of skill
to be used properly and to accurately analyse the results.

Electrical Power Testers

Electrical Power Testers must be able to withstand both the expected steady-state voltage of the
system you are measuring and any transient overvoltage (short duration surges or spikes: for
instance, those caused by a lightning strike or electrical motor starts and stops).
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All meters produced since 1997 are identified with an overvoltage installation category (CAT)
rating in accordance with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard 61010-1,
which details requirements related to the construction of low-voltage (<1,000 V) test and
measurement equipment, as well as allowances related to their conditions of use.

Handheld Meters

The most widely used instruments are the handheld type, which normally includes clamp-on
meters and multimeters. Clampon meters are widely used because of the ease of operation.
Multimeters are also extremely popular because they are easy to carry and are capable of
performing a wide variety and range of measurements. A large number of attachments for these
units are available, so that they can be used for measuring light levels, temperature, and other
variables to further expand their usefulness to electrical personnel. Most are available with
either digital or analog readouts, the choice depending largely on the personal preference and
accuracy requirements of the user.

Both clamp-one and multimeters can be average responding or true-rms types. The true-rms
units respond to the effective heating value of an AC waveform. An averaging meter calculates
the arithmetical mean of the waveform. When the signal to be measured approximates a pure

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sine wave, either an average responding or truerms meter can be used with reasonable
accuracy. However, if the waveform is distorted, such as is common in circuitry powering phase-
to-neutral and phase-to phase nonlinear loads, then the true-rms sensing device is preferred
because the reading will be more accurate.

Insulation Resistance Testers

The single most popular meter is the Fluke 1587 Insulation Multimeter Its popularity attests to
the fact that insulation resistance testing is not only a critical system commissioning activity, but
also useful for tracking down faults.

Types, uses and care of portable power tools

For pitched-roof installations, a cordless drill and impact driver, drill bits, sockets, a utility knife,
and a caulking gun should take care of most installs. Drilling a pilot hole helps prevent splitting
the roof rafters and makes installing the standoff anchor bolt easier with the impact driver. The
roofing material often needs to be trimmed using a utility knife to install the flashing, and caulk
may be required according manufacturers recommendations.

Flat-roof installations are much simpler, because installers commonly use ballasted racking
systems. Weights, instead of physical connections, hold the PV array in place. A good push
broom removes debris from the installation area. The challenge for a flat roof installation is
getting the ballast weight onto the roof, as this could require renting a forklift or hiring a crane.

Ground-mount installations require holes to be dug in the ground to anchor the posts in
concrete. Whether with a shovel or an auger, digging holes is difficult and time consuming. A
level and string line will help install the posts straight and plumb, making the remainder of the
installation much easier.

Racking installation

After installing structural supports, the racking and module installation is similar for each of the
different mounting types. It is common to need only one socket size for the entire racking
installation. Many manufacturers recommend a torque wrench to install all of the bolts. A

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cordless reciprocating saw allows one to install the rails long on one side of the array and trim to
fit once all of the modules are installed.

Grounding

All PV systems require equipment grounding, which can be accomplished with wire cutters, a
flat-head screwdriver, and a drill for installing lugs. A stubby flat-head screwdriver makes
tightening ground lugs on the back of roof-mounted modules possible.

Wiring

Installation_tools_meter_25Though connecting modules in series does not require the use of

tools, taking modules apart may require tools specific to the connector. The next step is creating
a home run wire, which uses a specialized crimping tool to assemble a connector on the wire
that matches the module connector. After installing the positive and negative home runs for a
string, one must check the voltage with a multimeter. Checking the voltage as each string is
completed verifies proper installation and avoids troubleshooting later on.

The remaining parts of the system to be installed include the combiner box(s), conduit,
additional wiring, disconnects, and inverter(s), which can be installed with an electricians
standard set of tools.

Understanding the unique characteristics of different PV systems helps a solar PV installer select
the best tools to get the job done right.

The key is to skip the inverter and power directly from 12-volt batteries.

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Solar-powered charging stations for building sites are long overdue. One reason they're not
dotting the shelves of your local box store is that tools have different batteries and are typically
set up with their own power adaptors to go from A/C to the onboard DC battery in the tool. And
as you're about to learn, from engineer " powering 120-volt AC power tools requires a 1,500 to
3,000-watt inverter and very heavy battery bank." In other words, it's just not practical. What is
practical?

IF YOU ARE PLANNING TO LIVE OFF GRID, or are building something in a remote area without
grid power, I am sure you are planning to use a generator. While I have also owned generators, I
find them temperamental, noisy, and I hate to drag fuel up some mountain trail when I need to
power construction tools. To wean myself off the traditional construction site generator, I found
an amazing selection of high-quality power tools that operate on battery packs. In addition, if
you standardize on the same brand and voltage, the same battery packs will be interchangeable
with a wide array of power saws, drills, portable lights, and even radios. Keeping a spare battery
pack on charge also allows a quick battery change and continued tool operation without having
to wait.

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Solar power is a great way to get electricity out to a remote project site. One simple way to do
this is to use a solar panel to charge the batteries of your cordless power tools. In this project, I
am going to show you several ways that you can do that.

Safety Note: Any time that you use a DIY battery charger instead of a commercial charger, you
are accepting a certain amount of risk. So always use caution. Don't over charge the battery and
don't try to charge it faster than the manufacturer recommends. There are many different kinds
of batteries and they all need to be treated differently. These instructions are designed for
batteries that are made of Nickle-Cadmium cells. I make no guarantee that these instructions will
be appropriate for other battery types such as NiMH or lithium batteries.

It feels really rewarding to build something off-grid in a remote area with the convenience of
labor-saving power tools without having to deal with a noisy generator. It’s also nice to have a
portable solar-charging system instead of having to keep your truck running while using a DC to
AC inverter to power your tools and tool chargers. When not needed to recharge power tools at
a job site, this portable solar-charging system can be used for camping or during emergency
power outages. This solar module with built-in solar charge controller can even be used to
recharge your RV camper batteries when dry camping.

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Types, uses and care of fixed power tools

There are many different styles of cordless power tool batteries and many different styles of
chargers. Most cordless tool battery packs are made up of several smaller batteries that are
wired together in series. In the most basic models, the charger will connect directly to the end
terminals of the battery pack at 2 exposed pins. The charger then applies a small direct current
and slowly charges the battery pack over several hours.

In more advanced models, the battery pack may have a number of internal sensors. For example,
a Craftsman 19.2V battery has a thermal fuse and an internal temperature sensor. To
accommodate these sensors, the battery has 2 additional terminals (a total of 4). The charger
connects to the battery through the thermal fuse. If the temperature of the batteries ever goes
above the maximum safety threshold, the thermal fuse will disconnect the battery from the
charger. The temperature sensor allows the charger to actively monitor the temperature of the
batteries while they are charging. This lets the charger automatically adjust the current to
maximize the charge rate without overheating the batteries.

If you want to use a DIY charger to charge the battery, your primary concern should be safety.
The safest way to charge a battery is to do it slowly. This will sacrifice some efficiency but it will
guarantee that you will not destroy the battery.
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Solar power is a great way to get electricity out to a remote project site. One simple way to do
this is to use a solar panel to charge the batteries of your cordless power tools. In this project, I
am going to show you several ways you can do that.

Safety Note: Any time you use a DIY battery charger instead of a commercial charger, you are
accepting a certain amount of risk, so always use caution. Don’t over charge the battery and
don’t try to charge it faster than the manufacturer recommends. There are many different kinds
of batteries and they all need to be treated differently.

Solar Array Mounting Racks

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Solar panels are joined into arrays and commonly mounted in one of three ways: on roofs; on
poles in free standing arrays; or directly on the ground.

Roof mounted systems are the most common and may be required by zoning ordinances. This
approach is aesthetic and efficient. The main drawback of roof mounting is maintenance. For
high roofs, clearing snow or repairing the systems can be an issue. Panels do not usually require
much maintenance, however.

Free standing, pole mounted arrays can be set at height that makes maintenance easy. The
advantage of easy maintenance must be weighed against the additional space required for the
arrays.

Ground systems are low and simple, but cannot be used in areas with regular accumulations of
snow. Space is also a consideration with these array mounts.

Regardless of where you mount the arrays, mounts are either fixed or tracking. Fixed mounts are
preset for height and angle and do not move. Since the angle of the sun changes throughout the
year, the height and angle of fixed mount arrays are a compromise that trades optimum angle
for a less expensive, less complex installation.

Tracking arrays move with the sun. Tracking array move east to west with the sun and adjust
their angle to maintain the optimum as the sun moves.

Array DC Disconnect

The Array DC disconnect is used to disconnect the solar arrays from the home for maintenance.
It is called a DC disconnect because the solar arrays produce DC (direct current) power.

Inverter

Solar panels and batteries produce DC (direct current) power. Standard home appliances use AC
(alternating current). An inverter converts the DC power produced by the solar panels and
batteries to the AC power required by appliances.

Battery Pack

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Solar power systems produce electricity during the daytime, when the sun is shining. Your home
demands electricity at night and on cloudy days – when the sun isn’t shining. To offset this
mismatch, batteries can be added to the system.

Power Meter, Utility Meter, Kilowatt Meter

For systems that maintain a tie to the utility grid, the power meter measures the amount of
power used from the grid. In systems designed to sell power the utility, the power meter also
measures the amount of power the solar system sends to the grid.

Backup Generator

For systems that are not tied to the utility grid, a backup generator is used to provide power
during periods of low system output due to poor weather or high household demand.
Homeowners concerned with the environmental impact of generators can install a generator
that runs on alternative fuel such as biodiesel, rather than gasoline.

Charge Controller

The charge controller – also known as charge regulator – maintains the proper charging voltage
for system batteries.

Batteries can be overcharged, if fed continuous voltage. The charge controller regulates the
voltage, preventing overcharging and allowing charging when required.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0101 Identify hand tools and describe their uses

• IAC0102 Identify portable power (electrical and pneumatic) tools and describe their uses
• IAC0103 Identify fixed power tools and describe their uses

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 KM-02-KT02: Marking-off equipment (20%)

KT0101 Engineering drawings

KT0102 Templates and marking off equipment (include mark out tables, squares,
rulers, straight edges, scribing blocks, height gauges, trammels, protractors,
vee blocks, parallels, dividers, Vernier callipers, measuring tapes, centre
punches, marking agents [pens, paints, chalk, marking blue, chalk line])
KT0103 Materials to be marked-off (aluminium, copper, plastics, metals, paper) and
their defects (lamination, blisters, pickling)
KT0104 Methods and sequences used for marking off
KT0105 Care, maintenance and storage of marking-off equipment

Engineering drawings

Engineering Submittal Essential for a SPV Power Plant Design & Engineering is an integral part of
the implementation of the SPV power plants. Engineering drawings & documents convey
specifications, construction methodology, dimensions, tolerances etc capturing the scope of
works and presenting a first-hand idea on the final by product that would be constructed. Typical
Master Deliverable list can be divided in two broad categories of Civil & Electrical which would
each entail the following: S.No. Category Particulars 1 Start offs Land Contour & Topographical
Analysis 2 Geo-tech analysis 3 Water test report 4 Module Mounting Structures 5 Evacuation
Single line diagram 6 Major Equipment Selection - Transformer, HT panels and String Monitoring
Boxes 7 Module Mix (wattage & make) 8 Leadoff Plant Layout 9 Switchyard / Sub Station layout
10 Civil - Fence Boundary Fence 11 Transformer Yard Fence 12 Switchyard Fence 13 Civil – Road
Periphery 14 Internal 15 Civil - Land Development & Cleaning Land Development, Grading &
Filling 16 Civil- Buildings General Arrangement of Inverter room 17 General Arrangement of
control room 18 Structural of Inverter Room 19 Structural of Control Room 20 Watch Tower 21
Security Cabin
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The initial 30 percent approval process deals with the array layout and configuration of the solar
array. The grid interconnection is also specified in great detail at the 30% design because the grid
interconnection method is a significant cost risk. The initial 30 percent design is a system
overview which is comprised of three to six drawing sheets and may not incorporate all the final
details of the system such as pier depths or sizes, structural details, conductor sizes and
conductor lengths. However, the 30% design will present a preliminary array layout which is
based on real survey data, where the major equipment will be located, and what the major site
civil, structural and electrical impacts will be. The drawings are created and reviewed by Blue Oak
Energy’s engineers and managers. Once satisfied with internal reviews per our Quality Assurance
and Quality Control standards, the drawings are then reviewed and approved by the client and
any initial permit governmental agencies involved.

Once the commercial or utility scale solar electric system is installed and operational, Blue Oak
Energy provides an optional service to provide construction Record Drawings which document
the actual built conditions as represented by the installing contractor. Often the customer will
require Blue Oak Energy to inspect the system to document the actual built conditions as an
independent entity from the contractor. When we produce the actual built conditions
documents from our own inspection, these drawings are called "As-Built" documents reflecting
the actual conditions of the project per Blue Oak Energy's self-witnessed, independent and
professional judgement.

Templates and marking off equipment (includes mark out tables, squares, rulers, straight edges,
scribing blocks, height gauges, trammels, protractors, vee blocks, parallels, dividers, vernier
callipers, measuring tapes, centre punches, marking agents [pens, paints, chalk, marking blue,
chalk line])

What does squaring a frame means and why is it important?

Squaring a frame means making sure the overall outline of the frame forms a rectangle. Every
corner of the outline forms a 90-degree angle.

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This is important because you're going to be mounting solar panels of some sort to this frame
and solar panels are themselves squared and more importantly, the solar array formed by all the
panels is squared.

In the following diagram, we are mounting an array of solar panels made up of 3 rows with 3
panels per row. The frame on the left, made up of 6 sets of rails, is squared but the frame on the
right is not. The result is that one of the solar panels is hanging off the frame. This is not
something you want to discover only after you've attached the frame to a roof and are mounting
your last panel.

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Squaring a frame for a solar array using diagonals

This method can be used on small frames where any side of the frame is made of a single steel
rail or wooden beam. If there is more than one rail or beam to a side then the 3-4-5 me59thod is
more doable.

The basic idea is that if the distances from opposite corners of a box are the same then the box is
squared.

There are many ways to apply this when installing rails on a roof but here's one example. There
will be four solar panels, two rows of two, and the rails will be 10 feet long, each composed of an
8 foot piece spliced with a 2 foot peice. This extra 2 feet is added so that attachment to the roof
trusses can be made near the ends of the rails (the trusses are 2 feet apart on center.)

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Following the above diagram, install your bottom rail exactly where you want it. If you're on a
roof, and you're sure the bottom edge of the roof is reasonably horizontal and uniform, then you
can use the bottom of the roof as a reference point. To make it horizontal with respect to the
roof, measure up from the bottom of the roof to where you want the rail to be. If you want the
array to be attached to the roof trusses inside the roof then you'll also want to pay attention to
where the trusses are located before you fix any rails in place. Another factor might be if the roof
is not a rectangle. For example, it might be tapered like above. You'd have to make some rough
measurements to make sure the top of your completed array would still be on the roof. If you
don't feel sure enough to permanently install the bottom rail at this time, just mark out where it
would be with chalk or a wax pencil until you've finished the whole measuring process.

Now that you have the bottom rail positioned, as shown in the following diagram, measure from
the bottom rail up to where the top rail will go and make a horizontal chalk line there. Make it
longer than the top rail will be.

Then take you top rail and hold it against the chalk line.

Next, measure the diagonals. Measure from the left end of the bottom rail to the right end of
the top rail. Remember this distance. Then measure from the right end of the bottom rail to the
left end of the top rail. If these two distances are the same then the result is a rectangle with
squared corners.

If, however, the distance from bottom-left to top-right is longer, then the top rail needs to move
to the left. If the distance from the bottom-right to top-left is longer, then the top rail needs to
move to the right.
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Once the two distances are the same, you can permanently install the top rail. Make vertical
chalking lines at the two ends and you can install rails in between.

If each row of rails is made up of multiple parts, such as two or more 8 foot steel rails or two or
more 8 foot wooden beams, then the diagonals method becomes harder to do. In this case it's
easier to square things using the 3-4-5 method.

This method uses the fact that if you have a triangle where the bottom is 3 feet long, and the left
side is 4 feet long, and the right side is 5 feet long, then the bottom and left side form a right

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triangle. In other words the angle formed by the bottom and the left sides is 90 degrees. It's
square. The same is true if the measurements are 6 feet, 8 feet and 10 feet respectively.

It's not necessary to know it but this is just the pythagorean theorum that you learned in school.
You learned it then as a2 + b2 = c2. But that doesn't matter here. Most of the times just
remembering 3-4-5 is enough. And 2x3=6, 2x4=8, 2x5=10, which gives us 6-8-10 as useful
measurements as well.

