CIMH 312: HISTORY EDUCATION

By Dr. Mary Boit

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON ONE: HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT IN THE CURRICULUM..............................................1

LESSON TWO: TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODS IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT...16
LESSON THREE: HEURISTIC METHODS OF TEACHING....................................................................32
LESSON FOUR: EXPERIENTIAL METHODS OF TEACHING...............................................................41
LESSON FIVE: LEARNING RESOURCES................................................................................................ 51
LESSON SIX: USE OF GRAPHIC MATERIALS IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT LESSONS.......63
LESSON SEVEN: USE OF OBJECTS AND MODELS IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT LESSONS
...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
LESSON EIGHT: USE OF RESOURCE PEOPLE IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
TEACHING/LEARNING..............................................................................................................................79
LESSON NINE: USE OF AUDIO-MATERIALS IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT LESSONS........84
LESSON TEN: USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL, SILENT PROJECTED MEDIA AND A HISTORY ROOM
IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TEACHING/LEARNING................................................................93
LESSON ELEVEN: PREPARATION FOR TEACHING - SCHEMES OF WORK................................104
LESSON TWELVE: PREPARATION OF A HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT LESSON PLAN.........113
LESSON THIRTEEN: ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING/LEARNING HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
.................................................................................................................................................................... 125

iii
 LESSON ONE: HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT IN THE CURRICULUM

1.0 Introduction.
In this first lesson we are going to define the term history and government and the
importance of studying the two as a combined subject in the secondary school
curriculum. The lesson will also look at history as a social science and its place in the
curriculum. Lastly, the focus will be on sources of studying history and government

1.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define the terms history and government
 explain the place of history in this curriculum
 discuss history as a social science and its place in the curriculum
 describe the sources of history and government

1.2 Definitions of history

History as a concept has many definitions. Johnson (1940) sees history in its broadest
sense as “everything that ever happened”. Carr (1960), defines history as “a continuous
process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between
the present and the past”. Gordon Leff (1967) gives this definition: “History is the
totality of human actions and endeavour”. Will Walsh (1967) defines it as “the totality of
past human actions and the narrative or account we construct of them now or a significant
record - an account”. According to Harold Perkin (1970) and Crookall (1972), say it
comes from a Greek word ‘historia’ which merely means inquiry.

Note:
Although there is no generally accepted definition of the term “history”,
most of the above definitions seem to point at one idea: people and their
actions (events). From this, history can be taken to mean a study of the
aggregate of people’s past and present activities in time perspective. These
activities must be of some significance to humanity.

Now that we have known what history is, we will go ahead and look at why it is
necessary for you and your students to study history.

1
1.3 Importance of studying history
History was important in many societies of the world and it still is because:
 it welds the society together by creating a spirit of togetherness and
interdependence among people who have a common goal and interest. “Without
history a society scarcely exists” (Harold Perkin: 1970).
 it enables the learners to develop the ability of visualizing how other people feel
and think and thus helps them to solve their problems.
 it helps to modify and improve the society by pointing out weaknesses and
strengths of peoples’ activities. It is of value because it “teaches us what man has
done and thus what man is” (R.C. Collingwood: 1992).
 it gives us a sense of identity by telling us who we are, where we came from and
why we are found where we are.
 it educates us on the world citizenship and this leads to international cooperation
and interdependence among nations.

Question ? Can you think of other importance of studying history?

Note: The foregoing shows the value of history in education that, “history should be
taught to everyone as part of their general education for life so that they can better
understand the world they live in” (Perkin: 1970). In Kenya, history as a subject
is combined with Government. It is therefore necessary for one to understand the
meaning and importance of Government.

1.4 The meaning of government

The following are some definitions of the term “Government”:
 The authoritative direction and restraint exercised over the actions of men
in communities, societies and states; the direction of the affairs of a state;
political rule and administration. (American Dictionary: 1949)
 A group of individuals sharing a defined responsibility for exercising
power (International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences: 1968).
 The political and administrative hierarchy of organised state (Political
Science Dictionary: 1973).
  The exercise of influence and control through law and coercion over a
particular group of people formed into a state. (Dictionary of Political
Thought: 1982).
 The act of ruling; a continuous exercise of authority over the action of
subjects or inferiors; authoritative direction or regulation; central rule
(Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition: 1989).
 The institutions and processes by which groups and states are regulated
(Olumwullah, in William, R. Ochieng: 1990).
 A ruling or managing, central system governing, the body of people
authorised to administer the laws or to govern a state. (Concise Dictionary:
1991).
 The political system by which a ratio of a community is administered or
regulated. (The New Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Vol. 5: 1993).

Activity Identify the main features emerging from the above definitions on
government

We are sure you came up with some of the following features: authority, control, power
over people, ruling institutions and processes etc. It is important to note that as a subject
in the curriculum, government can be understood as the study of the political and
administrative structure (Legislative, executive and judiciary) of a given state or states.

1.5 The importance of studying government

The study of government is necessary because:
 It makes the learners aware of their rights and obligations, thus preparing them
to play an effective role in the society.
 It creates awareness in learners on how conflicting interests arising in the
society are regulated in order to maintain law and order.
 It exposes learners to various systems of government and principles, which
govern them. This prepares them for effective participation in the political
arena.
 It creates awareness in the learners for the need of an organised system of
government to safeguard against instability (anarchy).

Now that you understand the definitions and importance of both history and
government, it would be important to consider the place of history in the curriculum.
 What role does it play as far as achievement of national goals of education are
concerned.
1.6 The Place of History in the Curriculum

1.6.1 History as a social science

The term social science has been defined differently by a number of professional
practitioners. Some of the definitions are as follows:
 Social sciences are concerned immediately with the life, institutions, the
thoughts, the aspirations and the far-reaching policies of a nation in its
world setting. The social sciences embrace the traditional disciplines,
which are concerned directly with man and society (American Historical
Association: 1934).
 Social sciences are those subjects that relate to the origin, organization and
development of human society especially man in his association with other
men (Arthur C. Binning and David H. Binning: 1952).
 Social sciences are those parts of cultural knowledge which have a direct
bearing on man’s activities in specific fields, . . . are advanced studies of
human society which are meant for mature studies and they aim at finding
out new truths about human relationships so as to contribute to social
utility (J.C. Aggarwal: 1982).
The relationship between social science and history can be derived from these definitions.
The definitions have one thing in common: they focus on people and society (see Figure
1). This implies the way people interact with environment, both natural and artificial.
History being the study of people’s activities (past and present) fits well in the above
definitions because like all social science disciplines, it deals with the way people interact
with the environment. Whatever results from this interaction is what becomes a record of
people’s activities and thus history.
 GEOGRAPHY
ANTHROPOLOGY ECONOMICS
Human interaction The study of people’s
The scientific study of
commonalities and differences with the economic resources
between people physical

POLITICAL HISTORY
SCIENCE Peopl Aggregate of people’s past
Formal processes by which and present activities

PSYCHOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY PHILOSOPHY The study of human
Interaction and associations Understanding of the nature behaviour
of people and meaning of human and
universe

Fig. 1: The focus of history and other social sciences

1.6.2 History and other subjects in the curriculum

History is not only related to social science but to other subjects in the curriculum as
well. This being the case, it is important that a history teacher bears the following in
mind:

 That, history is only one of a number of subjects in the school curriculum.

 History makes one of the many contributions made by other subjects in the
production of integrated individuals.
 History must liase with other subjects in the curriculum to help achieve educational
goals (objectives), which are stipulated as follows: Education should promote

 National unity (Patriotism and nationalism)

 National development (i.e. economic, social, technological and
industrial).
 Individual development and self-fulfilment,
 Social equality and responsibility
 Respect and development of cultural heritage,
 International consciousness.
 Moral and religious values
  Positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.

These objectives of education are supposed to be achieved after learners have been
exposed to various disciplines of study, which are included in the curriculum. Each and
every subject in the secondary school curriculum in Kenya makes its own contribution
towards the achievement of these goals. The claim that a certain discipline/subject is the
most important would not be true. However, it would not be wrong to say that there are
certain disciplines that are more conspicuous and they infectiously permeate all the
others. History is one of such subjects. In relation to all humanities and social sciences,
none of these disciplines makes meaning or sense outside its historical context. Thus,
history can be referred to as the mother of all subjects because its contribution seems to
outweigh the contributions of other subjects.

This contribution is reflected in the general objectives of History and Government, which
state that by the end of the course, the learner should be able to:

 recognize and appreciate the importance of History and Government,

 acquire knowledge, ability and show appreciation for critical historical
analysis, socio-economic and political organization of African societies.
 understand and show appreciation of the rights, privileges and obligations of
oneself and others for promotion of a just and peaceful society
 promote a sense of nationalism, patriotism and national unity.
 encourage and sustain moral and mutual social responsibility.
 identify, assess and appreciate the rich and varied cultures of the Kenyan
people and other peoples.
 promote a sense of awareness and need for a functional democracy of the
Kenyan people and other nations.
 promote an understanding and appreciation of intra-national and international
consciousness and relationships.
 derive through the study of History and Government an interest in further
learning.

Besides helping to achieve the national goals of education, history also makes the other
subjects to be understood better, for example,
  Geography: by showing how present physical conditions have been brought
about by the past.
 Science: by showing how scientific knowledge has been gradually built
during the past, for example, what science says about evolution.
 Economics: by showing the development of economic activities of humans in
time perspective.

Activity Talk to your colleagues teaching various subjects in the

curriculum, discuss with them the relationship between their
subjects and history.

After looking at the place of history in the curriculum and its relation to other subjects,
we now turn to sources.

1.7 Sources of History and Government

A source as “anything or place from which something comes, arises, or is obtained;
origin” while Longman Dictionary defines it as ‘a person or thing that supplies
information’. From these two definitions it can be concluded that sources of history and
government could be books, places, persons, things or objects from which we could get
historical data.

It is important for a history and government teacher to know these sources because:
 it makes one not only aware of the various history and government sources at
one’s disposal but also of other alternative sources incase the ones in hand are
inadequate.
 it enables the teacher to identify the weaknesses of various sources available
and thus be able to assess the reliability of the information available by cross -
checking with other sources.
 it enables the teachers to know the procedure to use to collect historical data
for teaching.
 It helps the learners to develop enquiry skills whereby they will learn to pose
hypotheses, collect data, determine the authenticity of sources and draw
conclusions from the data collected. They will also learn how to criticize and
analyse data.
There are various sources from which information for history and government is
obtained. The main sources are written documents, oral sources, archaeology, linguistics
and anthropology. While written and oral sources provide information for both History
and Government, the others are purely sources for history.

1.7.1 Written sources

Written sources refer to what is drawn or printed in conventional signs on any kind of
support, whether it is papyrus, parchment or paper (UNESCO, General History of Africa,
[Vol.1] Abridged Edition: 1990). These are the most popular and useful sources of
history. In historical process, written work is very important because it has permanence
that the spoken word lacks. Written sources fall into two groups:

 Narrative sources, e.g. chronicles, annals, accounts of travels, newspapers,

journals and books.
 Archival sources e.g.:
 Private documents, e.g. letters, business correspondence, diaries, autobiography,
biography, etc.
 Official and legal documents comprising administrative correspondence,
legislature, financial records, the constitution, Education Act and Government
Commissions/reports etc.
 Religious documents.

