UNIT-4

The device which controls the flow of electrons is called electronic devices.

Semiconductors:

Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity

between conductors (generally metals) and nonconductors or insulators (such as
most ceramics)..

Brief History of Electronics and Its Development

Electronics’ actual history began with the invention of vacuum diode by J.A.
Fleming, in 1897; and, after that, a vacuum triode was implemented by Lee De
Forest to amplify electrical signals.

Subsequently, the transistor era began with the junction transistor invention in
1948. yet it was later replaced with a bulky vacuum tube that would consume high
power for its operation. The use of germanium and silicon semiconductor materials
made these transistors gain popularity and wide-acceptance usage in different
electronic circuits.

The subsequent years witnessed the invention of the integrated circuits (ICs) that
drastically changed the electronic circuits’ nature as the entire electronic circuit got
integrated on a single chip, which resulted in low: cost, size, and weight electronic
devices. The years 1958 to 1975 marked the introduction of IC with enlarged
capabilities of over several thousand components on a single chip such as small-
scale integration, medium-large scale, and very-large-scale integration ICs.

Digital integrated circuits were yet another robust IC development that changed the
overall architecture of computers. These ICs were developed with Transistor-
transistor logic (TTL), integrated injection logic (I2L), and emitter-coupled logic
(ECL) technologies. Later these digital ICs employed PMOS, NMOS, and CMOS
fabrication design technologies.

All these radical changes in all these components led to the introduction
of microprocessors in 1969 by Intel. Soon after, the analog integrated circuits were
developed that introduced an operational amplifier for analog signal processing.
These analog circuits include analog multipliers, ADC and DAC converters, and
analog filters.
History of Electronics:

1. Vacuum tube:

It is also called as electron tube or valve and it was first developed by John
Ambrose Fleming in 1904. The vacuum tube is a tube in which gas is removed and
thus vacuum is created. The basic working principle of vacuum tubes is thermionic
emission. When you heat up a metal the thermal energy makes some electrons
loose. The vacuum tube consisted of two electrodes a cathode and an anode placed
on either side of the tube. When the cathode is heated up due to thermionic
emission the electrons are loosened and while applying positive voltage to the
anode, these negatively charged electrons (e-) are attracted towards anode. By
creating vacuum that is by removing the gas the path is made clear for the electrons
to move from cathode to anode. Thus current is created. It was bulky and used lot
of electrical power and because of the heat produced it reduced the life of tube.

2. Transistor :

Transistor was invented in 1947 by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while
working under William Shockley at Bell Labs and they were awarded Nobel prize.
Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device used to amplify or regulates
current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals like faucet
controls the flow of water. A voltage or current applied to one pair of transistor’s
terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals and it can amplify
the signal also. Mostly silicon and germanium is used for manufacturing.
Transistors are smaller in size than vacuum tubes and consume less and generate
almost no heat.

3. Integrated circuits’s:

Integrated circuits is a set of electronic circuits on one small piece(chip) of

semiconductor material normally silicon. Integrated circuits were first developed
on September 12th 1958 by Jack Kilby at Texas instrument with five integrated
components resistors, capacitors, distributed capacitors and transistors. An
integrated circuit can hold transistors, resistors and capacitors . These integrated
circuits can perform calculations and store data using either digital or analog
technology.

Very Large Scale integration (VLSI) :

VLSI began in the 1970s. Before the introduction of VLSI technology most ICs
had a limited set of functions. VLSI involves packing more and more logic devices
into smaller and smaller areas. In other words it’s the process of combining
millions of components into a single chip.

Uses:

Used in digital camera, cellphones, computers , automated machines etc

The advantages of VLSI design are

*High speed,

*Low power

*Physically smaller

P-N Diode:

A P-N Junction Diode is formed by doping one side of a piece of silicon with a P-
type dopant (Boran) and the other side with a N-type dopant (phosphorus).

Ge can be used instead of Silicon.

The P-N junction diode is a two-terminal device.

it allows current to flow in only one direction.

What is a P-N junction Diode?

A P-N junction diode is a piece of silicon that has two terminals. One of the
terminals is doped with P-type material and the other with N-type material. The P-
N junction is the basic element for semiconductor diodes. A Semiconductor diode
facilitates the flow of electrons completely in one direction only – which is the
main function of semiconductor diode. It can also be used as a Rectifier.

PN Junction Diode Theory

There are two operating regions: P-type and N-type. And based on the applied
voltage, there are three possible “biasing” conditions for the P-N Junction Diode,
which are as follows:

Zero Bias – No external voltage is applied to the PN junction diode.