So once again, go up to the roof and permanently install your bottom row, even if it's made up of
multiple 8 foot rails. In this case we'll have three rows of three solar panels and the panels will be
much larger ones. Taking all the same things into account as mentioned above, install the
bottom row as in the following diagram. Notice that the frame is not centered on the roof. This is
because the rails need to be secured to the trusses near their ends. If we centered the rails then
the rail ends would be around 1 1/2 feet from the nearest truss. We could center it by making
the rails longer but then they'd stick out from under the solar panels quite a bit. We could also
add some supporting cross-beams inside the roof between the trusses but we'll assume it
doesn't matter in this case.

Go to the left end of the rail and measure 6 feet towards the center of the rail. Make a mark
there.

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Then, with one person holding one end of the measuring tape at the 6 foot mark, have a second
person pull out the measuring tape until 10 feet is reached. That second person would then hold
a wax pencil or chalk at the 10 foot point and sweep the measuring tape through an arc, drawing
an arc on the roof. Every point on that arc is now 10 feet away from the 6 foot point which you'd
marked on the bottom rail.

Lastly, have one person hold one end of the measuring tape at the left end of the bottom rail
while the second person pulls it out to an 8 foot length and walks up to the arc that was
previously drawn. Find where the 8 foot point on the measuring tape meets the arc. Mark the
roof there. Then draw a chalk line from that mark back down to the left end of the bottom rail.

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You now have a triangle whose sides are 6, 8 and 10 feet. The bottom and left sides form a 90
degree angle... they're squared.

You can now start installing rows of rails by lining up all their left ends with the left side chalk line
that you'd made. Space each rail the apropriate distance apart. The result will be a squared
array.

Illustrating a common mistake when squaring something

Here's a common mistake. You're making a standing frame for mounting a large solar panel onto
(see diagram below.) You attach two horizontal rails. Each rail is 8 feet long. The rails must be
squared because there are holes in the rails that must match up with holes in brackets that are
fixed to the sides of the panel.

You measure the distance between the rails at each end and find that they're the same, both 4
feet. So since the rails are both the same length and since the distances between them at the
ends are the same, they must be squared. Wrong.

Rulers
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A ruler is one of the most common measuring instruments. The ruler, shows both imperial and
metric measurements. One side is 12 "inches" long (imperial), while the other is 30 centimeters
(metric). The yardstick (3 feet long) or meter stick (100 cm or 1000 mm long) are two longer
rulers. These longer units of measure can be made of hard material, while a measuring tape is
yet another type of ruler made of flexible cloth or metal tape. Each may look different, but are
used essentially the same way. Rulers and other measuring tapes might come in both standard
and metric units. It is important to know the difference between these two systems of
measurement units. This article addresses types of rulers and similar measuring tools, how to
read a ruler, and using a ruler.

Straight edges

A straightedge or straight edge is a tool used for drawing straight lines, or checking their
straightness. If it has equally spaced markings along its length, it is usually called a ruler.
Straightedges are used in the automotive service and machining industry to check the flatness of
machined mating surfaces.

A straight edge is a cutting guide tool for copying a straight line from one location to another or
checking the straightness of a line already drawn. A straight edge with equally spaced markings
on it is called a ruler. A Johnson Level straight edge is not only a great way to mark, test or
transcribe perfectly straight lines, but also an efficient way to measure short distances (96 inches
or less, or 8 feet). Johnson Level straight edges and rulers feature graduations and length
markings for ease of use in the construction process.

How to Read a Straight Edge

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 Straight edges typically feature 1/16" increments.

Smaller markings in between the inch marks indicate fractions of an inch, with the fraction size
being directly proportional to the size of the mark. For example, the ½ inch mark (see below
right) is shorter than the inch mark. The number of markings on a straight edge or ruler depends
on how small an inch is broken down.

A ruler’s markings move left to right, as if you were reading a book. This means that on a
standard foot ruler, one inch in the left edge and 12 inches is on the right edge. Keep that in
mind when using a cutting guide tool.

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How is a Ruler Different from a Straight Edge

• Look along the edges of the straight edge.

• If there are markings indicating units of measurement along the edges, it is a ruler.

• If there are no markings, it is simply a straight edge.

• A ruler can be used for measuring and marking straight lines.

• A straight edge will not help you measure, but most are built more durably than rulers,
making them a superior tool for marking straight lines.

• In most cases, rulers can function as a straight edge.

How to Use a Straight Edge

• Use a straight edge to mark straight lines and as a guide for cutting.

• Determine where you need to make your cut.

• Mark one edge of the board at the desired length, and mark the other edge at the same
length (or different, if you want an angled cut).

• Line up each mark on one side of the straight edge.

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 • Draw the pencil along the straight edge. Repeat as necessary to make sure the line is
visible.

• You have a perfectly straight line to cut along.

• You may use the straight edge as a guide for your table saw (use c-clamps to secure the
straight edge on the ends).

Scribing blocks

A scribing block is used to mark lines on a work piece which is against an angle block. The
scribing block can be adjusted with a high degree of accuracy and is set from a steel rule. The
material is marked by sliding the scribing block so that the scriber makes light contact with the
surface of the material.

A recent article presented an overview of how lasers can play a key role in the development and
production of solar devices, delivering twin benefits of lower fabrication costs and superior
performance. Laser scribing is rapidly emerging as one of the most significant of all these
processes as it is critically enabling high-volume production of next-generation thin-film devices,
surpassing mechanical scribing methods in quality, speed, and reliability.

Height gauges

What is a Height Gauge?

Height gauges are among the most common benchtop tools in the inspection arsenal. As the
name implies, a height gauge measures the height of parts or part features. But height is not the
only attribute these gauges can measure. Height gauges can also measure the vertical location of
one-part feature in relation to another.

Height gauges are versatile tools. Here are some applications that require height gauges:

• Marking off vertical distances on parts (scribing)

• Measuring height differences between part features
• Measuring centerline heights of holes in parts

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 • Measuring high and low points on circular part features

The design of modern height gauges varies little from the first height gauges ever manufactured.
In fact, all height gauges still have the same basic components. The base is a heavy metal piece
that secures the bottom of the column. Because the gauge is top heavy, the base helps prevent
it from tipping. In order for the gauge to return an accurate measurement, the base should be
used with a granite surface plate. The surface plate provides a flat surface to use as a zero
reference point for the gauge.

How to Read a Height Gauge

BRAD CHACOS

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Height gauges are primarily used in workshops and factories to measure the depth of a feature
or to measure a distance with accuracy. According to "Quality Digest Magazine," all height
gauges consist of a base, vertical shaft, a measuring unit that travels up and down along the
shaft, and an arm protruding from the measuring unit that directly contacts the material being
measured. A home-remodeling enthusiast could use a height gauge to accurately measure out,
and subsequently mark, an exact cut location on a pipe or beam.

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Trammels

Trammel heads are used in layout work to scribe circles and arcs that are too large to be drawn
with a divider or compass. Trammel heads can also be used to bisect lines and angles. They can
be used as an alternative to both a marking gauge and a mortise gauge to draw lines a set
distance from an edge.

With an engineers square or try square, one trammel head can be used as a substitute for a
marking gauge. Marking gauges are used to draw a line parallel to the edge of a surface.

Clamp trammel head onto engineer’s square or try square

Clamp the trammel head onto the blade of the square a set distance from the edge of its stock.

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Run square along edge

Position the square on the edge of the workpiece.

Run it along the edge of the surface you will be marking, so that the pencil installed in the
trammel head marks a line down the length of the part.

Protractors

A bevel protractor is a graduated circular protractor with one pivoted arm; used for measuring or
marking off angles. ... To measure an angle of over 90°, subtract the number of degrees as
indicated on the dial from 180°, as the dial is graduated from opposite zero marks to 90° each
way.

Measuring With a Protractor

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The flat side of a semi-circle protractor is called the zero edge. The center mark is halfway across
the zero edge. Place the center mark over the point of the angle you're measuring. Match one
line of the angle with the zero edge of the protractor, keeping the center mark on the point of
the angle. Place a ruler, piece of paper or another straight edge along the other line of the angle
so the straight edge runs from the center mark to the outer edge of the protractor. Read the
degree marking where the ruler crosses the curved edge of the protractor. You'll notice two sets
of degrees along the edge: an inner and outer scale. Both scales go from 0 to 180, but they run
in opposite directions. If the angle opens to the right side of the protractor, use the inner scale. If
the angle opens to the left of the protractor, use the outer scale.

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Vee blocks

Uses of V-Block. Used to Hold the Cylindrical Objects in place for marking centerlines with the
Surface gauge. To Hold down the rectangular job piece at 45° angle to the vertical direction. ...
Can also be used to check the roundness of the cylindrical objects.

Construction of V-Block

• This is a Cast Iron structure; all faces are truly machined (Truely machined means that the
flatness and the Parallelity of any two faces and the angles between any two faces are
true values. no deviations occurred because it is a precession instrument).

• The angle between the V faces (Grooves) is 90 °. and 120° angled V-blocks are also
available.

• They can be available in different Grooved shapes.

• To hold the workpiece in place, U-Clamps are provided with a Clamp Screw.

• The U-clamp will engage with the V-block by the rectangular slots provided on the Side
faces. as you can observe in the shown picture.

• Magnetic V-blocks are also available so that there is no need for this U clamp.

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Magnetic V-Blocks Source: Labbazzar.in

• There is a control button to control the magnetic forces. as you can see them in the side
picture.

• Based on the accuracy in flatness these V-Blocks are classified into two grades Grade-A
and Grade-B.

Uses of V-Block

• Used to Hold the Cylindrical Objects in place for marking centerlines with the Surface
gauge.

• To Hold down the rectangular job piece at 45° angle to the vertical direction.

• Used as supports while holding long Cylindrical bars parallelly (They can be two of them
or multiple V-Blocks based on the length of the cylindrical object.)

• Can also be used to check the roundness of the cylindrical objects.

Ease of use of V-Block

These blocks are made of Cast iron, so we should prevent V-Block from rusting. The accuracy
should be checked periodically for basic accuracy.

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Parallels

Proving Parallel Lines

Picture a railroad track and a road crossing the tracks. You know that the railroad tracks are
parallel; otherwise, the train wouldn't be able to run on them without tipping over. But, how can
you prove that they are parallel? First, you recall the definition of parallel lines, meaning they are
a pair of lines that never intersect and are always the same distance apart. Then you think about
the importance of the transversal, the line that cuts across two other lines. At this point, you link
the railroad tracks to the parallel lines and the road with the transversal.

Now you get to look at the angles that are formed by the transversal with the parallel lines.
There are four different things you can look for that we will see in action here in just a bit. Just
remember that when it comes to proving two lines are parallel, all you have to look at are the
angles. Specifically, we want to look for pairs of:

• Corresponding angles
• Alternate interior angles
• Alternate exterior angles, or
• Supplementary angles

If we find just one pair that works, then we know that the lines are parallel. Also, you will see
that each pair has one angle at one intersection and another angle at another intersection.
When I say intersection, I mean the point where the transversal cuts across one of the parallel
lines. So, since there are two lines in a pair of parallel lines, there are two intersections.

Corresponding Angles

Corresponding angles are the angles that are at the same corner at each intersection. This
means that if my first angle is at the top left corner of one intersection, the matching angle at
the other intersection is also at the top left. Since there are four corners, we have four
possibilities here:

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If the corresponding angles have the same measurement, the lines are parallel.

image showing lines and corresponding angles

What we are looking for here is whether or not these two angles are congruent or equal to each
other. If they are, then the lines are parallel. So, if both of these angles measured 60 degrees,
then you know that the lines are parallel. But, if the angles measure differently, then
automatically, these two lines are not parallel.

Alternate Interior Angles

Alternate interior angles is the next option we have. These angles are the angles that are on
opposite sides of the transversal and inside the pair of parallel lines. So, you will have one angle
on one side of the transversal and another angle on the other side of the transversal. And, both
of these angles will be inside the pair of parallel lines. The inside part of the parallel lines is the
part between the two lines. So, for the railroad tracks, the inside part of the tracks is the part
that the train covers when it goes over the tracks. We have two possibilities here:

Dividers

Dividers are used to mark out shapes onto sheet metal. They are used just like compasses to
scrape circles and arcs onto the metal. They work best if a small indent is placed on the sheet
metal using a centre punch for one of the legs to rest in.

Divider, instrument for measuring, transferring, or marking off distances, consisting of two
straight adjustable legs hinged together and ending in sharp points. It is used principally
in drafting for the accurate transfer of dimensions from a measuring scale and in machine shops
for scribing lines on surfaces, usually machined, with dimensions taken from a ruler. A compass is
essentially a divider in which one of the points has been replaced by a pencil or other marking
device. The compass is useful for scribing circles or arcs of circles; it usually includes a scale to
indicate the radius of the circle being scribed.

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How Are These Markings Created?

Hexafoils can be simply drawn with a compass or an instrument which produces fixed diameter
circles: the enclosing circle having the same diameter as the arcs used to create the pattern
within.

On stonework these markings can be found in many different sizes and in complex patterns of
circles. Some were probably drawn with the tool of the stonemason, the divider. The markings
have prominent central holes and have had to have been worked on to produce the highly
legible marks.

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Dividers could have been used to create complex patterns of circles in stone

Dividers, the trade tool of the mason, appear in many paintings and drawings, as well as on
gravestones. They were also used by a variety of other craftsmen, but they are not a tool which
ordinary people would necessarily have had access to. For example, the average farmworker
would have been unlikely to use such a tool to idle their moments away scribing graffiti on
buildings. Indeed, if they were then we might expect an even more frequent and intense
application of this kind of graffiti to buildings.

Vernier callipers

Vernier Caliper is a visual aid to take an accurate measurement reading between two graduation
markings on a linear scale by using mechanical interpolation; thereby increasing resolution and
reducing measurement uncertainty by using Vernier acuity to reduce human estimation error

A Vernier caliper is an instrument that measures internal or external dimensions and distances. It
allows you to take more precise measurements than you could with regular rulers. This wikiHow
will show you how to use and read a Vernier caliper.

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Measuring tapes

Tape Measure Markings: What Are They For?

Our minds have a remarkable ability to gather the information we seek and disregard
surrounding information we don’t deem necessary. We’re not just talking about the cognitive
blind spots of the folks you’d just as soon ignore on Facebook! There are little, everyday things
that become effectively invisible to many of us. For instance, consider the dashboard in your car.
There’s a small arrow next to the gas gauge that you’ve probably seen a million times and not
really thought about. It actually indicates which side of your car the gas tank is on. Most people
will look at the gauge countless times to see the fuel level, but will still have a hard time
remembering the correct way to pull up to the pump. Well, in the same way, most tape
measures have markings that we tend to ignore. But, if we know what their purpose is, or that
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they’re there in the first place, those markings might help us work much more efficiently. So,
let’s take a closer look at the information tape measure markings give us.

Tape Measure Markings

We don’t have to spend much time talking about those markings that everyone uses: inches,
feet, and the fractional 1/16-inch hash marks that make them up. But, it’s important to note that
not all tapes are created equally. Some have helpful fractions printed in addition to the hash
marks (1/8, 1/4, etc). Others have markings on the bottom of the tape that are exactly half of the
markings on the top of the tape.

To make marking the halfway point of a board easier. Still, others may include the measurement
in terms of feet and inches after the 1-foot mark (a marking of 1’5″ at the 17″ mark, for
example). And finally, you’ll sometimes see Imperial markings on top of the tape and Metric
markings on the bottom. Just know what units you’re using!

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How to Read a Tape Measure

1. Find/read the markings. On a standard tape measure, the biggest marking is the inch
mark (which generally has the biggest number, if it has them).

2. As the increments decrease, so does the length of the mark. For example, ½" has a bigger
mark than ¼" which has a bigger mark than ⅛", and so on.

3. Read 1 inch. The space from the largest mark to another is 1 inch.

4. Read one-half inch. Same principle as reading one inch, only this time the space between
the second-biggest mark and the biggest is read. You can think of a half-inch mark as half
way between a full inch.

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Centre punches

A center punch is used to mark the center of a point. It is usually used to mark the center of a
hole when drilling holes. A drill has the tendency to "wander" if it does not start in a recess. A
center punch forms a large enough dimple to "guide" the tip of the drill.

Types of Punches and Their Uses

Mechanical engineering workshops extensively use various types of punches. Few of the basic
types include center punch, prick punch, pin punch and drift punch. Workshops use punches for
locating centers for drawing circles, to punch holes in sheet metals, to start holes for drilling, to
remove damaged rivets, bolts or pins and to transfer location of holes in patterns. Some punches
used are hollow.