The written source was used in Europe, Asia and Arabia for many years before it was
introduced in Africa (except for Egypt which used hieratic Egyptian papyrus before the
Christian era). The written documents contained the history of the people of Europe,
Asia, America and Africa.

Some of the written documents on Africa can be found in libraries of North Africa,
Europe, the Middle East and Armenia, and in the homes of prominent Africans and
scholars in the Sahel. Recently, Ahmed Baba Centre at Timbuktu was established as a
centre of African history with the responsibility of collecting all written documents in the
world on African history.

The first written record on East Africa appeared under the title “The Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea” an anonymous work composed about 230 before the Christian era.

This was followed by other written works by Arab geographers, European explorers,
traders, missionaries, administrators and scholars and lastly African writers.
Today written documents are important because:
 some are readily available for reference.
 they are more reliable than other sources because they are written after careful
research and consultation.
 they are portable, i.e. they are more convenient to carry from place to place
without distorting the contents.
 they at times offer recent information as is the case of local dairies and
journals.

Question ? What are the limitations of written documents?

1.7.2 Oral sources.

Oral sources include current verbal messages and oral traditions. Current verbal
messages refer to recent happenings as told through word of mouth by an authority or a
participant in a given situation. They could be on history or government. In history for
example, when dealing with a topic “Economic Developments”, the teacher can invite an
economist from the Ministry of Finance and Planning to talk about Kenya’s strategies for
economic developments. Under Government, the teacher can invite an army or police
officer to talk about their functions.

As source of History and Government, oral sources have some advantages in that they
provide first-hand information from the participator or witness of an event. History
becomes lively and interesting because it is told from the point of view of the participator
or the narrator. They correct basic biasness in local and foreign interpretation and lastly
they sometimes provide information, which is not available in books.

Activity Interview old people in your community about the origins of the
Community and file the findings.

From the above research, you must have noticed that oral sources have a number of
limitations. Some of these shortcomings are:
 They suffer from distortion due to loss of memory of the narrator.
 Some have a problem of biasness and exaggeration. This depends on the
community one is talking about. If it is one’s own community, the narrator
 tends to over-praise certain happenings by underplaying the enemy’s
community.
 Misinterpretation/misquotation of information: This happens when the
listener does not understand exactly what the narrator is saying or implying.
Sometimes information received is misinterpreted or misquoted.
 There are missing gaps or links. In a number of stories, there is some
information missing and this makes the story incomplete.

Question ? How would you overcome the above limitations ?

Note:
To overcome the above limitations, the teacher has to cross-check the information
on oral sources with other sources to assess the reliability of the information.
This will give oral sources a high order of reliability.

1.7.3 Archaeology
The term “archaeology” comes from a Greek word “archaios” meaning beginning or
ancient. As a discipline it means the study of very ancient times and antiquities. This
study provides silent witnesses and clues to civilization. Some of the clues left behind
include foodstuffs, weapons, skeletons of people and animals, and artefacts, or objects
made of stone, iron, copper, gold, glass or pottery. Other areas of interest are cities,
caves and tombs. These are studied and the history of people is written from them. This
includes social activities, such as education, religion, clothing, eating habits, marriage
and building, etc; economic activities, e.g. farming, iron working and pastoralism, etc.;
and political activities such as palaces, weaponry, etc;

An archaeologist begins by locating historical sites where people lived and follows this
by digging up or excavating the site in search of remains of human existence. After
discovering an artefact, the archaeologist starts studying it by recording the stratum in
which it was found, deciphering the text it bears, describing its shape, ascertaining its
dimensions, and so on. The data collected are studied from the stratigraphic, philological
and typological stand points. Through this, the date and origin of the artefact is
discovered using carbon dating. This is the process in which the amount of carbon in an
object is measured. The more carbon there is in an object, the younger it is. In case the
archaeologist is not able to determine the date, the findings are submitted to other
disciplines for scientific investigation.
Archaeology has enabled the historian come up with useful information on early people.
A classroom teacher can benefit from these findings by organizing a class to make trips
to some of the historical sites where evidence on early humans and their way of life was
discovered. Some of these sites in Kenya are Olorgessailie, Lukenya, Kariandusi, Hyrax
Hill, Gamble’s Cave, Muringa and Koobi Fora. Apart from visiting these places, the
teacher can also take students to museums to study some of the artefacts kept there.

Activity Identify and locate on a map some of the historical sites in Kenya
where you could take your class.

Archaeology as a source of history exposes the learners to reality when they interact with
real objects. It also gives information which otherwise is not available in other sources.
At the same time, it makes the teaching and learning of history interesting.

However, it has some pitfalls:

 The dates which archaeologists arrive at are not totally dependable because
they are very often plus or minus several years.
 Excavation is time-consuming and a very expensive exercise.
 Although it can give social, economic and political aspects of a given
community, it is not possible to tell who the people were and the language
they spoke.

1.7.4 Linguistics.
Linguistics can be defined as the scientific approach used to study language. It deals with
aspects such as grammar patterns, similarities and differences between languages to find
out if they are genetically related. For example, if two languages display regular
correspondences in form and meaning in as much as 20% of their vocabularies (provided
that borrowing can be ruled out by some special techniques), they are said to be
genetically related.

Genetic classification of languages involves comparing words that are similar in both
form and meaning. Where the languages have descended from a common parent, words
having the same meaning may be expected to show regular correspondence in sounds that
are contained in them.
Linguistics is of great help to historians when trying to find out to which language family
a particular language belongs. Genetically, related languages are assumed to have
diversified through the operation of geographical and cultural factors from an originally
homogeneous parent or proto language.

Thus, the study of Linguistics helps the historian to know which groups of people had or
shared a common origin and language. A good example of such language families is the
Bantu group which has more than 400 communities in East, Central and South Africa.
Most of these communities recognize some words in each other’s language. For instance,
if we compare the word for “person” in various Bantu languages in Kenya, we find that
only slight changes are noticed as far as pronunciations and form of writing are
concerned.

Activity Fill in the table below the equivalent of the word person in each of the
communities identified.

Ethnic Kamba Kikuyu Luhya Meru Giriama

group
Person

Note: From examples of similarities in words, reconstruction of the parent language

is done and the degree of relationship is determined.

1.7.5 Anthropology
Anthropology deals with the study of human race, its origins, developments, beliefs and
customs. It attempts to identify the commonalities and differences existing among
human beings, their sources and depths of these sources among various societies. This
could be the way a society exists today or as it used to exist in the past. It aims at
achieving an understanding of the relationship between humans as biological entities and
their adaptations to their environment. There are two branches of anthropology namely:
physical and cultural anthropology. Physical anthropology traces the biological
development of humans as it is studied through fossil remains of early people to much
later forms. Cultural anthropology on the other hand deals with basic aspects of people’s
way of life such as type of food, clothing, shelter, language, folklore and religion.

In order to understand how a community has developed with time, an anthropologist

would study the community in two different settings: in traditional and modern set ups.
The study of these two contrasts will tell a lot about the way the community has
developed or progressed in time perspective. Similarly, one can study communities in
remote parts of the country to show how other communities in the country have evolved
with time.

An anthropologist could also study two or more communities and make a comparison
between them to find out whether they have similarities in their way of life. If so, this
would mean that they had a common origin. The historian will make use of the findings
of anthropologists to trace the origins, movements, settlements, interactions and
developments of communities.

1.8 Summary

In this lesson an attempt has been made to define history as a concept. Although the
definitions of the term history are many and varied, it suffices to say that, it is that which
is concerned with the recording of significant events of human beings both past and
present. The importance of the subject lies in its power of welding the society and the
individuals together giving them a sense of identity and a common destiny.

The study of history in Kenya goes hand in hand with the study of government, a subject
dealing with the administrative organs and structure of the Kenya government today.
This knowledge is important for it makes people aware of their rights and obligations in
the society.

History as a subject has an important role in the curriculum because like any other
subject, it contributes to the achievement of national goals of education especially those
concerned with national unity, interdependence of nations, cultural heritage, religious and
moral development and lastly, individual fulfilment.

History and Government as a subject has a rich source of information in oral and written
sources. The other valuable and related sources for history include archaeology,
linguistics and anthropology. These three can unearth a lot about past events / activities
of humans and they are closely related.

1.9 Definition of Key words/Concept

Aggregate: Sum total
Artifact: Product of human art and workmanship, prehistoric art, an object
that is made by a person such as a tool or a decoration especially
one that is of historic interest.
Autobiography: A book containing the story of a person’s life written by that
person.
Biography: The life story of a person written by someone else.
Curriculum: A group of subjects studied in a school (institution), a particular
course of study in one course.
Decipher: Discover the meaning of something written badly or in a hidden
way.
Distorted: To change something from its usual, original, natural or intended
meaning, condition or shape. Misrepresentation of facts, motives,
statements, put out of shape to make crooked or unshapely.
Government and History: This is a subject taught at secondary school level which
comprises a study of the aggregate of people’s past and present
activities especially how they are ruled or governed in time
perspective.
Learning: A permanent change in individual’s knowledge and behaviour.
Linguistics: Connected with language or the study of languages, science of
language
Teaching: A process of facilitating change in learners through impartation of
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
Source: It is a person or thing that supplies onformation which is original
in nature.
1.10 Further Reading.

Aggarwal, J.C Teaching Social Studies Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd; 1982.

Bining AC and D.H Bining Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools, 3rd edition
Magraw – hill company, 1952.

Carr, E.H. (1961) What is History. Penguin

Collingwood, R.G. The Idea of History London: O.U.P.

Crookalll, P.C. (1975) Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. London: Evans
Brothers

Nasibi M.W. & M. Kiio(2004) Handbook for History and Government Teachers
Nairobi, Strongwall

Walsh W., An Introduction to the philosophy of History 3rd edition, Hutchison,

London, 1967.
 LESSON TWO: TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODS IN HISTORY
AND GOVERNMENT

2.0 Introduction
In the previous lesson, we defined history and government, discussed their importance
and the place of history as a discipline in the curriculum. We further drew the
relationship between history and other social sciences. Lastly we explained the sources
of history and government. In this lecture, our focus will be on strategies and methods of
teaching History and Government.

2.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Define and discuss teaching strategies.
 Discuss expository methods of teaching history and government.

2.2 Definition of Expository and Heuristic Strategies

In order to organise learning experiences for students, teachers use teaching strategies
which are ways and means of organizing and facilitating learning experiences. There are
two teaching strategies namely: expository and heuristic (discovery) strategies.

The expository strategy is teacher-dominated approach of teaching where learners play

minimal role in the learning process. The teacher normally does most of the work for the
learners. The approach is characterized by:
 the teacher providing students with information, the meaning of things, examples,
applications, definitions, explanations, generalizations, summaries, notes and
even evaluations.
 the students playing mostly the role of receivers of information, meanings,
examples, applications, etc.