Forward Bias– The voltage potential is connected positively to the P-type
terminal and negatively to the N-type terminal of the Diode.
Reverse Bias– The voltage potential is connected negatively to the P-type terminal
and positively to the N-type terminal of the Diode.

Zero Biased Condition

In this case, no external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode; and therefore,
the electrons diffuse to the P-side and simultaneously holes diffuse towards the N-
side through the junction, and then combine with each other. Due to this an electric
field is generated by these charge carriers. The electric field opposes further
diffusion of charged carriers so that there is no movement in the middle region.
This region is known as depletion width or space charge.

Forward Bias

In the forward bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to
the N-type material and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-
Type material. This connection is also called as giving positive voltage. Electrons
from the N-region cross the junction and enters the P-region. Due to the attractive
force that is generated in the P-region the electrons are attracted and move towards
the positive terminal. Simultaneously the holes are attracted to the negative
terminal of the battery. By the movement of electrons and holes current flows. In
this condition, the width of the depletion region decreases due to the reduction in
the number of positive and negative ions.
V-I Characteristics

By supplying positive voltage, the electrons get enough energy to overcome the
potential barrier (depletion layer) and cross the junction and the same thing
happens with the holes as well. The amount of energy required by the electrons and
holes for crossing the junction is equal to the barrier potential 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7
V for Si, 1.2V for GaAs. This is also known as Voltage drop. The voltage drop
across the diode occurs due to internal resistance. This can be observed in the
below graph.
Reverse Bias

In the forward bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to
the P-type material and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-
type material. This connection is also known as giving positive voltage. Hence, the
electric field due to both the voltage and depletion layer is in the same direction.
This makes the electric field stronger than before. Due to this strong electric field,
electrons and holes want more energy to cross the junction so they cannot diffuse
to the opposite region. Hence, there is no current flow due to the lack of movement
of electrons and holes.
The electrons from the N-type semiconductor are attracted towards the positive
terminal and the holes from the P-type semiconductor are attracted to the negative
terminal. This leads to the reduction of the number of electrons in N-type and holes
in P-type. In addition, positive ions are created in the N-type region and negative
ions are created in the P-type region.

Therefore, the depletion layer width is increased due to the increasing number of
positive and negative ions.
V-I Characteristics

Due to thermal energy in crystal minority carriers are produced. Minority carriers
mean a hole in N-type material and electrons in P-type material. These minority
carriers are the electrons and holes pushed towards P-N junction by the negative
terminal and positive terminal, respectively. Due to the movement of minority
carriers, a very little current flows, which is in nano Ampere range (for silicon).
This current is called as reverse saturation current. Saturation means, after reaching
its maximum value, a steady state is reached wherein the current value remains
same with increasing voltage.

The magnitude of reverse current is of the order of nano-amperes for silicon

devices. When the reverse voltage is increased beyond the limit, then the reverse
current increases drastically. This particular voltage that causes the drastic change
in reverse current is called reverse breakdown voltage. Diode breakdown occurs by
two mechanisms: Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown.

V-I Characteristics of P-N junction Diode

Zener Diode Explanation
A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped
semiconductor device engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the
voltage across a Zener diode’s terminals is reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage
(also known as the knee voltage), the junction experiences a breakdown, allowing
current to flow in the opposite direction. This phenomenon, known as the Zener
Effect, is a key characteristic of Zener diodes.

Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

Zener diodes come in various packaging options, depending on their power
dissipation requirements. Some are designed for high-power applications, while
others are available in surface mount formats. The most commonly used Zener
diode is packaged in a small glass enclosure, with a distinctive band indicating the
cathode side of the diode.

How does a Zener Diode work in reverse bias?

A Zener diode functions similarly to a regular diode when forward-biased.
However, in reverse-biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode.
As the reverse voltage increases and reaches the predetermined breakdown voltage
(Vz), current begins to flow through the diode. This current reaches a maximum
level determined by the series resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains
constant across a wide range of applied voltages.
There are two types of breakdowns in a Zener Diode: Avalanche Breakdown and
Zener Breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode

Avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and Zener diodes when
subjected to high reverse voltage. When a significant reverse voltage is applied to
the PN junction, the free electrons gain enough energy to accelerate at high
velocities. These high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms, causing the
ejection of additional electrons. This continuous collision process generates a large
number of free electrons, resulting in a rapid increase in electric current through
the diode. In the case of a normal diode, this sudden surge in current could
permanently damage it. However, a Zener diode is specifically designed to
withstand avalanche breakdown and can handle the sudden current spike.
Avalanche breakdown typically occurs in Zener diodes with a Zener voltage (Vz)
greater than 6V.

Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

When the reverse bias voltage applied to a Zener diode approaches its Zener
voltage, the electric field within the depletion region becomes strong enough to
attract and remove electrons from their valence band. These valence electrons,
energized by the intense electric field, break free from their parent atoms. This
phenomenon takes place in the Zener breakdown region, where even a slight
increase in voltage leads to a rapid surge in electric current.

Avalanche Breakdown vs. Zener Breakdown

The Zener effect is predominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts, while the avalanche
effect becomes more prominent beyond that threshold. Although both effects are
similar, the distinction lies in the fact that the Zener effect is a quantum
phenomenon, whereas the avalanche effect involves the movement of electrons in
the valence band, similar to an electric current. The avalanche effect allows a
larger current through the diode compared to what a Zener breakdown would
permit.
V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i)ForwardCharacteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener
diode. From the graph, we understand that it is almost identical to the forward
characteristics of P-N junction diode.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse saturation
current Io flows across the diode. This current is due to thermally generated
minority carriers. As the reverse voltage increases, at a certain value of reverse
voltage, the reverse current increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication
that the breakdown has occurred. We call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener
voltage, and Vz denotes it.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT:

The term ‘transistor’ is derived from the words ‘transfer’ and ‘resistor.’ These
words describe the operation of a BJT which is the transfer of an input signal from
a low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. In this article, let us learn more
about the Bipolar Junction Transistor.

What is a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)?

A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists
of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current
controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and
the emitter. A signal of a small amplitude applied to the base is available in the
amplified form at the collector of the transistor. This is the amplification provided
by the BJT. Note that it does require an external source of DC power supply to
carry out the amplification process.

Transistor Configurations

Transistor configurations refer to different ways of connecting transistors in

electronic circuits to perform specific functions. The three main configurations are
common emitter, common base, and common collector, each with its unique
characteristics and advantages. Selecting the appropriate configuration is crucial to
achieve the desired circuit performance.

Transistor Configurations: There are three leads in a transistor i.e., emitter, base,
and collector. However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require
four terminals two for the input and two for the output. This difficulty is overcome
by making one terminal of the transistor common to both input and output
terminals, The input is fed between this common terminal and one of the other two
terminals The output is obtained between the common terminal and the remaining
terminal

Types of Transistor Configurations

Accordingly, a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following ways.

o Common base (CB) configuration (or) Grounded base configuration,

o Common emitter (CE) configuration (or) Grounded emitter configuration.
o Common collector (CC) configuration (or) Grounded collector
configuration.
 o Common emitter configuration: Offers high voltage gain and moderate
current gain, commonly used for amplification applications.
o Common base configuration: Provides high current gain and moderate
voltage gain, suitable for impedance matching and RF amplifier circuits.
o Common collector configuration: Offers high voltage gain and unity current
gain, commonly used for impedance buffering and voltage amplification.

What is a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)?

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) consists of two pn junctions formed by

sandwiching either a p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite
types. (i.e., between two p types an n type or between two n types a p type)

In a Unipolar Junction Transistor the current conduction is only due to one type of
carrier, the majority of carriers. The current conduction in the bipolar Junction
Transistor is because of both types of charge carriers. Holes and electrons. Hence,
it is called Bipolar Junction Transistor, hereafter referred to as BJT.

There are two types of transistors (BJTs), namely:

o n-p-n transistor.
o p-n-p transistor.

Learn the difference between the n-p-n and p-n-p transistor.

From these types, we use these different types of configurations for various
applications. Each transistor configuration's distinct input and output properties
allow it to be used in a variety of applications. Because of its high voltage gain and
low input impedance, the CE design is the one that is most frequently employed.
Common applications for the CC setup include impedance matching and buffering.
Although less frequently used, the CB arrangement can be advantageous in some
situations when a high-frequency response is required. Hence their study with
characteristics is very important.
Common Base (CB) configuration (or) Grounded base configuration

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the emitter and base, and
output is taken from the collector and base. Here, the base of the transistor is
common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common base
connection.

In figure (a) the common base npn transistor circuit is shown whereas figure (b)
shows the common base pnp transistor circuit.