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Classification and Use of Punches

Punches are usually classified according to the shape of their points. The most commonly used
among these is the prick punch, useful for placing reference marks on metal. You can use this to
transfer dimensions from a paper pattern directly on to the metal. For this, you will need to
place the paper pattern directly on the metal and orient it correctly.

Now, go over the outline of the pattern with the prick punch. Tap it lightly with a small hammer
so that the punch makes slight indentations on the metal at major points on the drawing. Use
these indentations as reference marks for cutting the metal. Be careful never to strike a heavy
blow with the hammer as it may cause the prick punch to bend or even damage the work
material excessively.

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A center punch is useful when making large indentations in metal, such as necessary to engage a
twist drill. Take care that you do not strike with so much force as to cause the end to protrude
through or dimple the metal around the indentation. Usually, a center punch is heavier than a
prick punch and has a point ground to an angle of 60º.

For driving out damaged rivets, bolts and pins that are bound up in holes, you should use the
drive punch. The drive punch has a flat face instead of a point. The width of its face defines this
type of punch, for example, 1/8-in or 1/4-in. The sides of a drive punch will taper all the way
down to the face, but sometimes you may need to use a punch with a straight shank. This is
called the pin or drift punch.

In practice, you first use a drive punch to drive the pin or bolt that is to be removed until the hole
blocks the progress of the punch. You then use a pin punch to drive the bolt or pin the rest of the
way until it is ejected from the hole. Be careful not to use a prick or a center punch to remove
bolts or pins from holes, as the point of the punch will spread the object making it even more
difficult to remove.

When necessary to fit a drill-locating hole in a template, you must use a transfer punch. The
transfer punch is typically about 4-inches long and has a point that initially tapers, then runs
straight for a short distance. The tip of the transfer punch is similar to that of a prick punch. True
to its name, the transfer punch is useful for transferring the location of holes through a pattern
or a template on to the metal.

chalk line]

A chalk line or chalk box is a tool for marking long, straight lines on relatively flat surfaces, much
farther than is practical by hand or with a straightedge. They may be used to lay out straight lines
between two points, or vertical lines by using the weight of the line reel as a plumb line

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There’s something almost magical in the way a simple chalk box creates a crisp, perfectly straight
line in the blink of an eye. No other tool, except an expensive laser, makes a perfectly straight
line over a long distance so quickly and reliably. In this article, we’ll show you how to use a chalk
line and provide tips that will make it easier to get good results.

What is a Chalk Line?

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When it comes to the question of what is a chalk line, the answer is really in the name; it’s a line
covered in chalk!

On a basic level, this is exactly what it is but as with most things, there’s a little more to it than
just a piece of string with some chalk on it.

The chalk line tools itself is a highly versatile tool and can be used to mark a perfectly straight
line on pretty much all surfaces for pretty much any job that needs a straight line to follow e.g.
laying both floor and wall tiles, roofing work, wallpapering and more.

The main body of the tool or “chalk box” is essentially a container for the chalk. Within the main
body, along with the chalk, is a shaft and the line is wound around this via the handle on the
outside.

Materials to be marked-off (aluminium, copper, plastics, metals, paper) and their defects
(lamination, blisters, pickling)

Solar power, along with wind, wave, and geothermal energy sources, is seeing accelerating
interest in renewable energy research. Once installed, solar panels produce zero emissions as
they convert sunlight directly into energy via the photovoltaic effect, bypassing the turbine
system found in every other commercial energy source.

The Photovoltaic Effect

Light is converted into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. When light is incident to the cell, the
absorbed energy excites bound electrons. This allows them to jump their atomic bonds and
become free. The free electrons travel through the material, and the resulting current is
harnessed when conductors are attached to either side of the cell. Because there are no moving
parts, including turbines, maintenance fees are lower and there is zero fuel use.

The photovoltaic effect requires a material that is light sensitive. Over the last 175 years,
researchers have noted the photovoltaic properties of several different materials. The first solar

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cells of 1880 were just one percent efficient - revolutionary for the time. These first efforts were
constructed with gold-coated selenium.

Silicon in Solar Cells

The silicon that you'll now find in a solar cell is highly processed. The material is sourced in silica
mines, which are often found in regions with heavy quartz concentrations. The silica is refined to
reach metallurgical grade. This process takes place in an electric arc furnace, where carbon is
used to release the oxygen in the silica quartzite, resulting in a more consistent silica makeup.
However, metallurgical purity doesn't cut it for a photovoltaic cell.

High efficiency rates will boost the amount of energy released by the cell, so the purity of the
photovoltaic-capable material is of utmost importance. The metallurgical grade silicon is exposed
to hydrochloric acid and copper, which produce trichlorosilane gas. Hydrogen is then used to
reduce this gas to silane gas, which is in turn heated to make molten silicon.

As if designed as an element in a futuristic novel, the Siemens Solar Group has used copper to
design an environmentally friendly, solar-energy product that will provide power to the people
of the 21st Century.

The energy contained in the sunlight hitting the Earth each day is far greater than that generated
by the human race by burning coal, oil, or nuclear power. Photovoltaic solar cells use the sunlight
to generate electricity. They are quiet, give off no pollution, do not require much land and water
to operate, and can be used to generate both electricity and fuels.

Siemens Solar is the world's leading manufacturer in the photovoltaic industry. Working with the
assistance of experts from several countries, Siemens is trying to use sunlight, along with
another resource that is in abundant supply: copper, to power the future.

Light and robust material, conductive and resistant to corrosion, the properties of aluminium are
valued in the following industries: automotive, aerospace and marine construction, rail
transport, electronics and electronics, packaging and construction, etc.

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Raw, with no anodization layer or other treatment, offers little contrast for marking. Technifor
offers various solutions for the legible engraving of your parts:

Aluminium engraving

When engraving aluminium, most of the time anodised aluminium is used. In can be engraved by
a laser or rotary machine and allows for fine detail engraving on a product strong enough to
withstand most external factors.

aluminium engraving

Trotec Anodised Aluminium

Trotec offers anodised aluminium in various colours in both matt and glossy finishes. It features
an anodised coating of up to 22 microns, which is best in its class in terms of product durability
and withstanding external factors.

Methods and sequences used for marking off

Marking-out tools

The following tools are commonly used for measuring and marking-out when using wood:-

Pencil – Used to mark lines and centres for cutting or joining. Pencil marks are easy to remove
afterwards. It is best to use a sharp pencil very lightly. This gives thin, light lines that don't
engrave the workpiece.

Steel rules – Used to measure materials for cutting or joining. Best used flat against the side and
bottom edges. This ensures that measurements are marked from a one consistent spot.

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Marking out with a steel rule and a sharp pencil can give accurate, removable marks

Try square – Used to help draw perpendicular lines on materials to mark out the sides of a
woodwork joint. Best used with the brass edge flat against the side. This ensures that the line is
parallel.

A try square helps you draw a line at right-angles to an edge

Marking gauge – Used to scribe lines parallel to edges so that waste wood can be chiselled away
from a woodwork joint.

The marking gauge stock needs to be flat against the side of the workpiece. It is best not to dig
the spur into the material to be cut and instead gently run it over a few times until a indented
line is scored in the wood.

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A marking gauge is used to scribe a line parallel to an edge

Cutting gauge – Used to cut a line into wood parallel to an edge to mark the bottom of a wood
work joint. The stock needs to be flat against the side of the workpiece. It is important to ensure
that the cutting tool is going into the workpiece and making a mark.

Mortise gauge – Used to scribe a double line parallel to an edge. The two sharp spurs should be
adjusted and set to the mortise chisel's width before marking the workpiece. The mortise gauge
stock needs to be flat against the side of the work piece.

It is best not to dig the spur into the workpiece and instead gently run it over a few times till a
scored line is created between the two points.

A mortise gauge is used to scribe a double parallel line

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Sliding bevel – Used to set an angle for cutting waste material or marking a woodwork joint. The
bevel blade can be adjusted to create the exact angle required. A pencil is then used to mark the
line onto the material to be cut.

Care, maintenance and storage of marking-off equipment

Good tools can be quite an investment, but if you take good care of them, they'll return the
favor. Keeping your tools properly stored, cleaned, and maintained will save you time and money
and make your DIY endeavors that much more rewarding.

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We're mostly talking about hand tools, power tools, and garden tools in this article, but much of
the same advice applies whether your tools of choice are kitchen knives, crafting tools, or
whatever else. Store them well, keep them clean and well-maintained, and you won't be sorry.

Toolboxes also make for great tool storage, offering the primary advantage of portability. While
some people opt to store all their tools in toolboxes, for most, the toolbox is a way of carrying
around your most-used tools while leaving the bulk safely stored on pegboards, shelves, or
drawers. No matter what you're doing, though, you can build a well-equipped toolbox for every
level of DIY needs.

Keep your tools in a dry place. It seems obvious, but garages and basements and other enclosed
spaces can have humidity issues, especially if they are not heated or air-conditioned. If you keep
your tools in a location like this, especially if you keep them out on shelves or pegboards,
consider investing in a dehumidifier to keep the dampness down. They're not terribly expensive,
especially compared to your investment in your tools, and most let you set a humidity level so
the dehumidifier turns on only when it needs to.

Store power tools in their original cases. Unless you have a climate-controlled workshop, your
best bet for storing power tools in the hard-plastic cases they usually come with. Not only are
they better-protected from humidity, they're just better-protected in general.

Use silica gel packs or rust collector. The silica gel packs that come in lots of packaging are great
at keeping moisture at bay. Toss them in drawers or toolboxes and they can help keep rust away.
You can also buy rust inhibitors for the same purpose and even anti-rust liners for drawers and
shelves.

Power tools: Power tools are a little trickier to clean. First, make sure the tool is unplugged
before you clean it. Next, you'll want to get all the dust off. An air compressor can be really
useful for that. Wipe down the surface of the tool and then lubricate any moving parts. Machine
oil is a fine choice for this, but you should also check the manual that came with the tool to see if
they have better recommendations.

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Delegate a portion of your garage, shed or basement closet as a place to store tools. Clean out
the junk and clutter and make a space only for tools. Figure out how much space is needed for
the amount of tools you have. Sweep away cobwebs, dirt and other foreign matter. Get a
shelving unit and store chemicals, liquids and paint substances out of the reach of children and
pets.

Step 2

Find the parts. Locate cords, bits, nails and screws and organize them. Allocate plastic bins to
store smaller household tools. If you have a large tool collection, organize by type for easy
location. Keep the parts for each specific tool close by.

Step 3

Clean out dirt and debris from tools. Oil power tools to lubricate moving parts. Repair loose
handles and clean out oil or other fluids used to power the tool. Sharpen blades and replace
worn out parts.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0201 Explain the importance of engineering drawings in the marking-off process

• IAC0202 Identify and discuss the use of different types of marking-off equipment and
their related defects
• IAC0203 Explain the importance of caring for, calibrating and correctly storing templates
and marking-off equipment
• IAC0204 Identify and discuss the different types of materials on which marking-off takes
place
• IAC0205 Describe the methods and sequences for marking-off using templates and
marking-off equipment
• IAC0206 Discuss the importance of accuracy and precision when marking-off and the
implications of incorrect marking-off

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 • IAC0207 Discuss the safety aspects pertaining to marking-off proc

KM-02-KT03: Lifting equipment (22%)

KT0201 Lifting equipment (chain slings, rope slings, steel wire slings, synthetic web
slings, shackles, eyebolts, guide ropes, plate grabs, chain blocks, rope
tackles/rope blocks jacks, come-alongs, small floor cranes, hoists [tirfor, coffin],
lifting brackets, fasteners, colour codes of slings)
KT0202 Lifting equipment capacity
KT0203 Equipment defects
KT0204 Principles of operation of lifting equipment
KT0205 Lifting processes (loads, communication methods [hand signals, whistles, flags,
electronic types], load calculations, and lifting or slinging processes)
KT0206 Safety aspects pertaining to lifting

Lifting equipment (chain slings, rope slings, steel wire slings, synthetic web slings, shackles,
eyebolts, guide ropes, plate grabs, chain blocks, rope tackles/rope blocks jacks, come-alongs,
small floor cranes, hoists [tirfor, coffin], lifting brackets, fasteners, colour codes of slings)

Lifting equipment (chain slings

Chain Slings

We have created various designs of chain slings to accommodate various needs within the
mining and lifting industries. Our slings have been created to suit a wide variety of needs. All of
our slings are tested and manufactured according to EN 1677 specifications and regulations.

We ensure that each of our designs are created in accordance with industry needs, and with
materials that guarantee the strength and compatibility.

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Our range is assembled, tested and certified at our premises. An identification tag forms part of
the sling to guarantee trace-ability. We also advise customers on the best configuration to use
for specific lifting requirements.

All of our MYTE slings are fitted with Max Alloy chain. We also offer our MYTE slings and various
fittings in 80 grade and 1000 grade. These are done on request, and all one has to do is contact
your local MYTE agent for a catalogue.

We keep stock of all components required to make up chain slings.Let us know what you need to
lift and we’ll offer suggestions!

Lifting equipment Rope slings

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Steel Wire Rope Slings

All steel wire rope slings fittings are supplied and slings are manufactured on our premises from
quality wire rope. Standard sizes stocked. Large diameter and volumes available. We will gladly
assist you in selecting the correct sling criteria for your specific application.

Steel Wire Rope Sling Selection Criteria:

Working load

• End fittings e.g. hooks

• Eye sizes for soft (unthimbled) eyes
• Thimble dimensions for thimbled eyes
• Rope construction where not standard
• Steel Wire Rope Slings
• Steel Wire Rope Sling Components: Ferrules; Thimbles & Spelter Sockets
• Ferrules
• Ferrules secure the loop to form the eye of a steel wire rope sling.
• Thimbles
• Thimbles are used in wire rope assemblies to form an eye of the loop, and offer added
protection from wear and tear of direct contact and deformation of the eye, extending
the service life of the Wire Rope or Wire Rope Sling.
• Spelter Sockets

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 • Used as sling terminations, especially on permanent fixtures such as power line towers,
cell phone towers and in the mining industry.

Lifting equipment Synthetic web slings

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• Materials Handling - Synthetic Web Slings
• What should you know about using synthetic web slings?
• Synthetic web slings are a good choice where highly finished parts or delicate equipment
must be protected from damage. The synthetic material has stretch and flexibility to help
the slings mold to the shape of the load, gripping securely, while cushioning and
absorbing shock more than a wire rope or chain.
• They are lightweight and very easy to handle.
• They are non-sparking, non conductive and can be used safely in explosive atmospheres.
• Synthetic slings are typically not affected by grease, oil, moisture and certain chemicals.
Check with the manufacturer to determine which conditions apply to the exact material
you are using.
• Synthetic web slings are easily cut and have poor abrasion resistance when compared
with chain and wire rope slings. Protect webbing from sharp corners, protrusions, or
abrasive surfaces.
• Protect slings from heat sources such as steam pipes, open flame and welding splatter.
• Nylon slings are damaged by acids, but resist caustics.
• Polyester slings are damaged by caustics but resist acids.
• Wet frozen slings will have a reduced load capacity. Follow manufacturer's
recommendations.
• Sunlight, moisture, and temperatures above 82.2°C (180°F) damage both nylon and
polyester slings.
• Use slings made of the right material for the job.
• Check the manufacturers' slings for their code number and the rated capacity. Reference
charts showing slings and hitch rated capacities are available from manufacturers.
• Inspect slings before using them.
• Keep an inspection record for each sling.
• Replace damaged slings, or repair only according to manufacturer's recommendations.

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Lifting equipment Shackles

Applications for using Lifting Shackles

Shackles can be used in lifting and static systems as a removable link to connect wire rope, chain
and slings. The differing types of shackles are best used for different applications. Safety bolt pin
shackle

Safety bolt shackles

Also known as Green Pin shackles, these are commonly used for either permanent or more long-
term lifting operations or sometimes in instances where the load and sling may slip against the
pin which may cause it to rotate and subsequently fall out. These types of shackles are extra
secure due to the bolt and cotter pin design. This system also removes the need for tightening
the pin prior to each use.

safety bolt shackle with cotter pin Some shackles are available to comply with British standards,
these have a safety pin with a cotter pin which goes through the nut, therefore providing the
upmost safety.

screw pin shackle Screw pin shackles

These are mainly used for non-permanent applications, where the shackle needs to be removed
regularly. Screw pin shackles can also be used for side loading applications with a reduced safe
working load. With these types of shackle, it is necessary to check and re-tighten the pin prior to
each and every lift. If screw pin shackles are to be used for longer term lifting applications (not

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recommended – it is better to use a bolt type instead), or for applications where there is high
vibration activity

shackle mousing

which could cause loosening of the pin, then a mousing technique can and should be used.
Mousing is the process which describes the securing of the pin, this is done by the use of
annealed iron wire which is threaded multiple times through the hole in the pin and passed
around the body of the shackle, twisting the ends to secure. This process prevents the pin from
un-screwing.