Examples of methods falling under expository approach are lecturing, dictating notes,
narrative, text reading and audio-visual presentation among others. The heuristic strategy
is learner-centred. Learners are normally the main characters in the teaching learning
process. The teacher’s role is that of a guide, director, supervisor. The approach is
characterized by:
 o the students being actively involved in seeking and finding information,
discovering meanings, attempting translations and definitions, thinking of
examples and applications, making notes, summaries and compositions
and judging critically.
o the teacher mostly organizing the task, providing and suggesting resources
and monitoring how the students are doing the task.

Examples of methods falling under discovery approach are class discussion, small group
work, role-play and project work among others. In history teaching and learning both
strategies are absolutely necessary depending on a number of factors. Sometimes
students cannot find all the required information. This explains the need for exposition
so that the teacher can supply learners with knowledge, which is otherwise not really
available to them (learners). On the other hand, if all the information was given, students
would never learn how to find it by themselves hence the need for discovery approach.
Whichever method a teacher adopts, the following factors should be considered: the
nature of the topic; objectives of the lesson; the type of learners - age, ability and interest;
teacher’s personality, interest, ability and creativity; theories of learning, e.g. traditional
view versus progressive; facilities available time, books, money etc; size of the class;
environment which include- weather, ventilation and lighting.
Note:
Although there is a great variety of teaching methods at the teacher’s disposal, not
all of them are suitable for history teaching and learning. Some of the most
suitable methods used in learning are lecture, story telling, questioning,
discussion, role-playing, real and imaginary visits and lastly projects.

2.3 Lecture Method

Lecture method can be defined as a technique of teaching by means of the spoken word.
It is an oral method of giving information, generating and creating understanding in the
learners.

There are two forms of lecturing namely: formal and informal. A formal lecture is purely
verbal and communication is basically one way from the speaker to the audience. In an
informal lecture, communication is two-way from the speaker to the listener and from the
listener to the speaker. Informal lecture is normally interrupted by among others,
questions, comments, suggestions, viewing and observations and demonstrations.
The lecture method whose history goes back to more than 2,500 years has been criticized
from many quarters. Many educationists feel that the method is out-dated. The current
emphasis is on inquiry or problem-solving approach in teaching and learning. Critics of
this method say that:

 lecture method does not engage its listeners in active learning, such as
modelling, acting, visiting places of interest, discovering and demonstrating
among others. It rather places the learners in a passive position, restricting
their activity to listening and note taking. As a result, the learners do not
develop an inquisitive mind. Instead, they form a tendency of accepting the
ready-made ideas ‘poured’ to them by their teachers.
 materials taught through lecture is quickly forgotten. McCleish (1968)
reported that 40% of the main points were recalled immediately after the
lecture and only 20% a week later.
 lecturers merely repeat material that can be found in textbooks. It is therefore
a waste of time to lecture on material that is factual and available in books.
 some lectures are boring and uninspiring especially when they are handled by
incompetent teachers. They develop deadening monotony and learners
wander into more pleasant thoughts instead of listening, thus losing interest in
the subject.
 lecture method disadvantages those who are not skilled in note-making. As a
result, they lose much of the lecture especially if there is no opportunity for
discussion and clarification.
 lectures are ineffective in changing learning values and attitudes as the
learners are presented with facts to accept and memorize.

Question ? What are the other criticisms against lecture method, not mentioned
above?
Note: Although much of the above criticism is valid to a certain extent, it should be
pointed out that it is not the technique itself, which is defective, but rather its
abuse as a result of being handled by inexperienced and unimaginative teachers.
Proper planning and supplementary provisions can overcome most of the
weaknesses of the method. Used properly and appropriately, it can bring
satisfying results in history teaching and learning.

2.3.1 The importance of lecture method

As a method of teaching, lecture method is important because:
 it is used to supplement other methods of teaching. In fact, there are a few
circumstances if any, where one method of instruction can be used to its
fullest potential without being supplemented by some amount of lecture. For
instance, the explanation portion of inquiry (discovery) method influences the
effect of the technique. Again, the brief introduction in-group discussion sets
the tone of the discussion.
 the spoken word is sometimes more effective than the printed one. A teacher
can indicate by tones, gestures and facial expressions the exact shade of
meaning to be conveyed.
 the learners are able to develop the listening skill through lecture method.
Listening patiently to somebody when speaking is a necessary quality to be
developed in modern democratic society.
 there is uniformity of material presented to the learners through lecture
method. Of course it is to be assumed that the students listen carefully to the
exposition made by the teacher.
 a well-prepared lecture can create profound impression on the mind of the
students. An effective lecture motivates learners to read. There are cases
when students, after hearing a lecture have been motivated to read further on
the subject, take action, and modify their behaviour.

Question How would you answer the charge that lecture method is
Undemocratic in the classroom?

2.3.2 Situations which invite the use of lecture method

Opinions may vary as to when a lecture should be given in history
teachingand learning but the following situations seem to offer suitable
opportunities:
  To introduce a new topic/content
At the beginning of a new topic, the method acts as a means of introduction. This is
done by stating the objectives to be realized by the end of the topic, outlining the
outstanding aspects such as definitions of terms, concepts, principles, persons, events
and problems, identifying the main points of the topic, giving background
information on a topic, etc.

 To interpret or clarify situations

When the learners are having problems in a given topic or concept, the teacher
should not hesitate to spend a few minutes explaining and/or clarifying the situation.

 To synthesize many sources

When there are limited resources for the learners, the teacher can save the learners
from needless expenditure of energy by synthesizing several sources.

 To review a discussion
When the learners have been assigned tasks in groups, it is very important after they
have presented their discussion, for the teacher to summarize the main points of the
topic under discussion.

 To expand content
Through lecture method, the teacher is able to present additional materials based on
extensive reading or one’s own experience. This information could otherwise not be
available to the learners.

 To conclude a lesson
After presentation, the teacher may conclude by summarizing the main points of the
lesson through lecture method. This is what is known as recapitulation.

 To give assignment
When giving an assignment, some amount of lecture is unavoidable. This is because
the teacher is required to explain what is expected of the learners in the given
assignment.
Note Although, the above situations are appropriate for lecture method, it is important
for the history teacher to note that the success of any lecture depends on three main
factors stated below:
 Ability of the teacher
The personality of the teacher, training, competence, resourcefulness, interest
and imagination will contribute to a good lecture. The teacher has to think and
dramatize related ideas, taking students from one generation to another, or
from their nation to another.

 The readiness and the capacity for the learners to follow the lecture
The teacher has to be aware of the ability of the class to understand. The younger
the learners are, the more difficult it will be for them to concentrate on a lecture for
long because their capacity of absorbing and concentrating on lectures diminish with
time, for example, the form ones cannot concentrate on a lecture for a full forty (40)
minutes period as university undergraduate students would.

 The nature of the knowledge to be transmitted

Before the teacher decides to use lecture method, it is important to weigh the nature
of knowledge to be transmitted, e.g. is it a new and unfamiliar ground? Do students
have access to relevant resources on the topic?

2.3.3 How to give a lecture

When giving a lecture the teacher should do the following:
 Organize the lecture in three stages: introduction, main body and conclusion.
 Start the lecture with some interest-catching device to capture the learners’
attention.
 Partition the talk in a few briefly worded ideas, limiting the amount of
material to that which learners can readily get.
 Use a well-modulated voice.
 Use clear, concise and simple language. It should be familiar and suitable to
the learners.
 Punctuate the lecture with pauses so that the knowledge delivered is learned
bit by bit.
 Repeat important points for emphasis.
 Keep to the point by avoiding irrelevancy.
  Be aware of warning signs such as learners’ restlessness, boredom, confusion,
indiscipline, dissatisfaction and adjust the talk appropriately.
 Check the student’s understanding by asking a few questions once in a while.
Students should also be encouraged to ask questions for clarification.
 Ask thought-provoking questions in strategic places to give the learners
opportunity to explore concepts for themselves. This will enable them to
develop the spirit of inquiry and a desire to search for more knowledge.
 Try to be humorous to make the lesson interesting.
 Make use of audio and visual aids such as maps, charts, pictures, film strips,
real objects, models, because as they add life to the lecture.
 Make full use of the chalkboard for summary of the main points of the lesson
and illustration.
 Make use of examples and illustrations. These motivate the learners when
they see that the point under discussion has occurred in real life situations.
 Give a forceful conclusion either by summing up, asking questions or giving
assignments.

After the completion of a lecture, the teacher should follow it up with related activities in
order to bind the learning. Such activities are:

 Making notes - encourage learners to make notes using the outline given.
 discussion - discuss with them the points they feel they did not understand
during the lecture.
 Answering of questions - ask oral questions on the content covered.
 Tests/quizzes - ask them written questions to test their understanding.
 Summary - let one student summarize the main points of the lecture.

Activity From the above points, how do you think, the teacher can arouse
and maintain interest in a lecture?

2.4 Story-Telling / Narrative

It is one of the most suitable and important methods of teaching history because:
 it presents to the learners clear, vivid, interesting and orderly sequences of
events. Through this, the learners visualize these events the way they
happened.
  helps to stimulate the learners’ imagination.
 helps in enhancing the interest of the learners in history.
 is good for character formation when students emulate the characters of great
heroes in the story.
 provides an opportunity to bring closer and makes real to the learners the
country’s or society’s activities, contributions and values both modern and
past.
 helps in emotional development of learners as they begin to appreciate what
others have done in the society or even to sympathize with them.
 is a source of enjoyment.

2.4.1 Qualities of a good story

A good story should be:

 be relevant to what is being or is to be taught. It should also have important
factual information of educational value.
 be interesting, dramatic and exciting, evoking memories of vividness.
 be short, simple with a few characters.
 be suggesting and inspiring the student to action.
 be of a good moral, i.e. the good should be rewarded and evil punished.
 be convincingly real, i.e. containing authentic detail which will make the
characters alive to the learners.
 be based on real life situation or be within learners’ experience.

Question Identify and explain:

(1) Advantages
(2) Disadvantages of story-telling as a method of teaching history

2.4.2 When does a teacher use a story?

A story can be used in history teaching and learning: as an introduction where it is
used as a set induction to set up learners to be ready or attentive to the lesson; as
an interlude to bridge a transition in teaching steps; to revive the flagging
concentration of learners in order to channel them to a desired end; and lastly, as
an end – or conclusion to reflect key points or forces in a lesson’s message, or the
moral implications of the lesson.
 When using story-telling in teaching and learning, the teacher should:
 consider the age, individual differences, level and expectations of the
learners.
 ensure the story has an introduction, developmental stage and conclusion.
 identify, select and introduce visual aids to be used at the right time.
 plan what activities to involve the learners in either during the story telling
session or at the end of the story.

The following points should be considered by the teacher when using story-telling
approach:

 Use simple and easy language.

 Avoid long explanations, unnecessary comments, dates and names i.e. the
story should not be involving.
 Use gestures, facial expressions, movements, modulated voice, etc.
 The teacher should show interest in the story while telling it.
 Tell the story in a natural way, vividly and with a sense of humour.
 Make use of the chalkboard where necessary.

Activities
Identify topics in history and government which you think can

be based taught through the use of story-telling.