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Base Configuration

Input Characteristics: It is the curve between input current IE (emitter current)

and input voltage VEB (emitter-base voltage) at constant collector-base
voltage VCB. The emitter current is taken along Y-axis and the emitter-base
voltage is along X-axis. The figure shows the input characteristics of a typical
transistor in a common-base configuration.
Fig: Input Characteristics of Common Base Configuration

Output Characteristics: It is the curve between collector current ICand collector

base voltage, VCB at constant emitter current IE. The collector current is taken
along Y-axis and the collector-base voltage magnitude is along X-axis. The figure
shows the output characteristics of a typical transistor in a common base
configuration.

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the base and emitter, and
output is taken from the collector and emitter. Here, the emitter of the transistor is
common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common emitter
connection. Figure (a) shows a common emitter npn transistor circuit whereas
Figure (b) shows common emitter pnp transistor circuit.

Fig: Common Emitter Configuration

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration

Input Characteristics: It is the curve between input current IB (base current) and
input voltage VBE (base-emitter voltage) at constant collector-emitter
voltage, VCE. The base current is taken along Y-axis and base-emitter
voltage VBE is taken along X- the axis Figure shows the input characteristics of a
typical transistor in a common-emitter configuration.
Fig: Input and Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration

Output Characteristics: This characteristic shows the relation between the

collector current Ic and collector voltage VCE, for various fixed values of Ig.
These characteristics are often called collector characteristics. A typical family of
output characteristics for an n-p-n transistor in CE configuration is shown in
Figure.

Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the base and collector while
output is taken between the emitter and collector. Here, the collector of the
transistor is common to input and output circuits and hence the name common
collector connection. Figure (a) shows a common collector n-p-n transistor circuit
where as Figure (b) shows a common collector p-n-p circuit.

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Collector Configuration

Input Characteristics: To determine the input characteristics, VCE is kept at a
suitable fixed value. The base-collector voltage VBC is increased in equal steps
and the corresponding increase in IB is noted. This is repeated for different fixed
values of VCE. The plots of IB verses for different values of VCE shown in Figure
are the input characteristics.

Output Characteristics: The output characteristics shown in Figure, are the same
as those of the common emitter configuration. This characteristics shows the
relation between the emitter current IE and collector voltage VCE, for various
fixed values of IB. These characteristics are often called collector characteristics.
A typical family of output characteristics for an n-p-n and p-n-p transistor in CC
configuration is shown in Figure.
Optional: to understand the Concept of Biasing a Transistor

Operating Regions of Transistor

There are two junctions in a transistor: emitter-base and collector-base
junction. These junctions could be forward-biased or reverse biased. Based
on the biasing of the transistor of emitter-base and collector-base junction
there are four regions of transistor:
⦁ Active region
⦁ Saturation region
⦁ Cut-off region
⦁ Inverted region

Active region

This is a region of operation where emitter-base junction is forward-biased

and collector-base junction is reverse-biased.

Active region
Voltage VEB is connected between emitter and base in a forward-biased
manner and voltage VCB is connected between collector and base in a
reverse-biased manner. When a transistor is in active region then it is mainly
used for amplification. In this region, collector current depends upon base
current.

Saturation region

This is a region of operation where emitter-base junction is forward-biased

and collector-base junction is also forward-biased.

Saturation region

Voltage VEB is connected between emitter and base in a forward-biased

manner and voltage VCB is connected between collector and base in a
forward-biased manner. In this region, collector current becomes
independent of the base current. When a transistor is in saturation region
then it acts like a closed switch.
Cut-off region

This is a region of operation where emitter-base junction is reverse-biased

and collector-base junction is reverse-biased.

Cut-off region

Voltage VEB is connected between emitter and base in a reverse-biased

manner and voltage VCB is connected between collector and base in a
reverse-biased manner. In this region the value of current in the transistor is
nearly zero. It is so because emitter does not emit ay charge carrier to base
except few minority charge carriers which are generated thermally. When a
transistor is in saturation region then it acts like an open switch.

Inverted region

This is a region of operation where emitter-base junction is reverse-biased

and collector-base junction is forward-biased.
 Inverted region

Voltage VEB is connected between emitter and base in a reverse-biased

manner and voltage VCB is connected between collector and base in a
forward-biased manner. In this region transistor is does not work properly.
This region is not of much importance.

Region of operation Emitter-base junction Collector-base junction

Active region Forward-biased Reverse-biased

Saturation region Forward-biased Forward-biased

Cut-off region Reverse-biased Reverse-biased

Inverted region Reverse-biased Forward-biased