Lifting equipment Eyebolts

What is a lifting eye bolt?

Eye Bolts are used to attach a securing eye to a structure, so that slings or other hardware can be
attached for lifting. Eye Bolts are load rated and made from forged steel that has been quenched
and tempered. Bishop Lifting offers Regular Eyebolts along with Shoulder Eye Bolts, and Shoulder
Type Machinery Eye Bolts.

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Lifting equipment Guide ropes

Light: A crane which usually lifts very low loads and rarely lifts maximum loads.

Medium: A crane which usually lifts low loads and frequently lifts maximum loads.

Heavy: A crane which usually lifts medium loads and frequently lifts maximum loads.

Very Heavy: A crane which usually lifts maximum loads.

Once you have a total duty cycle time, you compare it to the load spectrum graph and this will
then give you the rating of the hoist that you require.

Sure lift Standard Head Room Hoist

The Sure lift Standard head room hoist is an entry level rope hoist, it has a single cross travel
motor which is controlled by a variable speed drive. The hoist itself has been designed for the
South African market. The hoist is driven by a planetary gear box system which reduces the load
torque substantially. This means less strain on the shafts and gears of the hoist, allowing for the
hoist to have a longer life cycle. This is a great budget hoist for low duty cycle environments.

Sure, Lift Euro Crane

The Sure lift Euro Crane series low head room hoists supports a compact design allowing for
maximum head room. The cross-travel function comes standard with a variable speed drive

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control. The hoist is fitted with a rotary limit combined with a PLC control system to prevent the
bottom block from running into itself. The PLC system also prevents the operator error. There is
also an electronically controlled load limit with a self-calibrating function.

This reduces the load on the motor by up to 66%, adding extra protection to your hoist motor
and less mechanical strain on the hoist pinions and shafts. The hoist uses a compact design rope
structure which fits to a deep groove drum made from Q345-type seamless steel tube, combined
with a Light weight rope guide with good wear resistance, to prevent the rope from skipping and
damaging the load rope. This Hoist is great in a light to medium duty cycle environment.

The Surelift Gurlap Series is the big brother to the Surelift Euro Crane Series. This hoist also
supports a compact design in terms of height of lift but still supports a more robust design in
many aspects such as the hoist motor has a larger frame size allowing for more heat dissipation,
this allows the hoist to be used harder and longer without any damage being caused to the
motor. The hoist also comes with ABM 3 Stage gearbox. This reduces the load on the motor by
up to 66%, adding extra protection to your hoist motor and less mechanical strain on the hoist
pinions and shafts. The hoist brake is a binder type with IP 65 protection, this allows for up to 4
million operation cycles where some competitors only allow for up to 400 0000 cycles. The
drum is also larger and takes a larger rope diameter, with a standard 6 x 36 rope construction,
saving you money on rope replacements and giving you the freedom to get the rope anywhere.
The Gur alp comes with a dual cross travel carriage controlled by a variable speed drive. Giving 2
positive drives on the crawl keeps the carriage aligned and assist in preventing an additional
wheel wear. The cross-travel wheels also have a larger wheel diameter then standard hoists, this
gives the wheel a larger running surface and increases the load bearings capacity.

Lifting equipment Plate grabs

Horizontal plate grabs are designed for horizontal lifting and transportation of plates of mild and
hardened steel and similar sheeting and are usually used in pairs or multiple clamp
configurations.

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• Plate grabs are generally used for lifting and positioning flat sheets of plate.

• Plate grabs accommodate various thicknesses of plate. See spec sheet for more information.

• Available in Vertical, Horizontal and Universal options.

Lifting equipment Chain blocks

A Chain Block (also known as a hand chain hoist) is a mechanism used to lift and lower heavy
loads using a chain. Chain blocks contain two wheels which the chain is wound around. When
the chain is pulled, it winds around the wheels and begins to lift the item that is attached to the
rope or chain via a hook.

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Lifting equipment Rope tackles/rope blocks jacks

Block and tackle, combination of a flexible rope, or cable, and pulleys commonly used to
augment pulling force; it can be used to lift heavy weights or to exert large forces in any
direction. In the Figure there are four freely rotating pulleys, two on the upper block, which
remains fixed, and two on the lower block, which moves up as the load W is lifted; one end of
the rope is anchored to the upper block. If the load W is lifted one foot, each of the four rope
links will shorten by one foot so that four feet of rope must be pulled off by the
effort F; consequently the force magnification and the mechanical advantage, neglecting friction,
is 4. Higher force ratios may be obtained by the use of more pulleys, but this advantage may be
offset by increased friction.

Lifting equipment Small floor cranes

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Mobile floor cranes from Power Team SA include 1- and 2-ton lift models. They are designed
with adjustable legs for maximum application flexibility, with a telescopic boom that provides
extended reach and access to your workpiece.

The crane is easy to move and manoeuvre, with high-quality roller bearing wheels and a steering
dolly. The boom can be moved quickly with minimum effort, and provides lifting control for
maximum performance with a 2-speed hydraulic hand pump.

When not in use, the mobile floor crane is compact to store, with a collapsible boom and
foldable legs.

Lifting equipment Hoists [tirfor, coffin]

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Product Info

Tirfor winches are portable manual hoists used with steel wire rope. They can be used to lift, pull
and position loads over great distances depending on the wire rope length. They are suitable for
use in numerous configurations and are the ideal solution for use in professional applications;
they are operated by a simple lever Option: the load capacity of the Tirfor system can be
increased by using sheave blocks.

Lifting equipment Fasteners

What is the use of fasteners?

A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together.
In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed
or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

Lifting equipment Colour codes of slings

At SafetyLiftinGear.com, we like to think we know a thing or two about lifting gear safety. If we
didn’t, we may need to consider a company name change!

As such, it’s only fair that we pass some of that knowledge on to you and today we’re doing just
that on the subject of lifting slings.

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So, gather round the SLG learning tree as we shine some light on the rainbow-coloured world of
colour-coded lifting slings.

Lifting Sling Colours

When it comes to lifting equipment, certain products are notably distinguishable from the next;
e.g. no-one is going to confuse a pallet truck and a forklift any time soon.

However, when it comes to lifting slings, it can be inherently difficult to differentiate one product
from another, particularly when it comes to weight capacity.

Luckily, some bright spark created the handy lifting sling colour code along the way, quite
literally changing the complexion of the lifting sling world as a result.

Lifting Sling Colour Code

Whether you opt for the web or round version of the lifting sling, these handy hoists typically
come in a variety of colours.

This isn’t simply a vibrant design choice: the colour coding system is a universally recognised
method of determining how much weight a sling can handle – so it’s important to get well
acquainted.

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Lifting equipment capacity

Lifting operations are inherent to many occupations in the construction industry. They can be
performed manually or using lifting equipment. Both manual lifting and mechanical lifting
operations can put construction workers at great risk of injury or health symptoms causing sick
leave or disability. The costs of accidents and ill health related to lifting operations, are immense.
This article describes the risks associated with lifting operations in the construction industry and
measures to reduce these risks.

Lifting operations

A lifting operation is an operation concerned with the lifting and lowering of a load. A load is the
item or items being lifted which could include a person or people. A lifting operation may be
performed manually or using lifting equipment. Manual lifting, holding, putting down, carrying or
moving is often referred to as ‘manual handling of loads.

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Lifting operations in construction occur during transportation of material from the storage place
to the place where it is being processed, and during the processing of materials. A load includes
any material or people that are lifted or lowered by lifting equipment.

Lifting equipment in construction

Lifting equipment includes any equipment or machinery used at work for lifting or lowering loads
or people, including accessories and attachments used for anchoring, fixing or supporting the
equipment. There is a wide range of lifting equipment in the construction industry. Typical
examples are:

A hoist: is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around
which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and
may use chain, fibre or wire rope as its lifting medium.

A crane: is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves,
that can be used to lift and lower heavy materials and to move them horizontally. Different types
that can be found in construction are:

A tower crane: is a balance crane that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a
concrete slab, tower cranes offer height and high lifting capacity. The base is then attached to
the mast which gives the crane its height. The mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and
motor) that allows the crane to rotate.

Telescopic crane: has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside the other. A
powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the
boom. These types of booms are highly adaptable, are often truck mounted and used for short
term construction projects.

A mobile crane: is a cable-controlled crane mounted on crawlers or rubber-tired carriers or a

hydraulic-powered crane with a telescoping boom mounted on truck-type carriers or as self-

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propelled models. They are designed to easily transport to a site and use with different types of
load and cargo with little or no setup or assembly.

Jib cranes serve as a more budget friendly solution for moving materials. They can move these
materials within a single work area, or from one work area to another. Additionally, they can also
serve as supplementary crane equipment under overhead cranes. There is also a variety of these
crane types available on the market today. Different configurations, like self-supporting or wall-
mounted, are ideal for different applications.

When choosing between jib crane types for your needs, there are several considerations. For
example, your operation type, unit cost and installation, and facility structure matter.
Additionally, you may need options like box-track festooning, boom locks, and rotation stops. Be
sure to consider the following factors when choosing the between jib cranes:

CAPACITY

At all times, The weight of the load should never exceed the rated capacity of the lifting
equipment. The design load of the crane equipment affects the capacity rating. The design load
includes the crane’s capacity rating plus 15 percent of the weight capacity of the hoist and
trolley. This also includes 25 percent of the total capacity, which allows for more impact.

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The capacity, plus 15 percent of hoist and trolley capacity, affects deflection. Before going with a
manufacturer, check the jib crane design criteria they use. You want jib cranes that offer the
least deflection, so as not to hamper their performance.

HEIGHT OF JIB CRANES

This refers to the height to the highest point of the crane equipment after installation. Be sure to
consider any crane attachments and how they might affect the height, as well. Where possible,
you want full rotational potention and no overhead obstructions.

HEIGHT UNDER BOOM

This refers to the distance to the floor from the underside of the boom of the lifting equipment.
Take the size of the hoist and the amount of lifting distance into consideration. This will allow
you to select the optimal Height Under Boom for your operation.

CRANE EQUIPMENT BOOM ROTATION

Different types of jib cranes offer different amounts of rotation. For example, freestanding and
mast-type jibs offer 360-degree retation. Wall-mounted jib-cranes offer 200-degree rotation.

Articulating jibs offer 360-degree rotation on the inner and outer arm. This is if they’re
freestanding or ceiling mounted. Otherwise, wall-mounted articulating jibs offer 360-degree
outer arm. They will also offer 200-degree rotation on the inner arm. Be sure to consider this
when selecting a jib crane.

WORKING SPAN

The working span is the distance from the floor to the underside of the lifting equipment boom.
Here, you’ll need to account of the size of the hoist and the lift height you will need. The working
distance will be roughly one-half the trolley length from the end of the beam. It will also be the
same distance from the head assembly, or vertical support member of the jib.

POWER REQUIRED

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You will need to know how much power you will need for effective crane equipment operation.
Is there power allocated for rotation, trolley, and hoist? How will you suppy power to the crane?
Will the power be bottom or top entry? Take these factors into account.

WEATHERISATION

The jib crane that suits your requirements may vary wildly. You’ll need to account for a range of
needs such as power supply, weatherisation, and more.

If you plan on installing your system outdoors, then there are extra considerations. The system
and its components will probably need weatherisation if the jib crane operates outdoor

Equipment defects

How often should lifting equipment be inspected?

You can arrange for the thorough examination to be carried out: - at regular intervals (either at
least every 6 months or 12 months depending on whether the lifting equipment is for lifting

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people or not); or - in accordance with an examination scheme drawn up by a competent
person.

When should thorough examinations be carried out?

In order to verify that lifting equipment and accessories remain safe for use, and to detect and
remedy any deterioration in good time, thorough examinations are required throughout the
lifetime of the equipment, including examinations:

before use for the first time - unless the equipment has an EC Declaration of Conformity less
than one year old and the equipment was not assembled on site. If it was assembled on site, it
must be examined by a competent person to ensure that the assembly (eg a platform lift
installed in a building) was completed correctly and safely

after assembly and before use at each location - for equipment that requires assembly or
installation before use, eg tower cranes

regularly, while in service - if the equipment is exposed to conditions that cause deterioration
which is likely to result in dangerous situations. Most lifting equipment will be subject to wear
and tear and so will need regular in-service examination. Some may be exposed to significant
environmental conditions which may cause further deterioration. You have a choice:

arrange for thorough examination to be carried out at the intervals specified by LOLER (every 6
or 12 months, depending on the equipment - see below), or

conduct examinations in accordance with an examination scheme, drawn up by a competent

person

• damage or failure
• being out of use for long periods
• major changes, which are likely to affect the equipment's integrity (eg modifications, or
replacement / repair of critical parts)

What are the specified intervals for regular thorough examinations?

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 • Unless there is an 'examination scheme' specifying other intervals, thorough
examinations should be conducted every:
• 6 months, for lifting equipment and any associated accessories used to lift people
• 6 months, for all lifting accessories
• 12 months, for all other lifting equipment

What is covered by a thorough examination?

This depends on the professional judgement of the competent person undertaking the
examination, but needs to include all matters which affect the safety of the lifting equipment,
including likely deterioration with time.

For most common lifting equipment and accessories, there are industry standard procedures
and criteria which a competent person would follow when undertaking thorough examinations
and making judgements as to the continued safety of the equipment. Methods used include:

Where an examination scheme has been drawn up, this should identify and specify:

• the parts to be thoroughly examined

• the methods of examination and testing
• the intervals for examination (and testing of the different parts, where appropriate)

Lifting equipment is the general term for work equipment primarily used for lifting or lowering
loads and includes attachments for anchoring the equipment, fixing or supporting it.

All lifting operations must be planned and supervised by a competent person and suitable lifting
equipment selected for the task. Lifting equipment safety must consider the suitability and
stability of both the lifting equipment and the load it is to lift. There is a statutory requirement
for all of these factors plus a requirement for regular examination and testing of lifting
equipment under the Lifting

Principles of operation of lifting equipment

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Working with cranes poses many hazards, and unsafe working practices can result in injuries,
fatalities and costly damage to materials. For example, machinery can injury people through
various ways: crushing, cutting, shearing, puncturing abrading, burning, tearing and stretching,
while the most common injuries are amputation, crushing, electric shock, hearing loss and ill
health from hazardous chemicals or lack of oxygen.

All lifting operations should have a lifting plan supported by a risk assessment. By categorising a
lifting operation in accordance with its risk level and complexity, suitable controls can be applied
to eliminate hazards or reduce risks. Frequent or routine lifting operations may only require a
generic lifting plan supported by an on-site risk assessment and briefing to related personnel.
High risk or complex lifts, however, will need additional engineering design efforts to ensure that
the lifting is conducted safely.

The lifting plan should, although not limited to, address the following:

• The personnel required;

• The personnel’s roles, responsibilities and competencies;

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• Permit-to-Work system is mandatory for all lifting operations involving tower, mobile or
crawler

• crane, as specified in Part III of the WSH (Construction) Regulations;

• Nature and weight of load;

• Type and location of lifting points;

• Selection of appropriate lifting gears and equipment;

• Assessment of the need for tagline to control movement of suspended load;

• Means of communication during lifting operations;

• Factors detrimental to the lifting operations such as adverse weather and poor
illumination; and

• Provision of a safe place of work for all personnel during lifting operations.

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Hazards Related to the Process of Lifting:

Crushing of some objects due to the usage of wrong slings. The hazard can also arise from some
collapsing structures. Falling from the lifting platform or being crushed by the moving platform is
another trouble, which you can face while lifting. Poor environment can also interfere between
the worker and their way of working. Try to stay away from the electrical cables while
conducting a lifting as it might become one of the mere reasons of a big accident.

How to Conduct a Safe Lifting Operation?

In spite of all the above-mentioned hazards related to the lifting operation, you need to find
some effective ways to conduct the whole procedure safely. Below are some essential principles
for you to follow: -

Planning: You need to follow a certain plan in making the process of lifting a successful one.
Don’t forget to add the risk assessment in your plan as it is a vital part of the whole process.

Control: Select a person among your team members to make him the in charge of the lifting
project. This person will ensure that all the required instruments of the project are in good shape
or not. He will also check out the plan for finding any fault with it.

Competence: Don’t forget to check out the qualifications of your workers before engaging them
in the process of lifting. If you are planning to engage freshers in the work, make sure they get
the required training.