Think of a story relevant to any of the topics identified above and tell
it to the class.

What problems have you experienced in telling it?

2.5.0 Question and Answer Method

Questioning technique lies at the heart of effective history teaching and learning. It is
one of the most important means of stimulating thinking and learning. According to
Kochher (1992) “the teacher who never asks questions never teaches”. In fact, every
teacher asks questions when teaching whether consciously or unconsciously. Some
questions are asked to fill up time while others are pre-planned depending on the
objectives of the lesson or the unit, which is being taught.
Any history teacher can ask questions in the course of his/her teaching but to ask them
properly and effectively requires understanding, insight and experience. Good
questioning technique calls for pre-planned questions which are well distributed to cover
all the cognitive levels of learning according to Bloom’s taxonomy of learning which are:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

2.5.1 Purpose of questioning

Questioning technique should not be used for the sake of it but rather it should be applied
to:

 revise work already covered and expose difficulties which the learners may be
faced with so that they can be solved.
 prepare learners for new material by finding out what the learners know
regarding a particular topic.
 encourage self-expression, promote thinking and develop appreciation of
ideas among the learners.
 stimulate interest, imagination, initiative and creativity among the learners.

Activity From your teaching experience, identify other functions of

questioning.

2.5.2 Characteristics of good oral questions

For questions to be rated as good, they must be:
 meaningful and relevant.
 definite and direct.
 clear and coherent.
 simple but challenging enough and thought-provoking.
 suitable to the age, level and the ability of the learners.
 concise and to the point.
 interesting and within the experience of the learners.

2.5.3 Categories of questions

Basically, there are two categories of questions whose aim is to enable the teacher to test
the learners’ level of understanding. There are two categories of questions: lower order or
basic questions and higher order or advanced questions. Lower order questions are
factual requiring learners to recall facts and information covering knowledge,
comprehension and sometimes they spread to cover application. They are concerned
with the factual or descriptive statements, definitions of terms, etc. Higher order
questions on the other hand enable the learner acquire, organize, use and evaluate
information; form and express ideas based on available information and improve the
learners’ self-concept by providing them with opportunities to develop new ways of
thinking.

These questions cannot be answered merely from memory or by simple sensory

description. They require abstract thinking. The learners learn to generalize, to relate
facts in meaningful patterns, to compare and contrast concepts or principles, to make
inferences, to classify, to perceive causes and effects, to discover concepts, to use ideas
and to conclude. The higher order questions cover the following areas:

o Applications: Learners are expected to apply concepts or principles. This

gives them an opportunity to make use of new knowledge to novel
situations.
o Analysis: It requires students to examine and interpret evidence, make
deductions from evidence and to be able to organize and express their
thoughts.
o Synthesis: The learners are involved in creative activity whereby they are
expected to draw a number of ideas together in a given situation or
circumstance.
o Evaluation: The learners are required to make judgment on ideas or values
and then to give supportive reasons for their judgment.

Note: Although there are two basic categories of questions mentioned above, there are
other questions, which cut across the two categories. These are probing questions
(see Figure 4). Probing questions enable students to think beyond their first
simple response. Usually they are never prepared in advance because they are
asked according to the students’ response to earlier questions.
Probing questions serve the following purposes:

o Clarification: the teacher asks for a clearer, more concise answer.

o Support: the teacher asks why a particular answer was given.
o Consensus: the learners are called upon to agree or disagree with the
previous answer during a discussion.
 Pre-planned Pre-planned or
Questions unplanned questions

HIGHER LOWER
ORDER

PROBING

Knowledge
Application comprehension
Analysis application
Synthesis
Evaluation

Figure 2: Classification of questions

(i) What are distinguishing characteristics of

Question ? lower and higher order questions?
(ii) At what stage of the learning /teaching
process does a teacher use probing
technique?

2.5.3 Caution on questioning technique

In using questioning technique, you should avoid the following:
 The learners answering in unison. Such as response does not enable the teacher to
differentiate between those who know and those who does not know. This
discrimination is important because it is the basic reason of questioning. Such
reasoning comes up when the teacher uses yes or no questions tend to encourage
guessing and chorus answers. For instance, a question like “Was Kenyatta a
freedom fighter?” calls for a Yes or No response.
Such a question should be improved on as the following: “ What role did
Kenyatta play in the struggle for independence?”
 Asking two questions at a time because it confuses the learners as they are not
sure of which part of the question to answer first, e.g. “What did you like or
dislike about this topic?” “What did you like about this topic?” After it has been
answered, the teacher will proceed to ask what they did not like about the topic.
 Vague questions which are difficult to answer, e.g. “What do you think about the
history?
  Leading questions that have answers within themselves. For example, “Does the
president make the law or does he carry it out?” It should be improved to: “In
what ways does the President help to make the legislation?”
 Repeating questions: This should not be done unless it is very necessary,
repetition promotes inattention. The students wait for the teacher to repeat before
they answer it. If the question is not clear, it should be rephrased.
 Ambiguous questions, e.g. “What happened after the First World War?” It
should be more specific e.g. “What happened to German East Africa after the
First World War?”

2.5.4 Guidelines to questioning technique

The following suggestions are useful when you intend to use questioning:
 The questions should be related to the objective of the lesson.
 The questions should be within the students’ background, experience and
ability.
 Language used should be simple and appropriate to the age level.
 The questions should be directed to the whole class. This helps to ensure that
all students pay attention to the question as every member of the class stands a
chance of being asked to respond to it.
 The questions should follow an interrogative form, beginning with: who,
which, what, when, why, how, etc.
 There should be a pause before the teacher picks on a particular student to
answer the question. Enough time should be allowed for the learners to
respond to the question depending on its nature whether it is on recall or
critical thinking. The latter requires more time.
 The teacher should prepare key questions to be asked in the main stages of the
lesson in advance.
 The questions should follow a sequence so that the answers form a loosely
connected but logical account.
 The questions should spread to the whole class involving as many students as
possible.
2.5.5 Guidelines to follow when handling students’ answers
In dealing with the students’ responses (answers), the teacher should do the
following:
 Give credit for effort made by commending good answers with encouraging
remarks such as “Good”. For wrong answers you should appreciate the effort
made but at the same time make it clear that the answer is wrong. Encourage
the student to try again.
 Accept the inability of a student to answer a question. Do not insult, mock or
reprimand.
 If the class is unable to answer the question, the teacher should either rephrase
it or explain the expected answer.
 Listen to the learners’ answers even if they are wrong without interruption
either from you (the teacher) or the other learners. Make due correction on
the spot.
 Use the following approach to deal with wrong answers from the learners:

 If the purpose of the question was the recall of factual material, the teacher
may use another student to answer the question.
 If the question asked calls for a judgment or decision, the teacher may
rephrase the question. This may take the form of a series of linked questions
to guide the learner to the correct answer.
 If an answer is partly right and partly wrong, separate the two portions, and
leave no doubt which answer is correct.
 Do not force the learners to accept an answer that they believe to be incorrect.

The history teacher can use questions at different levels of the lesson for example, at the
introduction as set induction. Here, the questions may be useful in defining the topic or
focusing attention, or even bringing out the lesson’s objective or reviewing the previous
lesson. It may be a way of relating the theme to the learners’ experience. Questions can
also be used during lesson development in order to find out if the learners are following
the lesson and also to get information on the topic under study. Lastly, they can be used
at the end of the lesson as a sure way of summarizing the lesson or giving an assignment.

Although questioning is an effective approach to history teaching and learning, you

need to use it cautiously because of these limitations:
 It is time consuming.
  It is more applicable in topics the students are familiar with.
 Pre-planned questions call for more involvement in the planning
process by the teacher.
 It does not cater for individual differences because the teacher
tends to ignore weak and shy students. As a result, the bright ones
dominate the lesson.
 Questioning is a complex skill which can only be handled by an
experienced teacher.
2.6 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed teaching strategies and some of the methods of teaching
history and government. Specifically, the lesson defined expository and heuristic
strategies, identified their characteristics and methods, which fall under each of them.
The lecture went further to discuss lecture and questioning methods. Among the things
discussed were, their definitions, importance, their application in the classroom and their
limitations as teaching methods.

2.7 Definition of Key Words/Concepts

Expository: An act of explaining of information clearly in a learning situation.

Heuristic: Learning by ones own personal discoveries and experiences.
Method: A way or procedure of doing something.
Narrative: An oral presentation of string of events often with explanations of the
events in terms of their causes and effects.
Pausing: Using silence to gain or direct attention, provide an opportunity for
convert practice; or invite participation.
Probe: A technique whereby the teacher asks a series of step-by step
questions to help a student move through a reasoning process to frame
a logical answer, to elicit more detail or a higher-level response.
Strategy: A deliberate planning and organization of an experience and a
situation with a view to achieving specific goals.
Technique: Means of achieving ones purpose especially skilfully, way of doing an
activity requiring skill.
Ventilation: Causing air to more freely.

2.8 Further Reading

Ayot, H.O. New Approaches in History teaching in Secondary Schools, KBL,
Nairobi, 1979.
Burston, W. H and C.W Green (eds.) Handbook for History Teachers, 2nd edition,
Metheun, London 1972.
Carpenter, P.C. (1972). Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. London: Evans
Brothers
Kochlar, S.K. (1979) Teaching of History 1st ed. New Delhi: Sterling Private
Limited: New Delhi
McCleish, J. ‘The Lecture method’ Monographs of Teaching Methods No1,
Cambridge Institute of Education, 1968.
Nasibi M.W. & M. Kiio (2004) Handbook for History and Government Teachers
Strongwall Africa: Nairobi
 LESSON THREE: HEURISTIC METHODS OF TEACHING

3.0 Introduction
In the last lecture we discussed the two teaching strategies as expository and
heuristic. We also looked at some methods of teaching, which fall under expository
method. The last method to be discussed was questioning which is a bridge
between expository and heuristic approaches. In this lesson, we will zero on some
of the heuristic methods, which could be applied to history teaching and learning.

3.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

Identify and define some heuristic methods such as whole class discussion,
small groups, brainstorming, debate and panel discussion.
Explain the importance of some of the above methods in teaching and learning of
history, their limitations and how they can effectively be used in teaching and
learning.

3.2 Discussion Method

It can be defined as a critical examination by argument. As a method, it is an
approach in which the students under the teacher’s guidance exchange points of
view so as to arrive at a collective decision or conclusion on a given issue/topic. It
can be an exchange of ideas between a teacher and the students and between the
students themselves. It is concerned with analysis, comparison and evaluation of
ideas. There are two approaches to discussion: expository oriented and inquiry
oriented discussion.

Expository oriented discussion is where the teacher defines the objective(s) of the
lesson, explains learning activities, allows for the discussion, invites questions
before concluding the activity.

In inquiry-oriented discussions, the teacher may not state the objectives, instead one
arranges for the discussion to take place and the whole activity is open-ended.
Usually, there are no specific conclusions to be made. The teacher serves as a
guide not as a leader. The students carry out the discussion and arrive at a
conclusion.
Question ? Differentiate between controlled and open discussion?

3.2.1 Importance of discussion

Discussion technique is important in the teaching and learning of history because
it:
 stimulates learners’ mental activity, thus leading to a lively
discussion ,
 develops fluency in expression which is necessary in learning and
in adult life,
 encourages learners to discover information for themselves and
trains in the presentation of ideas and facts,
 permits social learning through interaction,
 develops critical thinking among the learners,
 develops leadership qualities among the learners, because it gives
them a chance to lead a group,
 facilitates retention of material learnt.

In using discussion method, there are a number of considerations to be made by :

3.2.2 The teacher

The teacher should:
 act as a leader and initiator of the discussion and should
maintain class control.
 be a guide and a facilitator of the discussion.
 first present the topic of the discussion.
 make seating arrangement: circle/round the table pattern is
more suitable for discussion.
 encourage students especially the shy ones to participate.
 appreciate whatever effort is made by students without
embarrassing, pressurising or ridiculing them.
 provide explanations where necessary.
 clarify doubts/mistakes and misinterpretation.
 encourage cooperation and team spirit among group members.
 limit the discussion to a few major facets of the topic.
  design the discussion so as to fit into the time available.
 evaluate and summarize the main points of the discussion

3.2.3 The learners

They have to consider the following before and during the discussion:
 The learners should do extensive reading on the topic prior to
discussion.
 Speakers should be acknowledged by either the group leader
(small group discussion) or by the teacher (whole class
discussion) before speaking.
 Contributors should speak clearly so that everyone can hear.
 Questions raised should be worded carefully and clearly.
 The learners should be creators rather than passive receivers of
ideas.
 Statements/comments made should be related to the problem
under discussion.
 The group leader should ensure that every group member is
encouraged to participate in the discussion.

Question ? Identify other roles of learners which have not been mentioned
above.

3.2.4 When to use discussion method

Discussion method could be used when :
 the teacher wants to get opinions/ideas from the students.
 dealing with topics which require flow of information from the
teacher to the students and students to the teacher.
 the teacher wants to clarify situations and examples.
 the objective is to develop critical thinking among the learners.
 the nature of the topic can be best handled through discussion
method.
 handling controversial issues.
3.2.5 Limitations of discussion method
Discussion as a teaching and learning method has a number of limitations for
example:
 It is time consuming.
 It may give opportunities for some students to show off.
 It is difficult to achieve maximum interaction when the group is
large.
 When a discussion leader is weak, the discussion can result in
unorganized, unproductive activity.
 Normally, shy students are not actively involved in the lesson.
 Weak students are at times shouted down upon and this
embarrasses them and weakens their contribution in the discussion
and in future discussions.

Note: There are two types of discussion namely: whole class discussion and small group
discussion.

3.2.6 Whole Class Discussion

Whole class discussion often than not comes up as an impromptu activity. It comes in
the midst of student-teacher talk when an issue arises that requires to be clarified further.
At other times a discussion can be sparked off when a teacher throws a pre-planned
question to the class on the topic under study. In this discussion, a periodic summary of
what has been said is essential. This helps to evaluate the progress of the discussion as
well as to keep everybody up-to-date.

As a teaching technique, the whole class discussion cannot work alone. It is serviced by
other methods like lecture, questioning, small groups because after using a given
approach, the teacher addresses the whole class and thus initiates more
response/discussion from the class.

Note: The following should be noted about unplanned discussion.

 Do not allow discussion to digress into less productive side issues. If
it does, be alert to lead it back to the right path.
 Limit the discussion to a few major facets of the topic. In this way,
you will be able to discuss the topic in depth.
3.2.7 Small Group Discussion
Under small group discussion, we have buzz groups, group reports,
brainstorming, debates, panel among others. It involves forming groups from the
whole class. Groups ranging from 2 –12 students could be generated in one of
the following ways:

 Random grouping: This is where students are grouped without any order.
 Friendship grouping: The teacher deals with a clique as a group.
 Achievement level grouping: Students are grouped according to their
ability.
 Differential ability grouping: The teacher intentionally places students with
different leadership and academic abilities in one group so that they can
form a more functional group.
 Gender inclined: Students are grouped according to their gender. The idea
is to promote competition between boys and girls.

3.2.8 Small Group reports

In using group reports, the teacher should do the following:
 Give students a topic to discuss in groups of 3-6 depending on the size of
the class. In a large class, assign different sub-topics to various groups for
discussion.
 Ensure that each group has a leader who should write down the main points
discussed.
 During discussion, move from one group to another to listen to and guide the
discussion.
 After the groups have had enough time to discuss the topic, allow a reporting
session where each group leader will report the group findings.
 As each group presents its findings, the other students should jot down the
main points of the presentation.
 Allow time for questions, comments, clarification and additional points.
 Give concluding remarks on what has been discussed.
3.2.9 Brainstorming
In brainstorming, this procedure could be followed:
 The teacher introduces a topic or a problem/question to the class and asks
members of the class/group for their ideas, solutions or comments on the
issue.
 The class/group responds with whatever comes to the mind.
 All responses whether wrong or correct are accepted and recorded on the
chalkboard or a piece of paper for reference.
 No comments are allowed until all group/class members have expressed every
idea that they can think of.
 The teacher allows the class/group to discuss the ideas expressed freely and
then evaluates the responses.

The teacher is free to make modification of the above guidelines to suit the
objectives of the lesson.

3.2.10 Debates
The most formal of all discussion techniques is the debate. It requires learners to hold
formal argument on a given issue. It is an important technique in history teaching and
learning because it enables participants to see the other side of an issue in order to meet
the arguments of their opponents; clarifies the controversy at stake and prepares the
learners for future roles in the society, e.g. being politicians, lawyers, etc.

Question ? What do you think are limitations of diabetes?

3.2.10.1 How to organize a debate

A debate could be organized as follows:
 Select a topic or a question to be debated on.
 Allow students to form two teams, one arguing for the topic and another
arguing against it.
 Select a chairman and a timekeeper.
 Choose first speakers, one for and another against.
 Choose second speakers, one for and another against.
 The speakers should be given 5-7 minutes each.
 Allow for first rebuttal for, and first rebuttal against.
  Give chance for second rebuttal for, and second rebuttal against.
 Allow time for a general discussion, this is when the floor is open for the rest
of the class.
 Give concluding remarks.

Teacher
Time keeper
Chairman
1st P 2nd P 1st O 2nd O

L L L L L L

L L L L L L

L L L L L L

L L L L L L

L L L L L L

L L L L L L

Key: 1st and 2nd P = 1st and 2nd proposers

1st and 2ndO = 1st and 2nd opposers
L = learner

Figure 3: Organization of a debate

3.11 Panel Discussion

This approach is also called speaker- audience technique. A panel consists of a group of
selected students (4-6) to lead a discussion before a classroom situation.
The group panel is led by a chairman with outgoing leadership qualities. The panellists
should sit in front of the class in a semi-circle.

3.11.1 Guidelines for panel discussion

After the members of a panel have been identified, the following should be carried out:
 The panellists should prepare adequately on the selected topic with the help of
the teacher who will guide them on their roles and the procedure to follow
during the presentation. For example the chairperson will be expected to:
  introduce the topic. Prepare the audience by drawing their attention and
explaining the procedure of the discussion.
 introduce the panellists (participants).
 control the discussion to ensure that time is kept.
 invite and encourage the audience to ask questions at the opportune time.
 sum up when necessary.
 close the discussion.
 Before the presentation, the panellists should go through the main points of
their discussion amongst themselves.
 The panellists should discuss the given topic among themselves as the class
listens attentively jotting down questions to ask the panel.
 The class should also have a checklist to evaluate the panel.
 After the presentation by the panel, the discussion is open to the whole class
and the teacher takes over from the chairperson.
 The class will either accept or reject some points raised by the panellists.
They will also ask questions.
 The teacher will supervise the discussion and evaluate the points raised.
 Wind up the discussion by asking questions and telling the students to make a
summary in writing.

Note: The panel discussion could be used when a topic under discussion provides a
variety of points of view and when the students have done research in a group and
their results need to be presented before the class.

3.10 Summary
In this lesson we have discussed the following methods under heuristic strategy:
discussion, small groups, brainstorming, debates and panel discussion. The following
features were covered under each of the methods: the importance of the methods, when to
use them in the classroom, how to use them and their limitations as methods of teaching
history and government.

3.11 Definition of key Words

Brainstorming A technique used by in individuals or groups to produce as
many ideas or suggestions as possible within a few minutes,
initially judging the value or implications of the ideas
suggested.
Impromptu Done or said without earlier planning or preparation.
Panel Discussion: An organised discussion, where the topic and speakers are
selected beforehand.
 LESSON FOUR: EXPERIENTIAL METHODS OF TEACHING

4.0 Introduction
In the last lesson, we focused on interactive methods of teaching history. In this lecture,
our discussion will be based on some of the experiential methods which could be applied
in the teaching and learning of history. Among the methods are; role-play, educational
visits, imaginary visits and project method.
4.1 Role Play Method
It is defined as an unrehearsed dramatization in which the players try to clarify a
situation by acting out the roles of the participants in the situation. Selected
members of a class act out or imitate a situation/condition or circumstances. The
method is based on a life situation where the players personify other people and
assume their roles. However, it should be emphasized that the learners are
playing roles and that they are not portraying their own character.

4.1.1 Purpose of role-playing

Role-play has these purposes:
 It helps people see a situation through other peoples’ point of view.
 It prepares learners to fit in different situations in life as they play different
roles.
 It helps in clarifying and demonstrating attitudes and concepts.
 It deepens understanding of social situations.
 It helps in planning and trying out strategies for attacking problems.
 It helps in testing out hypothetical solutions to problems.

There are many History and Government topics that can be taught through the use
of this method. These include:

o Biographies of political leaders, e.g. Jomo Kenyatta’s arrest, trial,

coronation as president.
o Trade, e.g. local trade where a market scene can be enacted.
o African reaction to colonial rule e.g. Mekatilili organising the Giriama
against the colonial administration.
o Struggle for independence, scenes of freedom fighters planning for war.

Think of other topics from the syllabus where role-play could be

Activity used
4.1.2 Organization of role playing
A teacher could organize role-playing using the following stages:
 Select a topic that the class understands very well.
 Give the purpose for role-playing.
 Explain areas of emphasis in the topic
 Decide on the number of the players.
 Encourage learners to volunteer to play different roles.
 Select the required number from those who volunteer to
participate.
 Use your discretion to assign roles.
 Be sure that the players understand the situation and their roles.
 Brief the audience and make sure everyone understands what the
players are trying to do.
 Let the students act out the situation.
 Stop players when they step out of their roles or when they cannot
continue with success.
 If time allows get a second group of students to play the roles
when the first group has finished.
 Summarize the role-play presentations with a short discussion.
 Give concluding remarks, correcting any misinterpretations and
errors made.

Although the importance of role-play cannot be underestimated, it has also some

limitations e.g.:

 It is not realistic enough and as such it can lead to misconceptions.