Lifting processes (loads, communication methods [hand signals, whistles, flags, electronic types],
load calculations, and lifting or slinging processes)

Lifting and Material Handling

Lifting heavy items is one of the leading causes of injury in the workplace. Overexertion and
cumulative trauma were the biggest factors in these injuries. Bending, followed by twisting and
turning, were the more commonly cited movements that caused back injuries. Strains and
sprains from lifting loads improperly or from carrying loads that are either too large or too heavy
are common hazards associated with manually moving materials.
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When employees use smart lifting practices, they are less likely to suffer from back sprains,
muscle pulls, wrist injuries, elbow injuries, spinal injuries, and other injuries caused by lifting
heavy objects. Please use this page to learn more about safe lifting and material handling.

• Lifting Principles
• Lifting Stages
• Preparation
• Lifting
• Carrying
• Setting Down

Preparation

How heavy/awkward is the load? Should I use mechanical means (e.g. a hand truck) or another
person to help me with this lift? Is it possible to break the load into smaller parts?

Where am I going with the load? Is the path clear of obstructions, slippery areas, overhangs,
stairs, and other uneven surfaces? Are there closed doors that need to be opened?

Are there adequate handholds on the load? Do I need gloves or other personal protective
equipment? Can I place the load in a container with better handholds? Should another person
help me with the load?

Lifting

Get as close to the load as possible. Try to keep your elbows and arms close to your body. Keep
your back straight during the lift by tightening the stomach muscles, bending at the knees,
keeping the load close and centered in front of you, and looking up and ahead. Get a good
handhold and do not twist while lifting. Do not jerk; use a smooth motion while lifting. If the load
is too heavy to allow this, find someone to help you with the lift.

Carrying

Do not twist or turn the body; instead, move your feet to turn. Your hips, shoulders, toes, and
knees should stay facing the same direction. Keep the load as close to your body as possible with
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your elbows close to your sides. If you feel fatigued, set the load down and rest for a few
minutes. Don’t let yourself get so fatigued that you cannot perform proper setting down and
lifting technique for your rest.

Setting Down

Set the load down in the same way you picked it up, but in the reverse order. Bend at the knees,
not the hips. Keep your head up, your stomach muscles tight, and do not twist your body. Keep
the load as close to the body as possible. Wait until the load is secure to release your handhold.

Important Things to Remember

Use mechanical means (e.g. hand trucks, pushcarts, etc.) when possible for heavier or awkward
loads. Remember to obtain training and authorization before using a forklift.

It is easier and safer to push than to pull.

Keep loads as close to the body as possible and do not twist while lifting, carrying, or setting
down a load. Nose, shoulders, hips, and toes should all be facing the same direction.

Minimize reaching.

As a general rule, bend at the knees, not the hips.

Get help when needed. Do not lift or carry things you don’t feel comfortable with, no matter
how light the load.

Plan ahead for all parts of the lift: lifting, carrying, and setting down.

Try to utilize proper handholds while lifting. If an item does not have a good handhold, think of
ways to remedy this, such as placing the item in a container with good handholds, creating a safe
and proper handhold with an appropriate tool, etc.

Communication methods [hand signals

What are some common hand signals for crawler, truck and locomotive cranes?

Use Main Hoist: Tap fists on head; then use regular signals.

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Use Main Hoist

Use Whip Line (Auxiliary Hoist): Tap elbows with one hand; then use regular signals.

Use Whip Line

Raise Boom: Arm extended, fingers closed, thumb pointing upward.

Lower Boom: Arm extended, fingers closed, thumb pointing downward.

Swing: Point with a finger in direction of swing of a boom.

Raise Boom; Lower Boom; Swing

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Raise the Boom and Lower the Load: Arm extended, fingers closed, thumb pointing upward,
other arm bent slightly with forefinger pointing down and rotate hand in horizontal circles.

Raise the Boom and Lower the Load

Lower the Boom and Raise the Load: Arm extended, fingers closed, thumb pointing downward,
other arm with forearm vertical, forefinger pointing upward and rotate the hand in horizontal
circles.

Lower the Boom and Raise the Load

Move Slowly: Use one hand to give any motion signal and place the other hand motionless in
front of the hand giving the motion signal. (Hoist Slowly shown as example.)

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Move Slowly

Retract Boom (Telescoping Booms): Both fists in front of body with thumbs pointing toward each
other.

Retract Boom

Extend Boom (Telescoping Booms): Both fists in front of body with thumbs pointing outward.

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Extend Boom

What are some signals for crawler cranes only?

Lock Track: this side as indicated by raised fist.

Turn Travel Track: this side in direction shown by revolving fist.

Lock Track
Turn Travel Track

Travel Both Tracks: forward or backward by revolving fists.

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Communication methods Whistles

Lifting / Rigging Operations Lifting and rigging operations are one of the most hazardous
activities we regularly undertake, day in day out. The consequences of something going wrong
during a lifting or rigging operation can literally be fatal. Firstly, all lifting and rigging operations
must be carried out by competent personnel with certified equipment only, always check for the
correct colour code tag (currently Black) and inspect the items thoroughly before EVERY lift. DO
NOT USE DEFECTIVE EQUIPMENT IF IN DOUBT QUARANTINE. It is critical that wire ropes or nylon
slings are protected from sharp edges before lifting. (A number of years ago load was dropped
by an experienced lifting company, due to the sling coming into contact with a sharp edge.
Fabricom were working on the project but not involved with the lift) Do not exceed the S-W-L
(safe working load) of any lifting gear – find out the weight of the load and that the centre of
gravity is established before attempting any lift. Establish an exclusion zone by erecting barriers
and posting appropriate signs to keep unauthorised people out. Remember to remove all
barriers and signs when not in use or the lift is over. Ensure other operatives working in the
vicinity are aware of your lifting operations - use whistles if necessary, but let others know what
the procedure is for whistle use! Always ensure the hoist rope is vertical and over the centre of
gravity of the load. Decide upon the route to be taken when moving equipment and ensure the
path is clear of obstructions and people. Before the lift, ensure the load is rigged correctly, with
no lose items which could fall and use a hand line to steady/guide the load. Keep hands free
from the load were practicable.

Electronic types

A hoist could be considered the most important component of an overhead crane because it’s
the device that actually performs the lifting and lowering of a load.

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A hoist could be considered the most important component of an overhead crane system
because it’s the device that actually performs the lifting and lowering of a load. An overhead
crane’s hoist lifts and lowers a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel, in which chain or wire rope
wraps around.

Hoists can be defined by two main characteristics:

• The lifting medium (wire rope or chain) used to support the load

• The power source (manual / hand-powered, electric-powered, or air-powered) used to

perform the lift

There are many different configurations of hoists depending on the lifting medium they use, the
power sources used to operate the hoist, and the mounting system. It can be difficult to
understand what these different terms mean, and which style is best for your overhead crane
system.

In this article, we’ll discuss the following:

• Definitions of chain hoists and wire rope hoists and some of the advantages and
disadvantages of using either type of lifting medium

• The differences between manual hoists, electric hoists, and pneumatic (air-powered)
hoists

• Hook-mounted, lug-mounted, and trolley-mounted hoist designs

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Chain Hoists

Chain hoists are a portable, economic, and space-saving option that can be powered manually,
electrically, or by air. Chain hoists are typically found on lighter-duty applications.

Chain hoists use metal chain as the lifting medium and perform the lift by pulling the chain
through sprockets and then deposit it into a container. Chain hoists are a popular choice because
they’re relatively low maintenance and can be less expensive than a wire rope hoist system.
Chain hoists can be powered manually, electrically, or pneumatically.

The major benefits of using a chain hoist include:

• Ability to change the height of the lift by changing out the chain

• Compact, space-saving design with no drum

• Portable and can tolerate greater levels of abuse

• Capacity up to 25-tons (as standard design)

• Chain can last longer than wire rope

The main disadvantages of using a chain hoist include:

• Limited lifting speed

• Noisier operation

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 • May be problematic at lift heights above 20 feet

Wire Rope Hoists

Wire rope hoists offer smooth and quiet operation and can perform lifts at a faster speed than
chain hoists. They typically dominate the market at capacities of 10-tons or more.

Wire rope hoists use wire rope as the lifting medium and perform the lift by wrapping the wire
rope cable around a grooved drum. Wire rope hoists can be powered manually, electrically, or
pneumatically.

Load calculations

After identifying the material type, the next consideration must be the rated lifting capacity
required. Remember that the rated lifting capacity of the sling must often be greater than the
weight of the load to be lifted. Because the angle of pull on the leg of a sling varies with the leg
angle, forces may be exerted on a sling greater than the user may expect. Feel free to consult
the sling angle factor chart for rigging calculations. To calculate the load on a particular sling leg,
proceed as follows:

Take the total weight of the load and divide this by the number of legs supporting the load. For
example, assume a 2000 pound load is to be supported by 2 legs of a sling. The above will give a
total minimum weight on each leg of the sling of 2000 pounds divided by 2 legs or 1000 pounds.

Load familiarity
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If it’s a load that you regularly lift and move through your facility—like a steel coil or a bundle of
pipes or lumber—then you will already know the weight of the load. In many instances, your
overhead crane was probably designed with a duty cycle and capacity specifically for that
repetitive lifting application, so the weight of the load was accounted for when the crane was
built.

Safety aspects pertaining to lifting

Lifting operations are inherent to many occupations in the construction industry. They can be
performed manually or using lifting equipment. Both manual lifting and mechanical lifting
operations can put construction workers at great risk of injury or health symptoms causing sick
leave or disability. The costs of accidents and ill health related to lifting operations, are immense.
This article describes the risks associated with lifting operations in the construction industry and
measures to reduce these risks

Lifting operations

A lifting operation is an operation concerned with the lifting and lowering of a load. A load is the
item or items being lifted which could include a person or people. A lifting operation may be
performed manually or using lifting equipment. Manual lifting, holding, putting down, carrying or
moving is often referred to as ‘manual handling of loads.

Lifting operations in construction occur during transportation of material from the storage place
to the place where it is being processed, and during the processing of materials. A load includes
any material or people that are lifted or lowered by lifting equipment.

Loading and unloading at ports and docks involves the use of a wide range of lifting equipment.
This may include gantry cranes, slewing cranes, forklift trucks or other similar machinery. Poorly
planned lifting operations can lead to significant risks to people working in the area.

Accidents have occurred due to:

• failure of lifting equipment;

• falling loads; and

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 • workers being crushed by a moving load or lifting equipment.
• Cranes used in port and dock operations

Following a number of failures of lifting equipment at ports, you should ensure that there are
robust, proactive planned maintenance regimes in place for cranes, including an assessment of
design life, post-supply structural modifications and actual use patterns.

Safety critical parts of the crane should be identified and have maintenance and testing regimes
in place to monitor such parts, in line with suggested testing and maintenance intervals.

snagging where a container gets caught up during movement and creates significant momentary
forces in ropes and parts of structure

trying to lift the ship where a container has not been released from those beneath it but the
crane driver believes that it has and the crane attempts to lift, creating significant forces for a
short time

You should also consider the role, scope, time and access afforded to companies carrying out
thorough examinations of cranes, particularly with regard to how schemes are determined and
how it can be ensured that necessary safety critical parts are included in such schemes. You
should consider how to proceed where conflicting expert advice is received and keep records of
such conflicts.

Assess what needs to be done

Employees should always consider the weights and distances involved, the heights from where a
load has to be picked up or set down, and the frequency of the activity. Never lift more than
what you can manage safely.

Decide what can be lifted safely

Employees will need to make a measured call on what they can safely lift, based on their
capability, the nature of the load, environmental conditions and training.

Identify ways of reducing the risk

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Employees should ask themselves: does the item need to be lifted at all? It may be that the work
can be completed somewhere else to avoid lifting the item over a distance. Or there may be
lifting aids to help them complete the task mechanically. Perhaps someone else could help too.

Rearrange the task

Where possible, it’s always worth checking whether the task can be re-designed to avoid lifting
altogether. If this isn't possible, consider re-arranging the task to minimise the risk. Employees
may be able to push instead of pull or break up the distance with more rest points.

Assess the nature of the load

Can the load be broken up into smaller items to make it lighter? Can it be made more stable, or
easier to grasp? Should circular or irregular-shaped items be packed into boxes instead to
prevent rolling?

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0301 Identify and describe lifting equipment and state their lifting capacity
• IAC0302 Describe the principles of operation of the various types of lifting equipment
and explain when they are selected and used
• IAC0303 Explain the equipment inspection process
• IAC0304 Describe how load weights are calculated
• IAC0305 Explain the concept of safe working load (SWL)
• IAC0306 Describe lifting and slinging processes
• 313109001 - Solar Photovoltaic Service Technician Page 29 of 201
• IAC0307 Describe the importance of ensuring that the load does not exceed the capacity
of the lifting equipment
• IAC0308 State at what point the services of a professional rigger must be procured
• IAC0309 Describe communication methods used during lifting and rigging
• IAC0310 Describe the care and storage of lifting equipment
• IAC0311 Describe the safety aspects pertaining to lifting, including appropriate PPE

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 KM-02-KT04: Soldering equipment and wiring techniques (20%)

KT0301 Soldering equipment (soldering irons; insulation strippers [thermal-type

insulation strippers and mechanical wire strippers]; wire bending tools; solder;
flux; basic soldering connections [turret, bifurcated, hook, surface mounts,
cups])
KT0302 Soldering techniques
KT0303 Characteristics of a good solder joint
KT0304 Hazards associated with the use of soldering equipment (incorrect soldering iron
selection, incorrect solder type, lead poisoning, fumes, burns and fire)
KT0305 Wiring (protection, marking, splicing, crimping, soldered splices)
KT0306 Cable shielding and termination (shielded cable connector termination,
grounding sheath termination)
KT0307 Binding (lacing, self-clinching cable straps)
KT0308 Hazards when working with wiring

Soldering equipment (soldering irons; insulation strippers [thermal-type insulation strippers and
mechanical wire strippers]; wire bending tools; solder; flux; basic soldering connections [turret,
bifurcated, hook, surface mounts, cups])

Soldering equipment soldering irons

Soldering is a useful skill to have, whether you plan to use it professionally or for DIY projects. A
quality soldering iron is one of the most important tools you'll need for your soldering projects.

This guide will provide a brief overview of how to use a soldering iron. It will give you the basics
that apply to most soldering work, as well as tips for specific types of projects.

Although all soldering relies on the same principles, the techniques and tools you use may vary
depending on the type of materials you're soldering and the kind of outcome you're intending.

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On this page, we'll cover step-by-step soldering for wiring, printed circuit boards, stained glass
and jewelry.

The Basics

The fundamentals of soldering are mostly consistent across project types. Below you'll find
information about the basics of soldering, descriptions of the equipment involved and a basic
step-by-step guide for how to use a soldering iron.

What Is Soldering?

Soldering is a technique for joining metal parts together. It involves melting a metal known as
solder into the space between two metal components. When this solder cools and hardens, it
forms a permanent connection between the parts. Solder acts as a sort of metallic glue that joins
elements together.

Joining electronic components may be the most common use of soldering irons. You can also use
them on piping for plumbing, engine components, arts and crafts projects and more.

Soldering Iron: A soldering iron supplies the heat that melts the solder. It consists of a tip, which
you apply to the metal parts you want to solder together, and an insulated handle so that you
can hold the iron. There are several variations of soldering irons. Often, they are electrical and
use an electrical cord or battery. Some also use the combustion of a gas such as butane or an
open flame. Some irons allow you to adjust the temperature of the iron.

Solder: Solder is the substance that melts and forms the bond between the two soldered
components. It is a thin wire made of one of several tin alloys. The alloys consist of either tin and
lead or tin and copper. Increasingly, lead-free solders are becoming the more popular of these
two options. This trend is a response to increased safety regulations as well as the environmental
and health benefits of seeking lead-free alternatives. Some types of solder also include flux, a
substance that gets rid of oxide layers on metal parts to help the solder adhere better.

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Soldering Station: A soldering station acts as a control station for your soldering iron if you have
an adjustable iron. The station has the controls for adjusting the temperature of the iron as well
as other settings. You may plug your iron into this soldering station.

Soldering Iron Stand: You might also use a soldering iron stand, which provides a safe, sturdy
place to store your iron when you are not using it. It might also include a place to keep supplies
for cleaning your iron.

Cleaning Pad: It's essential for proper performance to keep your iron clean while you use it. You
may use a cleaning pad, steel or brass wool or a damp sponge.

Safety Glasses: Safety goggles will help protect your eyes in case of accidents and keep fumes
from irritating your eyes.

Fume Extraction Equipment: Fumes created when soldering may be toxic. Fume extraction
devices pull fumes from the air to reduce health and safety risks.