 Sometimes the learners take it as a form of entertainment and as a
result they lose its meaning
 Sometimes do not like playing certain roles especially those of
unadmirable personalities

Activity From the list of relevant topics given on role-play, organize

your students in a group or groups to act relevant roles on any
of the topics.
4.2 Educational Visits
These are visits by learners to venues of learning through which they (learners) come into
first-hand contact with people, places and things around them.

Through these visits, learners are involved in the following: Listening, interviewing and
observing people in action, examining real things e.g. tools, reports and other documents
and participating in community affairs.

Activity Make a list of some topics in history and government syllabus,

which could be taught effectively using educational visits.

These places you have identified above are important in teaching of History and
Government as a subject. This is illustrated by the points below.

4.2.1 Importance of educational visits

There are important in the teaching and learning of history because:
 They supplement and enrich curriculum experiences.
 They provide hands-on experiences to learners when they come in
contact with people, places and things around them, thus
developing a sense of reality.
 They arouse curiosity among the learners motivating them to learn.
 They break classroom monotony.
 They provide information not readily available in books.
 Learners develop the skills of collecting and analysing data.

4.2.2 Consideration to be made by the teacher intending to use educational visits

One should answer the following questions positively before embarking on a visit:
 Will the visit be relevant to educational objectives?
 Will the visit be of genuine interest to the learners?
 Will it be suitable for the age and class level?
 Are educational values for the prepared visit definite and clear?
 Will it produce learning that is justified for time consumed and
trouble taken?
 Will it provide observational experience, which is not available?
 Will it fit naturally in the sequence of students’ work?
4.2.3 Preparation to be made before an educational visit
Preparations must be made both by the teacher and the learners. The teacher should do
the following:
 Identify a relevant place.
 Discuss the matter with the head of the school for approval.
 Plan objectives of the visit.
 Inform the students about the intended visit.
 Visit or contact relevant people or agents to seek permission.
 Prepare and send questionnaires in advance to the people who will
be in charge of the students during the visit.
 Agree on date, time and number of students, teachers and activities
the learners will be involved in.
 Inform the parents about the visit through a written note.
 Enlist support and assistance of other members of staff and
parents.
 Make arrangements with school authorities for students left behind
or duties left unattended.
 Make a route plan.
 Review field trip guide for students.
 Provide students with necessary materials.
 Arrange for safety devices by the students.
 Establish rules of contact, behaviour standards and form of dress.
 Give procedure to be followed when one gets lost or is left behind.
 Take roll call before the start of the trip.

Question How could you prepare your learners for the trip?

4.2.4 During the visit

During the visit or trip, both the teacher and the learners have these
responsibilities:

 you should ensure that there is proper conduct in the bus during the
trip, e.g. remaining on one’s seat, not sticking arms and heads out
of the window.
  In cases of stops on the way, one has to take roll call to ensure that
nobody is left behind.
 On arrival, you should reinstruct the learners on what should be
done.
 you have to ensure that students walk together in groups.
 The students should carry out specific tasks assigned to them.
 you should supervise the learners in various activities they are
involved in.
 The teacher should control time and ensure that the students go
back to school/home before nightfall.
 If the trip calls for spending the night out, away from the
school/home, you should ensure that the students are safe and
comfortable.

4.2.5 Follow-up after the visit

For one to assess the success and benefits of the trip, the person should:
 take about one or two lessons after the visit to consolidate the
findings.
 give time to group leaders to present their reports.
 write major points on the chalkboard for the benefits of the whole
class.
 mark and file written reports in a class file for future reference.
 give students an assignment based on the visit, e.g. a project.
 correct any errors made by the guides or agents during the visit.
 write a brief evaluation of the trip for future reference.

Activity Visit Kenya Museum and make brief notes on what is available
in the following sections:
(i) Pre-history section
(ii) Struggle for Independence section
(iii) Ethnography section
(iv) Artifacts of display
4.3 Imaginary educational visits
A very stimulating approach of teaching history would be to weave facts around
an imaginary visit to the actual place where events took place. This approach
could be used under the following situations:
 When teaching remote history, you should take the learners’ minds to that time in
the past; they should be asked to imagine that they are living during that period in
the past and to visualize how they would have reacted in a given situation at that
time.
 When the place under discussion cannot be visited because of the distance or
insecurity, the learners should be asked to take imaginary journeys to that place.
 When the learners cannot visit a given place because of lack of money or time.
 When teaching topics, which are not exciting/interesting, the teacher will help the
learners to visualize the events vividly as if they are happening now.
 When the teacher’s aim is to develop imaginative powers of the learners.

Note:
Before embarking on an imaginary visit, the learners should be assigned roles,
which they are supposed to perform at the imaginary site/venue. These would
include interviews, observations and participation in other relevant activities.
They would then be told to make individual or group reports, on coming back
from the imaginary visit.

This kind of approach will inspire learners to research on some unfamiliar topics so long
as they are guided on what to look for so that they can be able to report their findings to
the class.

4.3.1 Suggested guidelines for imaginary visits

The following is a useful guide you if you intend to use imaginary visits in a
history lesson:

 Choose a place of interest, which is relevant to the topic under study.

 If the place is within reach but learners are not in a position to visit, you should
make effort to visit the area so as to describe it well to the learners. As learners
enjoy stories, the imaginary visit will interest them more if it is in a story form.
 During the visit, you should note carefully what can be seen on the journey to
the place and also at the site.
  If possible a map should be prepared. It should be simple enough for the
learners to understand.
 When telling the learners to imagine the journey, they should focus on:
 interesting things seen on the way e.g. wild life, buildings,
factories, landscape, etc.
 distance to the place,
 time taken to the place,
 any problems encountered on the way.
 While at the imaginary site, the learners should describe what is found there,
e.g. people, buildings, objects and activities taking place there.
 To make imaginary visits real, the teacher should use a variety of relevant
learning resources e.g. pictures. Suitable pictures of places, things, objects are
very useful. Both the teacher and learners can collect relevant pictures from
newspapers, magazines, textbooks etc. The teacher can also take photographs
of actual things or places.
 There should be learning activities as a follow-up after the visit which would
include:
 asking oral questions;
 discussing about people and places visited;
 drawing e.g. people at work, objects seen, a simple map;
 model making e.g. houses, objects;
 acting a relevant scene; and
 writing a summary about the visit- the summary can be
according to each individual’s understanding about the visit or
it could, can be answer to questions asked by the teacher.

4.4 Project Method

Project method is a child-centred approach to learning. It aims at developing the
child into a decent worthwhile citizen by actively involving one into the learning
process and freeing the individual from traditional school environment, which is
usually marked with passivity and lacks keenness and real life.

A project method has been defined as:

 any unit of activity, individual or group, involving the investigation and

solution of problems, that is planned and carried to conclusion by a student or
 students under the guidance of the teacher. (Callahan, J.F. and Clark, L.H.,
Teaching in the Middle and Secondary School: 1990.)
 an educational assignment necessitating personal initiative on the part of the
learner (Barnhart, C.L. and Stein Jess, The American College Dictionary:
1970).

4.4.1 Types of projects

There are different types of projects, which can be used in History and
Government teaching and learning. These are:

 producer type: The learners are expected to construct real things and models, e.g.
tools used by early man, modes of transport, court of arms etc.
 consumer type: The learners are expected to make use of already produced
material, e.g. watching a film, reading or listening to a story about a great
personality, studying lectures of great personalities and writing on the
achievements and characters of the persons. After consuming the produced
materials, the learners can be engaged in a project like writing and acting out a
story.

 Problem solving project: The learners are exposed to a problem to solve in

history. The solution to the problem could be book-based or field-based, i.e. the
learner could solve the problem by reading books within the school or going out
in the field to gather material towards the solution of the problem or both.

Identify topics in History and government syllabus which

Activity could be best handled by the use of project method

Preparation for a project

In planning to use a project approach to teaching and learning of history, the following
guidelines would be useful:
 Either you the teacher/students should identify a project to work on, e.g. watching
a film, constructing something or solving a problem.
 You should then discuss the project with the students, so that they understand
what it is.
  The learners should decide democratically and plan on what they should work on
within the project.
 The learners should cooperate to execute the plan with the teacher’s guidance.
Some of the activities the learners would be engaged in are: observing, drawing,
painting, modelling, interviewing, reading and writing.
 You and the learners and the learners should evaluate the project. Constructive
criticism should be made on the completed project so that an improvement is
made on it.
 You should record the project in a book for future reference. This record will
include: how the problem was identified, duties assigned, problems experienced
and experience gained by the learners.

4.4.2 Advantages of project method

Project method has a number of advantages such as:
 preparing the child for life outside school by acquainting one with real problems
of life.
 promoting a sense of responsibility and cooperation among the learners as they
work together to achieve a common goal.
 treating knowledge as a whole and correlates it avoiding compartmentalizing it
into subjects.
 imparting training to students to inculcate in them independence, tolerance,
patience, open-mindedness and resourcefulness. These virtues are essential for
good citizenship.
 training for democratic way of life which is exercised through choice of areas of
interest in the project.
 upholding the dignity of labour because students learn to work with their own
hands.
 developing important skills in learners, such as observation interviewing, critical
thinking and decision-making.
 utilizing the students potential to the full because they are encouraged to use and
develop their own talents.
 providing flexibility in learning as the learners learn at their own initiative and
pace.

Question ? Given the above advantages, what are the limitations of a

 project method?

4.6 Summary
In summary, various methods of teaching History and Government have been discussed.
Those methods fall under two broad approaches to teaching namely expository and
heuristic. Expository strategy is an autocratic approach to classroom teaching while
heuristic is democratic. Whereas the latter is learner-centred, the former is focused on the
teacher. Teaching methods, which fall under these two strategies, run in a continuum
from purely teacher-centred methods to extremely learner-centred. Each method is
determined by among others the nature of content , type of learners, teacher’s personality
and teaching/learning environment.

4.7 Definition of Key Concepts/Words

Problem solving: A process of reasoning through a series of sequential steps to
arrive at answers to questions or achieve a solution to a
problem.

4.8 Further Reading

Aggarwal, J.C Teaching Social Studies Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd;
1982.

Ayot, H.O. New Approaches in History teaching in Secondary Schools, KBL,

Nairobi, 1979.

Burston, W. H and C.W Green (eds.) Handbook for History Teachers, 2nd edition,
Metheun, London 1972.
Callahan J.F. and Clark L.H. (1990) Teaching in the Middle Secondary schools. London:
Macmillan
Crookalll, P.C. (1975) Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. London: Evans
Brothers
Nasibi M.W. & M. Kiio (2004) Handbook for History and Government Teachers
Strongwall Africa: Nairobi
 LESSON FIVE: LEARNING RESOURCES

5.0 Introduction
In the previous lessons, we looked at various teaching methods. In this lesson, we
focus on learning resources. These resources will be discussed in relation to their
relevance to history teaching, and their utility in the classroom. Some of their
advantages and disadvantages will be highlighted.

5.1 Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Identify the importance of learning resources.
 Categorise the learning resources.
 Mention why it is important for the history teacher to produce his/her
own teaching learning resources.
 Identify and discuss print media and chalkboard in the teaching and
learning of history.

5.2 Categorization of Learning Resources

There is a wide assortment of media to be used in history teaching and learning.
Some of them are commercially produced while some are locally made. For
convenience of media identification, the following taxonomy will be used:

 Print media.
This includes textbooks, reference books, encyclopaedias, newspapers,
journals, magazines, programmes, reviews, periodicals, etc.
 Non-projected media (Graphic materials)
These are materials that use combination of drawings, words,
pictures and symbols. They include chalkboard, diagrams, charts, atlas,
maps, pictures, bulletins, felt and magnetic boards.
 Silent projected media
These are projected materials that have no sound. They include slides,
filmstrips, overhead transparencies, silent films and microfilms.

 Audio-media
 It refers to any material through which messages are directed to the ear.
In this category there is audiotape recorders and radio.
 Audio-visual projected media
These are materials through which messages are directed simultaneously at the
ear and eye. They include sound filmstrips, sound slide sets, sound
motion pictures and videotapes.
 Realia
These are real things or objects.
 Models
These are representatives of real things.
 Mass media
It refers to any means through which a message is conveyed to the
public. This includes radio, television and newspapers.
In using the above resources, you have to select the right materials to use in a given
history lesson. In this selection process, you should be guided by the following
questions:

 Is the material suitable/relevant to the topic?

 Will it help to achieve the objective(s) of the lesson?
 Will it present an accurate understanding of the facts in the topic?
 Will it highlight the points that the teaching has underscored?
 Is the material within the level of understanding of the learners?
 Is it clear for example in its images, sounds and the way it is presented?
 Is the material attractive with large print, illustration and colour?
 Is the material of good quality?
 Is it up-to-date?
 Is the material readily available?

5.3 Media Production

Some of the media used in history teaching are either commercially produced or teacher-
made. It is recommended where possible that the teacher and the learners prepare their
own materials especially pictures, charts and models. Teacher-made resources have the
following advantages:

 They can quickly respond to the local needs (school environment).

 They can be tailored to instructional needs.
  They allow one to make a choice to use materials best suited for a particular
environment/group.
 Teacher-made materials can be evaluated and revised constantly.
 Teacher made materials tend to be better utilized as the teacher has better ideas of
how the materials can be integrated in the lesson.
 Teacher-made resources can incorporate familiar surroundings hence they are
more relevant than commercially produced ones.
 They enable the learners to develop a variety of skills such as creativity,
imagination and initiative as they produce these materials.

Question ? Given the above advantages, what are some of the limitations of
media production?

5.4 Commonly used Materials in the Teaching and Learning of History and
Government
5.4.1 Textbooks
A textbook can be defined as a standard book especially designed to teach a specific body
of knowledge to a specific group of learners. It is written for a particular subject at a
particular level in school or college. A good example of a history textbook is the History
and Government series by Kenya Institute of Education. Of all the materials of
instruction, the textbook has the most influence on teaching content and method
especially with the exploding growth of knowledge. According to J.W. Hurt (1962) and
Crookall (1972), a textbook remains, after the teacher, the learner’s chief aid, support and
the learner’s companion throughout the history course.

5.4.2 Importance of textbooks in teaching and learning

Textbooks are important because:
 they spell out and interpret the syllabus.
 they provide a uniform selected and an organized body of knowledge that can be
used as a basis for determining course content and area of emphases.
 they enable one to skim an account, something one cannot easily do with a film, a
television or radio programme, thus making readers to read what interests them.
 they assist the teacher in daily lesson preparation, in giving assignment and
providing further readings to the learners’ thus reinforcing learning.
 they enable the teacher to organize class activities during and after the lesson.
  they furnish a permanent record to the learner, making it easier for an individual
to check and recheck what the writer has said thus improving performance.

5.4.3 Criteria for a good textbook

In selecting a history and government textbook you should be guided by the following
criteria:
 The textbook should be relevant to curriculum objectives of History and
Government.
 It should have relevant and accurate information. This calls for authenticity and
competency of the writer: Is the author an authority in history? What is the
writer’s background? Has one given a scholarly presentation of historical
information giving both points of view on controversial issues? Is the information
true and up-to-date?
 It should have maximum content coverage as per syllabus that is free from bias,
controversy and with concepts explained clearly with sufficient details.
 It must be properly arranged with an information table of contents, glossary,
complete and detailed index and bibliography, which are important for all ages of
students.
 Subject matter should be divided in proper chapters or units following a
chronological order making it easier for classroom use. It must also have headings
and summaries.
 The language used should be suitable in relation to the class to be taught. It
should be suitable in style, vocabulary and sentence construction (simple and
short). It should also explain a variety of meanings for technical or historical
terms.
 It should be an attractive and stimulating book including devices that aid past
learning such as illustrations and maps to avoid monotony of print. The
illustrations such as pictures, sketches, maps, diagrams and time charts should be
correct, authentic, purposeful and appropriately placed in the textbook with proper
size and suitably captioned.
 The print should be clear and easy to read, the typeface pleasing with enough
spacing between words, line and paragraphs. The paper should be good and the
binding strong.
 It must provide a variety of thought-provoking activities and exercises for the
learners at the end of each chapter. These activities and exercises should be
 appropriate for both gifted and slow learners and promote the spirit of inquiry and
motivate students for further study.
 The price must be affordable.

5.4.5 Effective utilization of the textbook

For effective utilization, you should never depend solely on the textbook nor repeat word
by word, what is in it. Rather, one should do the following:
 Familiarize yourself within the textbook and supplement textbook information
with material from other books and sources. After identifying a topic covered in
the textbook, the reader should read it, and look for a similar topic in other history
resources available in the library or in the school.
 Add reality to textbook information by using teaching aids, examples and
explanations which are not the same as those in the textbook.
 Rearrange the order of topics if you thinks it is desirable adapting it to the learners
and their needs.
 Use only those parts of the text that seem to be relevant. Skip the other parts.
 Use the textbook for reference purposes during a lesson or a series of lessons.
 Study pictures, maps, diagrams, sketches and particular passages and build
lessons around them. They can form a basis for class discussion.
 Use the textbook when you want to develop critical thinking by encouraging
critical reading and testing for logic, and bias. The teacher can show the learners
that writers disagree sincerely by allowing them to compare the text with source
materials.
 Use the textbook when discussing controversial issues. Discuss with the students
the view held by different people and sources (books) where these arguments
could be found.
 Use it to explain unfamiliar historical terms.
 Use it to develop writing styles e.g. writing of peoples’ biographies and
autobiographies.
 Incorporate the textbook into multi-media teaching strategy i.e. use it with other
materials and methods.
 Use assignments in the textbook as follow-up activities after the lesson
considering different abilities of the learners.
 Use it as a source of structure when planning to teach and encourage students to
use it as a basis for note making.
Activity Use the questions below to evaluate the effectiveness of the
textbook you are using to teach history and government in
any of your classes

 Did the textbook meet and serve the curriculum objectives?

 Did it meet the learning needs of the learners? Was it within their reading
level?
 Did it meet the needs and expectations of the teacher and the parents?
 Was it utilised?
 Did it help you as a teacher in your professional growth?
 Was it durable and attractive?
 Was it available in time and in sufficient quality?

Question ? How would you train your students on how to use the textbook?

5.4.6 Limitations of textbooks

Textbooks have the following shortcomings:
 Some of them provide sketchy information and this disadvantages readers who
sorely depend on them.
 When overused they replace the teacher in the classroom.
 Textbooks predigest material and so denies the learners the need to think, to do
their own organizing and arrive at independent conclusions.
 They encourage rote learning.
 Sometimes the textbooks represent the views of the author or government of the
day thus indoctrinating the learners.
 Textbooks are pre-planned and do not meet the varied abilities of a typical class.
The class members usually move together as if they are of the same ability thus
ignoring individual differences. They treat too many topics, present too many
ideas too fast to be absorbed within a given period of time. It does not matter
whether the learners have understood or not.
 Textbooks are usually not written in readable form. Rarely do students comment
on the excitement and vigour of a textbook as they might on the qualities of a
motion picture or a recording.
 Textbooks are hard to keep up-to-date. In some topics the material is out of date
by the time the book appears in the market and it takes time before it is revised.
Question ? The textbook is the teacher’s close companion. Discuss?

5.5 Collateral Readings

The textbook should always be supplemented with collateral readings, which contain
useful and relevant information on contemporary history. Collateral materials include
journals, newspapers, magazines, reviews, periodicals and other similar written texts.
These may be used side by side with textbooks. Occasionally these readings may be the
major source of information.

5.5.1 The importance of collateral materials

Collateral readings are useful in history teaching and learning because:
 they offer valuable and up-to-date information. This is especially the case with
newspapers and the weekly/monthly magazines. The recency of the information
makes teaching more real and applicable to the students’ environment.
 they are available in the open market in a wide variety hence one can get a better
balanced view of issues discussed in various sources.
 occasionally, they offer very detailed information otherwise not available in
ordinary textbooks, e.g. during anniversaries, newspapers may outline
achievements of given organizations in various fields. Newspapers have been
found to be very useful during national days in highlighting the nation’s
development. In them we also find concepts like trade, interdependence, neo-
colonialism, urbanization, structural adjustment and development etc.
 they are flexible in their use e.g. magazines and newspapers can be cut into
relevant pieces to illustrate or to convey a message or they can be used whole on a
wide range of topics.
 they help in the development of:
 reporting information accurately and systematically;
 comparing information from different sources to arrive at a reasonable
conclusion;
 identifying some concepts commonly associated with history.
 newspapers and reviews can provide a room for open criticisms and
suggestions on local problems like land clashes, ethnicity, national unity, civil
wars and environmental issues.
Activity Identify topics of the syllabus which could call for the use of collateral
materials

5.5.2 How to use collateral materials in history teaching and learning

For effective use of collateral materials select carefully relevant material because most of
the material available is addressed to adult readership and also to the wider public rather
than the schools. Besides, you should read and digest the material to determine what will
be useful to the learners.

While the learners may be keen to search for information by themselves, they may not
know what exactly they need; what sources to consult and how to go about processing the
information.
They may not also be able to understand available, useful but difficult materials partly
due to their limited language capability and partly due to lack of supportive knowledge.
To overcome these problems you should do the following:
 Survey the available reading first to evaluate their suitability on criteria of:
 relevance and accuracy of information; and relatedness to the topic.
 appropriateness to class reading level in terms of vocabulary, sentence
structure, level of abstraction and in terms of reasoning power of issues
that are controversial.
 background material that is, whether additional information will be
needed to subsidize or support the existing material.
 Identify a theme on which to focus reading. The teacher should consider
whether:
 the theme can be clearly stated to suit the learner’s level;
 the learners will have problems with parts of it;
 it will fulfill the purpose for which it is intended.
 Prepare relevant notes such as vocabulary and actual information to be
stressed.
 Prepare a series of focused questions to enable learners to know exactly
what they are required to extract from the readings.
 Evaluate learners’ answers to determine which areas need further
attention.
  Display on the bulletin board some newspaper cuttings, showing some
historical or current information, photographs, and illustrations. These
could be mounted in a book later or filed for future reference.