Insulation strippers [thermal-type insulation strippers and mechanical wire strippers

What is a Thermal Wire Stripper?

wire stripping tool Wire stopping is the removal of the covering or insulation from a wire, cable
or an electrical string. A thermal wire stripper is a machine that uses heat to burn off this
insulating layer without fraying, scratching or nicking the wire strands.

Most custom wiring projects, such as the wiring up of a recording studio, have most of the wires
fabricated on site. The best thermal stripping machines allow for fast, precise and convenient
stripping of such cables.

In some cables, the outer layer is almost like a garden hose and can be relatively difficult to
remove using a conventional wire stripper.

The beauty of thermal strippers over mechanical strippers is that they do not nick the underlying
metal wire. Heated elements melt the insulation and then a blunt edge is used to slide the
insulation off the end of the wire. Another advantage is that you can strip a wide range of wire

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gauges and insulation types without needing to adjust the jaws or change to a different hole
location - although a proper temperature setting is required to avoid a gloppy, stringy mess.
Commercial wire, unlike Mil-Spec wire, can have a very wide variation of wire and insulation
thicknesses for a given advertised gauge.

When I built Mil-Spec electronics assemblies at the Westinghouse Oceanic Division in Annapolis,
Maryland, after getting out of the USAF, we were required to use thermal strippers on Teflon-
insulated wire. Mechanical types were allowed for plastic insulation, but Teflon was considered
too tough to get a good, clean stripping job. Thermal wire strippers are also nice when working
inside a tight space because not much lateral room is needed and almost no torque or strain is
placed on the wire.

Wire bending tools

Bending former

By using a bending former you can very easily bend a piece of wire into the desired shape. The
principle is very simple: in the workshop, find an object or part of the same size and shape that
you want to obtain after bending, fix that part in a clamp and bend wire around it. Various parts
can serve as bending formers such as: off-cuts from steel pipes, cone pulleys, pulleys, scrap
wood pieces ... This is a very simple method for bending wire, and in the following picture you
can see a few examples.
Bending block

In the next picture you can see how to make a bending block that is fixed in a vise. The principle
of bending is similar to the one of bending formers, and the difference is that there is a plate
with a stepped stop-block attached to the top of the bending block (Base part). The arm can't be
rotated around the block. If you do not have the equipment necessary to make the block part,
you can find a suitable cone pulley and adjust the structure to its dimensions.

Small diameter wire bender

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In the next picture you can see a drawing which can help you make a small tool to quickly bend
thin wire with. This is a very useful tool for electricians and people involved in the making of wire
jewelry. In a sense, working with it is like working with round nosed pliers.
Rebar bending tool – Rebar bender

This is a very simple wire bender whose dimensions correspond to bending steel bars for
reinforcing concrete. In a similar way, by changing the parts dimensions you can make a wire
bender for smaller wire diameters. On the Internet you can find a number of examples of this
kind of wire bender, so if you dislike this design, you can find a similar one and make a
combination of our plan and the wire bender from the image you have found.
Wire Bending table mount jig

If you need a simple and convenient jig for quick wire bending, have a look at the following
drawing. If you like the principle, apply it on the basis of the drawing offered. The jig consists of a
base with various slots acting as brakes for bending wire, and in the middle there are holes
where movable studs are placed. The jig is attached to a tabletop, and with it you can bend
spirals, various angles and loops (eyes).

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Solder

Soldering irons are hot and will burn you if you are not careful. If you do not know how to solder
you will need to learn how to first before attempting this project.
You need to have and understanding of basic electricity before attempting to work with solar
panels. If you do not have this understanding have someone help you that does.
Tab wire and solar cells have sharp edges, they can cut you, be careful.
Now that the warnings are out of the way let’s look at the items you will need. In the 2 pictures
the items have a description of what each item is, but hear is also a list:

• Budget iron, it will get the job done but there are better and easier irons to use.
• Mid-range, its a little bulky but heavy duty and works well.
• Top line, this is my most recommended. This one can be used all day and never quit.
• Soldering iron stand
2mm tabbing wire- pre solder coated.
• 5mm tabbing wire- pre solder coated.
• scissors.
• ruler.
• holding tool.

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Flux

Soldering different metals together is a great way to keep them secure for a long time, and
soldering flux only makes this bond stronger. Although it's safe when it's unmelted, hot soldering
flux is very corrosive, so learning how to work with it properly is essential to any soldering job. By
knowing which type of flux to use and the right way to work with it, you can learn to use flux to
make your soldering last longer.

Leaded solder will melt at a lower temperature than other types, which makes it better for
delicate electrical wiring. Ask at your local hardware or electronics store for leaded or electrical
solder and you should have a small variety of types to choose from.

Here are a few key differences in types of solder that may come up:

• Lead-free electrical solder will also work for small wiring projects. It is more
environmentally-friendly as it doesn't contain lead, but also will not hold quite as strong.

• Some leaded solders will come with a rosin core. This means that they are slightly hollow
and will have a thin line of rosin flux running through the middle. It will only be a small

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 amount, so it shouldn't replace other flux, but it will increase the flux coating of your
wires.

• Leaded solders that are solid all the way through and don't have a rosin core are also a
solid choice. These may oxidize slightly more, but as long as you are using soldering flux
they should still hold strongly for a long time.

Basic soldering connections [turret

What is a turret terminal?

Turret connectors or more commonly Turret terminals are used for to make interconnections
between PCB and chassis-mounted components. ... The turret refers to the amount of levels (i.e.
the disk like separations) the terminal has. These terminals commonly come in the following
types but custom terminals can also be made.

This guide focuses on soldering for the beginner and explains how you can solder a variety of
components using a few different techniques - from the classy to the downright caveman.
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Although soldering can seem daunting at first, once you give it a try you will see that in most
applications it's quite simple to do.

Please note: this instructable is written for beginners, and contains lots of very basic information.
If you have lots of experience soldering, please use the comments to share your knowledge.
Clarifications and corrections are especially welcome.

Soldering is the process of using a filler material (solder) to join pieces of metal together.
Soldering occurs at relatively low temperatures (around 400 degrees Fahrenheit) as compared to
brazing and welding, which actually melt and fuse the materials themselves at higher
temperatures. In soldering the filler material becomes liquid, coats the pieces it is brought into
contact with, and is then allowed to cool. As the solder cools it hardens, and the two materials
are joined. Soldering is a quick way to join many types of materials, from copper pipe to stained
glass. It creates an electrically conductive strong bond between components that can be re-
heated (desoldered) if you should ever want to disconnect two items joined together. It's great
for joining electrical components and wires and is used in just about everything electronic. In this
Instructable I explain how to solder the basics you see in most Instructables: electrical
components and wires.

Bifurcated
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Typically, the bifurcated terminal is used as junction point as are the turret terminals to connect
signals from one point to another. ... Bifurcated terminals also allow you to bring wire up from
the solder source side and make the connection of the solder destination side of the board

Typically, the bifurcated terminal is used as junction point as are the turret terminals to connect
signals from one point to another. Whereas the slotted terminals are shorter and are at times
soldered to the board itself. Being shorter provides more relief for height restrictions. From an
electrical perspective I’m not sure there are any differences between the two types of terminals.
Sometimes they are also used to secure components to adjust the signal from one point to
another. Bifurcated terminals also allow you to bring wire up from the solder source side and
make the connection of the solder destination side of the board.

Hook

How to Make and Solder Hooks to Stained Glass

This stained-glass tutorial shows you how to solder hooks to stained glass so that you can hang
your piece up securely. You’ll learn how to make recycled jump rings and how to solder them
neatly to your stained-glass sun catcher. Making sure these final touches are done neatly will
make your work stand out from the crowd.

Now you’ve created a lovely beaded solder around the edge of your piece, you’re ready to add
the hooks. Ideally, these become part of your sun catcher, rather than just a means of hanging.
Make them part of your design if you can.

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Make Your Own Jump Rings

You can make hooks yourself cheaply and easily. Either buy copper or tinned wire on a spool, or
recycle electrical wire by stripping the plastic coating off with a craft knife. Be careful if you do
this. Always direct the blade away from your body.

Making stained glass hooks for hanging

▪ Simply wrap the wire around your cylindrical stick (I use a Japanese brush handle) about
15 times. You might as well make a few hooks and keep them for future stained glass
projects

▪ You can make larger jump rings by wrapping the wire around a thicker stick

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Cut the ‘spring’ to create hanging hooks

▪ Cut the wire and slide off the stick. You have created a spring of copper wire

▪ Using the wire cutters, cut along the top in a straight line

▪ Magic! Lots of hooks ready for tinning

Soldering The Hooks On

When you solder hooks to stained glass the hooks should always be soldered at a joint for
strength. Never attach one on a beaded edge, as the weight of the glass will pull the foil off in
time. Make sure you solder on a heat resistant surface.

▪ You need to tin the hooks first to strengthen them and to stop corrosion.

Soldering techniques

Solder on a PCB can be thought of as connective tissue. It serves as the conductive glue that
sticks components to substrate and brings continuity to the circuit board. It’s hard to imagine
what modern electronics would be like without this convenient, low-melting point alloy at our
disposal.

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Not sure which solder to use for your project? In this post we’ll look at the different types of
solder that are out there and how you can choose the right solder for your needs.

What Is Solder?

Solder hails from the middle english word soudur, which derives from the latin word solidare,
meaning “to make solid.” It’s a fusible alloy (i.e. low melting point) used to bond metal
workpieces together. The idea of using a lower melting point alloy to bond two or more metals
has been around for thousands of years, but today’s solder is typically a blend of tin, lead, and/or
flux.

Meet the Different Types of Solder

There are so many different kinds of solder available on the market today that it can be daunting
picking the right one for your project. Fortunately, there are really only three main categories of
solder which you can use to narrow down your search:

Lead based solder was what kicked of the electronics revolution. The most common mixture is a
60/40 (tin/lead) blend with a melting point around 180-190°C. Known colloquially as soft solder,
tin is selected for its lower melting point while lead is used to inhibit the growth of tin whiskers.
The higher the tin concentration, the better the tensile and shear strengths.

Lead free solder started taking off when the EU started restricting the inclusion of lead in
consumer electronics. In the US, manufacturers could receive tax benefits for using lead-free
solders. Tin whiskers can be mitigated by using newer annealing techniques, incorporating
additives such as nickel, and using conformal coatings. Lead free solders generally have a higher
melting point than conventional solder.

Flux core solder is sold as a spool of “wire” with a reducing agent at the core. The flux is released
during soldering and reduces (reverses oxidation of) metal at the point of contact to give you a
cleaner electrical connection. It also improves the wetting properties of the solder. In
electronics, flux is usually rosin. Acid cores are for metal mending and plumbing, and should not
be used on electronics.

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Understanding solder blends

Remember the three main materials found in solder: lead, tin, and flux? There are countless
varieties of solder available on the market based on the relative ratios of these materials. To
complicate matters further, there are also additives and other metals that may be added to give
solder certain properties or enhance its conductivity. Here are just a handful of examples of alloy
additives and what they do:

• Antimony increases mechanical strength without reducing wettability while preventing

tin pest.
• Bismuth significantly lowers the melting point and improves wettability. Inhibits growth
of tin whiskers.
• Copper lowers the melting point and improves wetting properties in the molten state.
• Indium lower the melting point, improves ductility, and is used for soldering to gold or for
cryogenic applications due to its high resistance to temperature swings. Indium alloys are
expensive and prone to corrosion.
• Nickel in solder alloy can protect UBM (under bump metallization) layer from dissolution.
• Silver provides mechanical strength, but with lower ductility than lead. It can improve
resistance to fatigue from thermal cycles in lead-free solders.
• It’s important to be mindful of potential galvanic corrosion or brittle caused by placing
dissimilar metals in contact with one another when choosing solder blends. The wide
variety of solder blends can help you find the right combination of properties for your
electronic device.

Characteristics of a good solder joint

Soldering Iron

So, this is the most basic of the soldering techniques. You use a soldering iron to heat the
component leg and the pad, then apply solder.

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You probably know how to do this, but if in doubt

2. Using an Oven

We call this soldering technique reflow soldering. And basically, you bake your board in an oven.
It’s like baking bread! Except I wouldn’t recommend eating it afterwards…

You don’t need professional equipment to do this.

It’s a very common technique for soldering surface mount components quickly. First, you apply
solder paste to the pads. Solder paste is a type of solder that comes in paste-form. Then you
place your components on the board and bake it in an oven.

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The board heats, and at a certain temperature, the solder melts. Then you cool off the board,
which makes the solder fasten. If everything went as planned you will have nice solder joints all
over the board.

The cool thing about using the reflow soldering technique is that the components have a
tendency to place themselves correctly. This is really useful for soldering integrated circuits with
very little space between the legs.

For example if you place an integrated circuit a bit off its pads, when the solder melts it will often
slide into the right place.

But sometimes it doesn’t – so in this case, the next technique will come in handy.

Hot-Air Soldering

Hot-air soldering is a way to melt the solder by blowing really hot air at an area of your circuit
board. You need a Hot Air Soldering Station to do hot-air soldering. It looks a bit like a soldering
iron. But instead of a hot iron, it blows hot air.

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Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then
flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point.

Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.

The metal to be soldered is heated with a soldering iron and then solder is melted into the
connection.

Only the solder melts, not the parts that are being soldered.

Solder is a metallic "glue" that holds the parts together and forms a connection that allows
electrical current to flow.
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You can use a solderless breadboard to make test circuits, but if you want your circuit to last for
more than a few days, you will want to solder the components together.

Hazards associated with the use of soldering equipment (incorrect soldering iron selection,
incorrect solder type, lead poisoning, fumes, burns and fire)

Soldering Safety

Read risk assessments and chemical safety information before starting work. These should be
readily accessible from the soldering station.

Make sure you know what is in your solder, it is not always apparent on the reel label. If in
doubt, ask.

Soldering Iron

• Never touch the element of the soldering iron....400°C!

• Hold wires to be heated with tweezers or clamps.
• Keep the cleaning sponge wet during use.
• Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use. Never put it down on the
workbench.
• Turn unit off and unplug when not in use.

Solder, flux and cleaners

• Wear eye protection. Solder can “spit”.

• Use rosin-free and lead-free solders wherever possible.
• Keep cleaning solvents in dispensing bottles.
• Always wash your hands with soap and water after soldering.

Lead exposure

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Lead can give rise to serious chronic health effects. Exposure will primarily be through accidental
ingestion from your skin, wear gloves if directly handling solder. Limited fumes may be
generated by soldering.

Rosin exposure

Rosin (colophony, ersin) is a resin contained in solder flux. Flux generates the visible fumes seen
during soldering. Exposure to rosin can cause eye, throat and lung irritation, nose bleeds and
headaches. Repeated exposure can cause respiratory and skin sensitization, causing and
aggravating asthma. Rosin is a serious occupational health hazard.

Control of fumes

Soldering using rosin is only permitted in strictly controlled conditions after discussion with the
Safety Office where there is no effective alternative. Fume extraction should be through an
enclosed hood (preferred) or tip extraction. Ideally these should vent to the outside. Tip extract
units that use filter boxes should include both activated carbon and HEPA filters.

Bench top filter extract systems may be used for rosin-free soldering in well ventilated areas (i.e.
large volume work space or with mechanical air changes. Placement of these is important to
performance, if in doubt ask.

All extract systems should be tested at least annually and maintained (i.e. change filters
regularly). Keep a log of filter changes or mark date on filter/system.

Soldering and de-soldering process requires a substantial amount of heat applied (approximately
between 180°C to 250°C) onto the junction where components are required to be fitted to the
circuit board. Heating of solder generates fumes which are extremely hazardous to health.

The major source of soldering fumes is the rosin or colophony used as a flux in soldering process.
Rosin is an amber coloured resinous substance obtained from the pine tree. Upon being heated
it melts and generates fumes which contain a lot of hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene, phenol
and hydrochloric acid. Upon inhaling these fumes, various symptoms start to show up within few
days or months. The symptom could initially start as headache and irritation in the eyes or nose,

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the conditions could aggravate towards hyper allergic reactions, chronic bronchitis and asthma.
So protection against soldering fumes must be a key health and safety issue for soldering
laboratories.

Major Health and Safety Issues

• Good quality soldering requires the use of soldering flux in liquid or paste form. As we
have already discussed rosin flux generates a lot of soldering fumes. Most often fumes
are generated by the use of cosin cored solders are used in modern day soldering
laboratories.

• Beside Rosin flux, Organic and inorganic aqua-soluble fluxes are can be used. They also
generate fumes which may cause skin irritation and burning sensation in the eyes, nose
or respiratory tract.

• The most extreme and dangerous condition arises when the solder is heated to an
extreme level. At around 350°C lead starts to vaporize by adding up with to the fumes.
Inhaling these fumes can be very toxic and even carcinogenic.

• Fine dust of lead, tin and other metals containing within solder falls as residue on the
circuit board and workstation. These dusts can be ingested with food and drinks or
inhaled into the body.

• Various harmful chemicals which have sources other than solder can also be inhaled
during work. Certain PCB coating materials like Teflon severely heated generates fumes
which are highly toxic and severely detrimental to health. PCB cleaning agents like
isopropyl alcohol vaporise upon being applied and can cause hyper allergy to certain
individuals.

• Tips of soldering irons and heat guns become extremely hot when plugged in. Any
accidental touch with bear skin can cause severe burns and blistering. Fire hazards are
also an issue because a lot of inflammable objects are generally found in the vicinity of
the workstation within the soldering laboratory.

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 • Last but not the least; electrocution is the biggest problem working with electrical and
electronic components. No live wire, devices or circuits must be kept within working area
as well as all workstations must be electrically grounded.

Health and Safety Measures Inside Soldering Laboratory

Soldering laboratories must ensure the safety of the workers and technicians by implementing
certain rules and standards and it’s the sole responsibility of the workers to assimilate them in
their work culture and strictly abide by them.

Some of the major practices that must be followed are:

• Laboratories must be well ventilated.

• Air suction or spot suction devices like solder fume extractors must be employed.

• Smoke absorbing masks used if appropriate.

• Coats, gloves and safety glasses must be used during soldering.

• Hands must be washed properly before consuming any food or drinks.

• Usage of Lead free solder must be encouraged when appropriate.

• PCB cleaning agents and other inflammable substances must be kept safely in
dispensable bottles.

• Soldering irons must be handled very carefully. Hot irons when not in use must be kept in
dedicated holders.

• Soldered surfaces should not be touched immediately after completion of the job.

• Soldering iron or any such devices should be plugged off if not going to be used for a
prolonged time.

• Periodic health check-up must be organized by the authorities and the workers must
participate in them.

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 • Periodic checks must be set to ensure that all standards and norms are properly
followed.

• Adequate visible signs and instructions must be displayed in the laboratories, especially in
the hazardous areas.

Wiring (protection, marking, splicing, crimping, soldered splices)

Solar mounting systems are typically designed with one thing in mind: Get installers on and off
the roof as fast as possible. One thing commonly overlooked by racking manufacturers is wire
management. By integrating wire management into the solar racking system, not only are wires
and cables protected from damage throughout the life of the system, but the system owner is
pleased by the finished aesthetics.

The rooftop is a dangerous place for wires and cables due to a variety of conditions, such as high
heat, extreme cold, wind, snow and rain. The potential for damage is multiplied when wires are
not properly secured. There is an industry need for an integrated solution for wire management,
and it’s up to racking manufacturers to design solutions that integrate into existing system
components. Mounting solutions with integrated wire management make it easier to train new
installers on proper procedures.

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Wiring has no standard warranties and is likely the first component of the system to have
problems or fail completely. When this happens, it’s generally the solar provider’s responsibility
to fix the issue. Poor wire management could lead to service calls every couple of years, each
costing hundreds of dollars.

Solar installations present multiple opportunities for wire damage, especially on the rooftop.
Solar panels and mounting system components have plenty of sharp edges that may cut the
wiring. Many roof surfaces consist of sandpaper-like materials that abrade insulation over time
through continued rubbing. Exposure to direct sunlight will cause insulation to wear over time.
Lastly, the nice shady spot under a rooftop solar array creates an ideal habitat for critters that
can chew through dangling wires and cables. The industry need for superior wire management is
clear, which is why some manufacturers have started to provide integrated, specific solutions for
wire management.

The Series 100 rail provides two separate channels large enough to route PV conductor wires
and AC trunk lines neatly, protected within the channel. Snap-in wire retention clips keep things
securely in place without tools or zip-ties. The solution also offers accessories purposely built for
wire management. Wire and cable clamps route wire runs through rail channels. Junction boxes
snap into rail channels without additional roof penetrations, to conceal and protect electrical

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connections. For areas subject to animal damage, the optional array edge screen keeps out
critters from underneath the array.

From an installation perspective, it’s better to ensure wires and cables are managed properly to
prevent service calls months and years down the road. Using a system that specifies and
integrates wire management not only saves time during the initial installation but also saves cost
over the life of the system while creating superior customer satisfaction.

Despite its ambiguous name, the butt splice connector is actually a fairly common and useful
connector used in electrical work. A butt splice connector is a form of so called “crimp”
connectors. Crimp connectors are used to terminate wires safely, or connect one wire to
another. The wire is inserted into the connector. Then the connector is “crimped”, usually with
pliers. As a result, the connector is bent and deformed around the wire. This crimping forces the
wire into contact with the metal inside the connector. The other end can either be crimped to
terminate the wire. Alternatively the process can be repeated on the other side, with another
wire, to connect two wires. The butt splice connector is simply a cylindrical crimp connector with
one crimp on each end. Some butt splice connectors are manufactured with heat shrinking ends
which contract around the wire when exposed to heat, leading to a better seal between the wire
and butt splice connector.

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Given its simple design and purpose, why should you use a butt splice connector? Typically,
crimp connectors and soldering are two common methods of connecting wires. For many
applications, the butt splice connector holds considerable advantages over soldering. Butt splice
connectors are cheap and easy to use. Soldering equipment takes much longer to set up and
use. Butt splice connectors are also safer than soldering equipment, with no heat and no toxins.
Overall, the butt splice connector is a great connector to have. It is safe, convenient, easy to use,
and cheap.

If the butt splice connector sounds like a viable option for you, the next question is where to get
them. Most hardware and electronics stores carry butt splice connectors. Frequently they’re sold
in large value packs because of their versatility and low cost. Nelco Products offers butt
splice connectors in packs of 100 or in a bulk package of 1,000. Despite its funny name, the butt
splice connector is truly a vital electrical accessory that belongs in the toolbox of every
electrician and hobbyist from DIY enthusiasts to the seasoned professional.

Solar Wire Types for Solar PV Installations

This is an overview article for wires and conductors that are commonly used in solar pv
installations.

Wire types vary in conductor material and insulation.

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Aluminium or Copper: The two common conductor materials used in residential and commercial
solar installations are copper and aluminium. Copper has a greater conductivity than aluminium,
thus it carries more current than aluminium at the same size.

Aluminium may be weakened during installation especially during bending, however it is less
expensive than copper wires. It is not used (not permitted) for interior home wiring, as they are
used in larger gauges for underground or overhead service entrances and for commercial
operations.

Cable shielding and termination (shielded cable connector termination, grounding sheath
termination)

What type of cable is used for solar panels?

Solar Power Cables such as USE-2 and Photovoltaic (PV) Wire are used as wiring for solar panels,
underground service entrances, and service terminal connections. Our Solar Photovoltaic
Wire consists of an insulated, non-integrally jacketed single conductor.

These solar power cables are crush and impact resistant, but Photovoltaic Wire beats USE-2
Cable in low temperature flexibility, sunlight resistance, and flame resistance. Photovoltaic
Wiring for solar panels also has a thicker jacket and thicker insulation than USE-2 Solar Power
Cable.

THHN Wire is used in many industries and can be used for solar cable applications, but it should
never be used where Photovoltaic Wiring for solar panels or USE-2 Solar Panel Cables are
specified. If used in these applications, THHN could fail because it doesn't have the additional
strengths of more specialized solar power cables, such as USE-2 Solar Panel Cable and
Photovoltaic Wire.

One of the most important tasks when installing a PV system is wire management. This task is
sometimes overlooked by installers or not given enough attention. Installers that take their wire

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management seriously will have longer lasting systems that require less maintenance over the
lifetime of the PV system (20 to 30+ years)

So, what is wire management? Wire management is the practice of properly routing, organizing,
supporting, and protecting the wiring. This practice is especially important for the installation of
PV systems given the variety of harsh environments that PV systems are installed in.

Properly routing wiring refers to running conductors in a manner that avoids damage to the
wire’s insulation and conductor. Things to avoid are sharp edges and rough surfaces, overly tight
bending radii, overly tight size of cable clips, moving parts of racking systems, direct exposure to
sunlight, potential damage by local critters and sagging wires.

Properly organizing wiring refers to grouping, routing and labeling wires in a manner that can
make for easy identification of different circuits for future maintenance personnel as well as for
emergency personnel. Using wire that has colored insulation not only is required by the NEC,
but also provides for better identification of circuit conductors. Labeling strings, DC and AC
circuits within junction boxes is another good practice allowing for better troubleshooting by
future maintenance personnel.

Binding (lacing, self-clinching cable straps)

SELF-CLINCHING CABLE STRAPS Self-clinching cable straps are adjustable, lightweight, flat nylon
straps. They have molded ribs or serrations on the inside surface to grip the wire. They may be
used instead of individual cord ties for securing wire groups or bundles quickly.

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Self-CLINCHING CABLE STRAPS Self-clinching cable straps are adjustable, lightweight, flat nylon
straps. They have molded ribs or serrations on the inside surface to grip the wire. They may be
used instead of individual cord ties for securing wire groups or bundles quickly. The straps are of
two types: a plain cable strap and one that has a flat surface for identifying the cables. Caution
do not use nylon cable straps over wire bundles containing coaxial cable. Do not use straps in
areas where failure of the strap would allow the strap to fall into movable parts. Installing self-
clinching cable straps is done with a Military Standard hand tool, as shown in figure 2-50. An
illustration of the working parts of the tool is shown in figure 2-51. To use the tool, follow the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Hazards when working with wiring

Why Eliminate Electrical Hazards?

On the job site, working around electricity can be very safe when workers properly identify and
control hazards. But, inadequate training, lack of experience and failure to recognize potential
hazards could result in electric shock or death.

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On the job site, working around electricity can be very safe when workers properly identify and
control hazards. But, inadequate training, lack of experience and failure to recognize potential
hazards could result in electric shock or death.

Who is at Risk?

Engineers, electricians, and overhead line workers are at the top of the list of professionals who
are most exposed to electrical hazards. Common tasks that put these workers at risk include
electrical installation and repairs, testing of fixtures and equipment and inspection and
maintenance activities. However, people who are indirectly working with electricity like office
workers are also exposed to electrical hazards.

Electrical Hazards: Know Your Limits!

Electrocution is one of the most common hazards across construction sites according to OSHA.
Identifying electrical hazards can help raise awareness of the risks, their severity, and how it can
harm workers.

Here are 7 of the most common electrical hazards in the workplace and tips on what you can do
to mitigate these risks:

Overhead Power Lines

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Overhead powered and energized electrical lines have high voltages which can cause major
burns and electrocution to workers. Remember to maintain a minimum distance of 10 feet from
overhead power lines and nearby equipment. Conduct site surveys to ensure that nothing is
stored under overhead power lines. Also, safety barriers and signs must be installed to warn
nearby non-electrical workers of the hazards present in the area.

Damaged Tools and Equipment

Exposure to damaged electrical tools and equipment can be very dangerous. Do not fix anything
unless you are qualified to do so. Thoroughly check for cracks, cuts or abrasions on cables, wires,
and cords. In case of any defects, have them repaired or replaced. should be performed at all
times before commencing electrical maintenance and repairs. LOTO procedures are there to
protect all workers on a worksite.

Inadequate Wiring and Overloaded Circuits

Using wires with inappropriate size for the current can cause overheating and fires to occur. Use
the correct wire suitable for the operation and the electrical load to work on. Use the correct
extension cord designed for heavy-duty use. Also, do not overload an outlet and use proper
circuit breakers. Perform regular fire risk assessments to identify areas at risk of of bad wiring
and circuits.

Exposed Electrical Parts

Examples of exposed electrical parts include temporary lighting, open power distribution units,
and detached insulation parts on electrical cords. These hazards can cause potential shocks and
burns. Secure these items with proper guarding mechanisms and always check for any exposed
parts to be repaired immediately.

Damaged Insulation

Defective or inadequate insulation is a hazard. Be aware of damaged insulation and report it

immediately. Turn off all power sources before replacing damaged insulation and never attempt
to cover them with electrical tape.

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Wet Conditions

Never operate electrical equipment in wet locations. Water greatly increases the risk of
electrocution especially if the equipment has damaged insulation. Have a qualified electrician
inspect electrical equipment that has gotten wet before energizing it.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0401 Describe the handling, use and storage of soldering equipment

• IAC0402 Describe soldering techniques (including repairing a wire by soldering)
• IAC0403 Describe the characteristics of a good solder joint in terms of electrical and
mechanical integrity (characteristics must include scorching, dirt, oxidisation, colour,
residue, electrical and mechanical connection)
• IAC0404 Describe the hazards associated with soldering and the safety precautions to be
observed when soldering and handling soldering equipment
• IAC0405 Describe the various techniques associated with the repair of wiring
• IAC0406 Describe the hazards associated with wiring repair techniques

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 KM-02-KT05: Equipment for riveting (14%)

KT0401 Equipment for riveting (drilling machine, pop rivet [gun], rivets [standard,
countersunk, blind] and rivet sizes, washers, special tool for riveting PV modules)
KT0402 Materials that can be riveted (metal and plastics)
KT0403 Riveting techniques
KT0404 Safety requirement

Equipment for riveting (drilling machine, pop rivet [gun], rivets [standard, countersunk, blind]
and rivet sizes, washers, special tool for riveting PV modules)

Rivet equipment accessories inventoried include a wide range of sizes and style bucking bars,
rivet sets, air regulators, retainer springs, rivet spacing tools, rivet cutters, and riveters tape.
Bucking bar, rivet set, and rivet squeezer set kits are available for inventory as well as
individually.

• Rivet Guns: Riveting Tool Accessories

• Blind Riveters: Riv-Nut & Hi-Lok Hand Tools
• Rivet Sets: Hand Rivet Squeezers
• Trailer Body Tools: Rivet Shavers

In order to understand rivet guns, the first thing to do is understand how a rivet works. Blind
rivets, often referred to by the brand name POP rivets, are an incredibly useful fastener designed
to hold two materials together with a clamping force. POP Rivets are comprised of two pieces:
the body and the mandrel. The mandrel goes through the inside of the body and gets pulled
during installation. As the mandrel is pulled through the body, it deforms the back of the body.
Once the deformed portion grips against the back of the installation material the mandrel snaps
leaving a clean finished application. It is common for this type of rivet to be used when you

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cannot get to the back of an installation earning this fastener the name of Blind Rivet.

Knowing how rivets work is great but how do you install them? A rivet requires a tool that keeps
the hat of the rivet firmly pressed against the installation surface while simultaneously pulling
the mandrel away from it. These tools are commonly referred to as rivet guns, riveters, rivet
tools or riveting tools. Not only are there many things to call a rivet gun, there are also many
varieties.

Types of Rivet Guns:

• Hand Rivet Gun

• Heavy Duty Lever Riveter

• Cordless Battery Riveting Tool

• Pneumatic Rivet Gun

While not all rivet guns were made equal, it is easy to identify the type of rivet gun needed for an
application. Read along as we cover the pros and cons of each type or riveter.

Hand Rivet Gun

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Hand powered POP rivet guns work with a simple lever and squeeze technique. The first step
when using one, is to choose the appropriate sized nose piece. Rivet guns normally come with
several options to fit a range of blind rivets. Hand-operated riveters fit a variety of rivets, are
usually made of mostly steel with a rubber grip and offer the cheapest cost.

Hand Rivet Guns are an excellent choice for the occasional user. If you find your project having
just a few rivets, then this will do the trick. The biggest con on this riveting tool is the squeeze
and the amount of time it takes. Used repeatedly, it can be very stressful on the hands, wrists
and forearms making it less than ideal for projects requiring many rivets.

Heavy Duty Lever Riveter

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Heavy Duty Lever Riveting Tools are the next step up in rivet guns. They also come with nose
pieces but work with a wider range of rivet sizes. Lever rivet tools tend to be more heavy duty
than a hand rivet gun and are easier on the user. Due to their larger size and lever action, they
reduce the amount of physical strength required by the hand riveter. They also come with a
collection bottle that catches the snapped mandrels after installation.

To install a rivet using the lever riveting gun, first, open the arms all the way. Then insert the
mandrel into the nose piece. Once the body reaches the nose piece, insert it into the installation
hole. Then squeeze the two handles together. This will pull the mandrel in and snap it off. Now
hold the lever rivet gun so the nose piece is in the air and open the arms. This will release the
hold on the mandrel and it will fall into the bottle catch.

The heavy duty lever riveting tool is an excellent tool found on many job sites. It makes installing
blind rivets easier than using the hand riveter but is still manually done. It does come at a higher
price point than the standard hand riveter but also comes with the ability to use a wider and
larger range of rivets.

Cordless Battery Riveting Tool

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Battery Powered POP Rivet Guns come in many varieties. The two main types function basically
the same way, except for the last step. One type of battery powered rivet gun spits the mandrel
out from the front of the gun and the other pulls the mandrel into a mandrel holder, so you do
not need to worry about them until emptying the catch.

Battery powered riveters are great for the job site. They offer the versatility of not having a cord
and the ease of simply pushing a button to install the rivet. Choosing the version with the
mandrel catch is typically more expensive than the other battery powered option. The catch
version makes installations faster by collecting the mandrels for you but be careful not to over-
fill the catch or the gun may jam.

Pneumatic Rivet Gun

Pneumatic Rivet Guns are powered by compressed air to very quickly and easily install blind
rivets. With a built-in catch, the pneumatic riveting tool is easily the fastest way to install rivets.

The downside to pneumatic riveters is that they require a hosed connection to compressed air.
This limits their versatility and portability more than any of the other tools available, but if the
project requires installing a large number of rivets, this is undoubtedly the best tool to use to get
it done.

Which Rivet Gun is the Best?

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Now that we’ve gone over the many varieties of riveter tools, it’s time to determine which to buy
when. Since one riveting tool isn’t necessarily “better” than the other we will instead identify
which tool you should get depending on your situation.

• Hand Rivet Gun – This tool is cost effective and ideal for small shops that use smaller size
rivets sparingly. They require significant pressure to use and leave mandrel collection to
the user which can be a pain.

• Heavy Duty Lever Riveter – The lever riveter is a step up. It’s a little more expensive but
does everything you want the hand riveter to do and can’t. It works with larger sizes than
the hand rivet gun and makes installations easier by increasing the leverage on the
handles. The lever rivet tool comes with a mandrel catch to make cleanup easy.

• Cordless Battery Riveting Tool – Ignoring the differences in battery riveters, both types
come with a critical benefit: versatility. They offer powered installations without any
cords. They are an ideal choice when commonly working with rivets on job sites.

• Pneumatic Rivet Gun – Air-powered tools in general boast performance at the cost of
being attached to a compressor. The Pneumatic Rivet Gun is no different. If the job calls
for an excessive number of rivets, then this is the tool you want by your side.

A blind rivet from Grainger lets you install a fastener from just one side of a work piece when the
exposed side can’t be accessed or even seen from the other side. Use blind rivets to assemble
everything from small electronic components to gigantic steel beams. Choose from large flanged
heads, structured domed heads, button heads, countersunk heads and more. Whatever kind of
blind rivet you need, Grainger can help you find just style to fit your application.

3/16" Blind Rivet

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Blind rivets in this category are available with brazier, countersunk, domed, large-flanged, or
truss heads. They can be fully installed in a joint on just one side of a structure, where it is "blind"
to the opposing side. Closed-end rivets help to create a seal to prevent air and moisture leakage.
Multi-grip rivets feature a wide grip range to accommodate different material thicknesses. Tri-
bulb rivets are segmented on the blind end, allowing the sleeve to extend in three directions for
a secure hold.

types of Rivet Guns:

• Hand Rivet Gun

• Lever Riveter

• Battery Riveting Tool

• Pneumatic Rivet Gun

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While not all rivet guns were made equal, it is easy to identify the type of rivet gun needed for an
application. Read along as we cover the pros and cons of each type or riveter.

Hand Rivet Gun

Hand powered POP rivet guns work with a simple lever and squeeze technique. The first step
when using one, is to choose the appropriate sized nose piece. Rivet guns normally come with
several options to fit a range of blind rivets. Hand-operated riveters fit a variety of rivets, are
usually made of mostly steel with a rubber grip and offer the cheapest cost.

Hand Rivet Guns are an excellent choice for the occasional user. If you find your project having
just a few rivets, then this will do the trick. The biggest con on this riveting tool is the squeeze
and the amount of time it takes. Used repeatedly, it can be very stressful on the hands, wrists
and forearms making it less than ideal for projects requiring many rivets.

Lever Riveter

Lever Riveting Tools are the next step up in rivet guns. They also come with nose pieces but work
with a wider range of rivet sizes. Lever rivet tools tend to be more heavy duty that a hand rivet
gun and are easier on the user. Due to their larger size and lever action, they reduce the amount
of physical strength required by the hand riveter. They also come with a collection bottle that
catches the snapped mandrels after installation.

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To install a rivet using the lever riveting gun, first, open the arms all the way. Then insert the
mandrel into the nose piece. Once the hat reaches the nose piece, insert it into the installation
hole. Then squeeze the two handles together. This will pull the mandrel in and snap it off. Now
hold the lever rivet gun so the nose piece is in the air and open the arms. This will release the
hold on the mandrel and it will fall into the bottle catch.

Battery Riveting Tool

Battery Powered POP Rivet Guns come in many varieties. The two main types function basically
the same way, except for the last step. One type of battery powered rivet gun spits the mandrel
out from the front of the gun and the other pulls the mandrel into a mandrel holder, so you do
not need to worry about them until emptying the catch.

Battery powered riveters are great for the job site. They offer the versatility of not having a cord
and the ease of simply pushing a button to install the rivet. Choosing the version with the
mandrel catch is typically more expensive than the other battery powered option. The catch
version makes installations faster by collecting the mandrels for you but be careful not to over-
fill the catch or the gun may jam.

Pneumatic Rivet Gun

Pneumatic Rivet Guns are powered by compressed air to very quickly and easily install blind
rivets. With a built-in catch, the pneumatic riveting tool is easily the fastest way to install rivets.

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The downside to pneumatic riveters is that they require a hosed connection to compressed air.
This limits their versatility and portability more than any of the other tools available, but if the
project requires installing a large number of rivets, this is undoubtedly the best tool to use to get
it done. It also comes at a significantly lower price point than the electric powered tools.

Shave Rivet Tool

Shave Rivet Tools are a special tool used specifically for shave rivets. On shave rivets, the
mandrel does not completely break off. The remainder is then shaved down using one of these
tools to create a clean finish on the exposed hat portion. They are commonly used in trailer-
based applications to resemble a buck rivet and leave a smooth head without the traditional hole
of a standard blind rivet.

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There are cheaper versions that act as an adapter to a cordless drill. These are more commonly
bought by the DIYer or someone planning on sparingly working with shave rivets. The pneumatic
option is much more expensive but works much faster and has supports to provide a smoother
finish. They are commonly found in industries that use shave rivets on a regular basis.

Which Rivet Gun is the Best?

Now that we’ve gone over the many varieties of riveter tools, it’s time to determine which to buy
when. Since one riveting tool isn’t necessarily “better” than the other we will instead identify
which tool you should get depending on your situation.

• Hand Rivet Gun – This tool is cost effective and ideal for small shops that use smaller size
rivets sparingly. They require significant pressure to use and leave mandrel collection to
the user which can be a pain.

• Lever Riveter – The lever riveter is a step up. It’s a little more expensive but does
everything you want the hand riveter to do and can’t. It works with larger sizes than the
hand rivet gun and makes installations easier by increasing the leverage on the handles.
The lever rivet tool comes with a mandrel catch to make cleanup easy.
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 • Battery Riveting Tool – Ignoring the differences in battery riveters, both types come with
a critical benefit: versatility. They offer powered installations without any cords. They are
an ideal choice when commonly working with rivets on job sites.

• Pneumatic Rivet Gun – Air-powered tools in general boast performance at the cost of
being attached to a compressor. The Pneumatic Rivet Gun is no different. If the job calls
for an excessive number of rivets, then this is the tool you want by your side.

• Rivet Shaving Tool – This tool is only used with shave rivets making it a very niche item.
For those working with them often, get the pneumatic version to save some time and
headache but if you’re only working with them once in a while the drill attachment will
get the job done.

Materials that can be riveted (metal and plastics)

Steel

Low carbon steels are most often selected for rivet applications that primarily require good part
formability so they can clinch over or upset well in your application. When higher carbon steels
are specified for rivets and fasteners, the strength and hardness of the material increases and
the formability of the material decreases. Higher carbon steel parts work-harden more when
they are produced and work harden again as they are clinched or upset in your application. The
steel raw material used to produce our rivets and fasteners have excellent formability. Screws
and other cold formed special threaded fasteners typically are specified using higher carbon

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steels than the most common rivet materials. Long-lasting strength is a primary trait of carbon
steel parts.

Stainless Steel

The corrosion resistance, mechanical properties and cold formability of stainless-steel rivets,
fasteners, and part designs are all important engineering considerations when selecting these
fasteners. The chemical composition of each alloy determines the amount of the forming
pressure that is required to produce the part. The chemical composition also determines the
work hardening rate of the material during production and any additional cold working of the
part (clinching) in order to fasten it into your assembly.

Aluminum

Known for being soft and lightweight, aluminum continues to be one of the most common
material choices for rivets and fasteners. Aluminum provides strong corrosion resistance and is
ideal for many applications. Additionally, the formability of most aluminum material is excellent,
so producing complex part configurations is often possible.

Copper

Due to its decorative appeal, copper is an ideal material for manufacturing functional items, and
its conductivity makes it perfect for use in electrical applications. Copper rivets are commonly
used in clothes, saddles, shoes, belts, bags and more to reinforce the product and because of
how aesthetically pleasing copper rivets look. We can manufacture your copper rivets in a
variety of sizes and thicknesses – copper rivet options range from semi-tubular rivets, solid
rivets, self-piercing rivets & more.

Fasteners and rivets grades of copper

The Valley Fastener Group produces our fasteners and rivets from a variety of customer
specified grades of copper. Those grades include:

Brass
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Brass rivets and fasteners are used in manufacturing due to their corrosion resistance, strength
after cold-heading, conductivity, and aesthetic appeal. The cold forming process increases the
strength of brass making it an ideal fastener for your requirements. Brass is an ideal material for
use in electrical equipment due to in conductivity and for manufacturing functional items where
decorative appeal is required. The corrosion resistance of brass lends itself to well to applications
that are close to seawater.

Wall and ceiling decorations and signs

Because you only have access to one side of a wall or ceiling, riveting is ideal if you’re looking to
permanently attach nameplates, signs, or decorations to them. Ornamental objects, Christmas
lanterns, Halloween decorations, framed paintings, photo frames, and just about any other type
of décor can be efficiently and easily attached to walls and ceilings with riveting.

Woodworking

Wooden stands and shelves, cabinets, lockers—just about anything made out of wood can be
held together effectively with the use of rivets. In fact, it’s often the most superior option.
They’re more durable than screws and nails, so they ensure a sturdier finished product, which
allows the furniture to be held in place for the long run. Even the hinges used on these products,
as well as the drawer pulls, handles, and doorknobs placed on them are often attached by
riveting.

Jewellery

Both professional and amateur jewellery makers use riveting as a cold connection technique. It
allows them to join metal pieces together without having to resort to soldering or using heat,
while also adding depth and texture to their jewellery. With just the most basic metal forming
skills, some common tools, and some instructional videos, any jewellery maker can use riveting
to make cold connections.

Aircraft

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Naturally, an aircraft will have to be made from solid, strong materials. But these heavy-duty
materials would fall apart if they weren’t fastened together firmly. Though welding, bolting, and
brazing are also used in the construction of an aircraft, riveting is also vital to the process. The
end goal is to have the strongest union of the parts that are joined together and riveting is
necessary to achieve this. It’s most commonly used to join aluminum alloys together, because
aluminum is difficult to solder. Riveting provides neatness and strength, while also allowing for a
lighter weight in an aircraft. Plus, during the construction and repair of aircrafts, it’s not always
possible to reach the rear end of the structure being fastened, which is where riveting becomes
especially useful.

Riveting techniques

Application of the working technique of ''Riveting''

Based on the variants described in section 3, the exercises can be designed as a single instruction
or in several stages of exercises. Based on the "Instruction examples for practical vocational
training" the trainees can manufacture 5 workpieces of different degrees of difficulty. These
"Training examples ..." also comprise a list of materials (initial materials, hand tools, measuring
and testing tools, accessories) as well as the sequence of operations associated with
manufacturing of the workpiece.

Also contained is an illustrative working drawing.

Thus, the trainees will avail of all the necessary information to begin their exercise-related work.

If the instructor finds out in the course of the exercises that the quality of the workpieces
produced is not sufficient, the trainees must carry out more comprehensive preliminary work. In
this case it is recommended that waste components be used. After having practised this skill, the
planned workpiece can be produced. The following hint should be taken into account:

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The trainee has to do all the necessary work by himself - from cutting the initial material up to
the completion of the workpiece. This is the only way to guarantee a just evaluation of the
trainee's achievements.

If the proposed "Instruction examples ..." are not included in the exercises, it will be also possible
to select other workpieces. In this case the instructor has to make sure of it that all the working
techniques mentioned before will be practised with this workpiece.

What’s the deal with rivets?

Rivets allow customers to have rapid installation rates for mounting modules because do not
require torque marks. They also reduce the complexity of O&M checks. Rivet as well as bolt and
serrated flange nut options are currently available for use on all Gamechanger Solar pile driven
and ballasted ground fixed tilt as well as tracker systems with both framed modules and thin film
modules. Standard rivets and rivet guns may be used for the rivet option and standard drivers for
bolt option.

Safety requirement

When you work with a pop rivet gun, you must protect your body from possible injuries. Wear
safety goggles to protect your eyes from flying particles or debris. It is also recommended to
wear gloves and a safety jacket. To avoid accidents, people in the vicinity must also wear
required protection
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A pop rivet gun is a tool used to fasten rivets on to pieces of material, mostly metal. A pop rivet
gun is a very useful object to have around your home. It makes easy work of tasks such as joining
together 2 pieces or sheets of metal. When you use this type of tool, you must follow some
important safety precautions.

Read the Instruction Manual Before Use

To safely operate the pop rivet gun, you must be familiar with its working. Read the instruction
manual thoroughly before you use the tool. This will also save you time and enable you to work
better.

Wear Required Protection

When you work with a pop rivet gun, you must protect your body from possible injuries. Wear
safety goggles to protect your eyes from flying particles or debris. It is also recommended to
wear gloves and a safety jacket. To avoid accidents, people in the vicinity must also wear
required protection.

Never Use in the Presence of Combustible or Explosive Materials

It is very risky to use a pop rivet gun in the presence of flammable materials or liquids. Always
operate the tool a safe distance away from kerosene, petrol or gasoline. Also keep it away from
appliances such as heaters or fireplaces. Also be careful around explosive materials. If you are
working in a warehouse or a similar environment, ensure that the surrounding area is free of all
such materials

Wear Appropriate Clothing

When you are operating a pop rivet gun, you must minimize the chances of any clothing or
accessories getting stuck in between the moving parts. Avoid wearing loose, flowing clothing,
and carefully restrain. Do not wear flowing jewellery, either. If any such articles get trapped in
the tool, it can cause serious accidents and injuries.

Perform Regular Maintenance

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Keep a regular maintenance schedule for your pop rivet gun. Have the tool inspected and
services by a qualified person at regular intervals. This will ensure proper operation. With regular
maintenance, you can also maintain your tool in prime condition and avoid costly repairs.

Never Attempt to Perform Repairs Yourself

If you have problems with your tool, avoid trying to make repairs yourself. This will also void any
warranty you may have with your pop rivet gun. Improper repairs can lead to malfunctioning of
the tool.

Keep Gun Pointed Away from Yourself and Other People

Always be careful about the placement of the pop rivet gun. Keep your fingers and body away
from the line of fire. Also ensure that people in the vicinity are not in the way. Keep young
children and pets away from the work area.

Store in a Safe Place

After you finish working with the pop rivet gun, keep it in a safe storage area. Ensure that young
children or inexperienced users do not have access to the tool. Protect the gun from moisture
and heat.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

• IAC0501 Describe the handling, use and storage of equipment for riveting
• IAC0502 Describe the preparatory activities before riveting is performed
• IAC0503 Describe technique for riveting
• IAC0504 Describe the use of a special tool for riveting PV modules
• IAC0505 Describe the hazards associated with riveting and the safety precautions to be
observed when riveting materials

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Reference:

Solar Powered Hand Tools www.i4at.org › surv › spht

www.solargeneratorsreview.com › top-3-solar-generators-fo...

www.alphaloadtesting.co.za/lifting/tackle

https://www.materialshandling.com.au › products › mathand-s...

https://www.instructables.com › Workshop › Solar

https://www.solarpaneltalk.com › forum › 16109-issues-whe.

https://www.amazon.com › Elenco-Teach-Rivet-Rex-Hydro-.

https://www.flipkart.com › home-improvement › power-tools

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