5.5.3 When does the teacher use collateral materials?

There are a number of situations, which call for the use of collateral material in history.
Some of these are when:
 the you referring to current events and their analysis of political situation in
the world, recent archaeological findings, political changes in different parts
of the world and democracy in the world.
 when you want to get background knowledge about important local, national
and world problems, e.g. poverty, discrimination, disunity, corruption,
dictatorship and coup d’etat.
 when you want to introduce a lesson, comics and cartoons in newspapers can
be used to enact a story, this will serve as a basis of introduction (set
induction).
 when you want to improve reading and discussion skills, students will learn
how to carry out a discussion when they read about interviews, dialogues,
court proceedings and many others.

5.5.6 Limitations of collateral material as sources of history teaching and

learning
Collateral materials are limited in a number of ways:
 Lack of objectivity: Most of the information obtained from the newspapers,
reviews and magazines on controversial matters is influenced by personal or
group interests. They can give wrong information to students if they rely so
much on them.
 They are not durable because they can easily be destroyed if not handled well.
 Magazines and newspapers give emphasis to immediate news.
 Some collateral materials e.g. journals do not report daily events and so they
are not up-to-date.
 Some collateral materials e.g. journals, magazines and newspapers are
expensive and this calls for limited readership.

(i) Go through a daily newspaper and pick

up information of historical importance
Activities (ii) Choose a relevant history and government topic and
show how you could make use of collateral material to
teach it
5
Now that you have discussed the examples of print media, we now look at a few
resources from non-projected media.

5.6 Chalkboard
Chalkboard is the most useful and versatile of the visual aids at the disposal of a history
teacher. It would not be wrong to say that the chalkboard is irreplaceable and
indispensable. According to J.C. Aggarwal (1982), it is the oldest and the best friend of
the teacher and the most universally used aid.

5.6.1 Importance of chalkboard

Chalkboard is an important teaching aid because it:
 is a mirror through which students visualize the your mind, e.g. the way of
explaining, illustrating and teaching as a whole. Thus, it stands as a visual
testimony of the teacher’s work and expression.
 enables you to make illustrations, modifications and corrections on the spot.
 draws the learner’s attention to the main features of a lesson e.g. drawings and
writings thus maintaining and sustaining the learner’s interest as they see
things being written.
 enables you to record the lesson step by step so that the learners can see the
subject take shape and make a permanent record of it in their books.
 also enables you to review the whole lesson step by step for the benefit of the
class.
 enables you to record what is oral to visible work thus reinforcing oral
explanation.
 helps you to prepare chalkboard work before hand to save time. This works
well where there are portable chalkboards or the room is not shared with/by
other teachers.

5.6.2 Principles governing good chalkboard work

Chalkboard work should be guided by:
 a good layout with correct spellings, lettering and legibility.
 clarity: It should be clear to make the teaching/learning phases easier.
 simplicity: All the work must be simple and easy to follow.

Activity Make a chalkboard plan for a lesson you would teach for 40
minutes based on any history and government topic of your choice

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5.6.3 How to use the chalkboard in history teaching and learning
For effective use of the chalkboard you should:
 ensure the chalkboard is clean before using it.
 partition the chalkboard into three sections if the size allows:
 use the left hand column for new words/concepts/terms
and any of those unexpected needs that occur in most
lessons.
 use the central column for planned summary, main
points of the lesson, record structure of the lesson.
 keep the right hand column for sketches and diagrams.
 write titles in capital letters in the middle top part of the chalkboard and
underline them.
 start writing from the top left corner and proceed to the right.
 write straight and parallel (horizontal) to the chalkboard.
 leave ample margins on both sides of the chalkboard.
 write legibly and visibly.
 give adequate and uniform spacing between the words and lines.
 maintain uniformity in writing style and size so that the material to be
emphasized shows up.
 make sure that any work appearing on the chalkboard is clear, clean, neat,
orderly, relevant , true and of correct spelling. This improves the impact of
presentation.
 do not block what you have written, stand out of the way.
 draw learners’ attention on what you write on the chalkboard and allow time
for them to transfer information in their notebooks before erasing.

From your daily interaction of the chalkboard and the above information,
Activity identify the limitation of chalkboard as a learning resource

5.7 Summary

In this lesson, we have introduced learning resources relevant to the teaching of history
and government by highlighting their importance. We went further to categorize learning
resources and to identify some of these resources which could be used in teaching of
history and government. The specific resources discussed here were: textbooks,

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collateral materials and the chalkboard. The importance of each and how they could be
effectively utilized in the classroom were discussed.

5.8 Definitions of Key Concepts

Collateral materials: Printed materials apart form books which include, journals,
newspapers, magazines, reviews and periodicals.
Resources: Instructional materials needed for teaching a particular content
for the objectives to be realized

5.9 Further Reading:

Ayot, H.O. (1979). New Approaches in History teaching in secondary schools. Nairobi,
KBL
Burston W.H. and C.W. Green (eds) (1972). A Handbook for history teachers. 2nd
Edition. London: Methuen
Crookoll P.C.(1975) A handbook for History teachers in Africa, London. Evand Brothers
Nasibi M.W. & Kiio M. (2004). Handbook for History and Government Teachers.
Strongwall Africa: Nairobi.

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 LESSON SIX: USE OF GRAPHIC MATERIALS IN HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT LESSONS

6.0 Introduction

In the previous lesson we learnt about the importance of resources in the teaching of
History and Government. We also learnt about the use of print media and chalkboard in
teaching History and Government. In this lesson we are going to learn about the use of
graphic materials in History and Government. They include charts, maps and pictures.

6.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 discuss the importance of using charts and maps in History and Government
lesson.
 describe the qualities of good History and Government chars and maps.
 explain how to utilize charts and maps in History and Government lessons.

6.1 Use of Charts in history and Government Teaching/Learning

A chart is a combination of written or drawn pictorial or graphic material which presents

a clear visual summary in tabulated or methodical form. Charts are either teacher-made
or ready-made. Where possible it is recommended that teachers make their own charts
incorporating their own ideas and lines of approach in teaching and learning. If possible
the teacher should involve learners in preparation of charts.

Examples of some chars used in teaching and learning of history are pie charts, graphs,
pictorial charts, diagrams, time line and line charts.

6.2 Uses of Charts

Charts can be used to:

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  direct learners’ attention when it is needed most, e.g. in introduction for a good
effect and at the end forceful conclusion.
 motivate learners by providing a variety of media.
 summarize information through the use of figures, statistics and symbols
 transform abstract ideas in visual form.
 stimulate creative thinking.

When you are selecting a chart make sure that is of good quality. The following are
qualities which you should look for in a good chart.
 have a heading/title in capital letters.
 bring out the message clearly, precisely and forcefully, i.e. it should have a central
idea standing out clearly.
 use symbols which can be understood by the users.
 contain information which is true, accurate and authentic in all respects.
 be simple, not loaded wit unnecessary details.
 have bold writing and outlines which can be clearly seen from a distance.

6.2.1 How to Prepare Charts

When preparing charts for teaching/learning purposes, the teacher should do the
following
 Use a manila paper which allows for the use of all conventional colours, white is
an ideal colour.
 Give the chart heading written in capital letters which is brief but clear.
 Give it a frame which has a margin with two opposite sides which are
proportional.
 Sketch out the outline of the chart on a manila paper in pencil.
 Pencil in the details of the chart lightly
 Ink in the outline and details in the chart.
 Where possible use a lettering guide

64
  Give the chart a key at the right hand bottom corner. The key should tell exactly
what each symbol represents.
 Keep it in good condition before and after use.

Note
You should note that it is not just enough to have a good chart. The chart should be
utilized effectively as per the following suggestions.
 Use proper materials for displaying the chart without damaging it, e.g. cellotape, a
string for hanging, pins, staples, etc.
 Display it when you are ready to use, i.e. it should be introduced at the right time.
 A times prepare questions which could be answered using the chart.
 Use a pointer to point out specific features in the chart.
 Make maximum use of the chart during the lesson.
 Once the class is through with the chart, it should be removed
 Store and preserve it for future use.

Activity

(i) Prepare a chart relevant to any of the History and Government topics of your
choice. It should be accompanied by notes to show how it will be utilized.
(ii) List down factors which delimit the use of charts in history teaching and
learning

You will now be introduced to the use of maps in History and Government
teaching/learning.
A map refers to a representation of the surface of the earth or a section of it as it seen
from above drawn on scale. It shows shapes of some physical features, shape size and
position of countries, direction and distance. The use of maps is an integral part of
teaching history. They are available inform of wall maps, maps in historical atlas or in a
textbook. Some maps deal with physical features while others show political and
economic development of certain parts of the world.

65
Note

Since history deals with human activities, the history teacher should use appropriate
maps when teaching about a place where there is or has been human life. There are a
number of maps which could be useful in history teaching/learning. These are:
 Physical and climatic maps – they are useful when studying people’s
relationship with their environment.
 Outline maps – they show the coastlines, main rivers and possible mountain
ranges of a country. Using such maps the learners can put in relevant historical
information.
 Historical maps – they show political boundaries of various countries, origin,
growth and decline of kingdoms.
 Distribution maps – they show population density, language groupings,
distribution of resources, religious relationships, etc.
 Economic maps – they deal with distribution of resources.

6.3 Importance of Maps

Maps are useful in history teaching because they:
 help us locate where people live or have lived in the past.
 make historical facts comprehensive, real and easy to remember.
 enable learners to visualize areas in question and relative position of political
unity and people’s relationship with their environment.
 bring the world and people into the classroom.
 are useful in showing location, direction, distance and relative size of place.

Just like charts, maps should be of good quality.

6.3.1 Qualities of good history map

A good history map should have the following characteristics:

 Accuracy: it should be as accurate as possible.

 Simplicity: information shown should be limited to essentials.
 Sizable: it should be large enough to be seen by the entire class.
 Readability: it should be easy to read with clear symbols and lettering.

66
Activity

List other characteristics of good maps

Note

The choice of the map to be used in history is among others determined by

teacher’s skill in the use and interpretation of maps and learners’ experience in
map work, e.g. in drawing, colouring, reading and interpretation.

6.3.2 How to use maps effectively in the teaching and learning of history
For effective utilization of maps should do the following:
 Hang it conveniently in the classroom.
 Display it at the right time for instance when you want to use it to emphasize an
idea, after introducing something which needs to be checked on the map.
 Let the students focus on the map at the same time whether they are looking at it
as a class, individual or group.
 Make a sketch out of small and detailed maps with useful information or have
them projected on an overhead projector.
 In using a wall map, use a pointer when showing important features. Do not
block it.
 Identify questions to be answered by the students using the map.
 Make sure the learners develop a variety of skills such as critical observation and
interpretation. This is possible if the map is studied in detail.
 Make sure any assignment given on the map is done to your satisfaction by
checking the students’ exercise books. This could be either drawing the map or
filling in an outline map with specific information.
 Encourage students to collect and draw as many maps as possible. This will
improve their skill in drawing.

67
  Fold and keep them well after use for future utilization.

Activity

 Collect as many maps as possible which are relevant in the teaching of History
and Government and identify topics where maps could be utilised.
 Using an outline map, put in relevant information on any area of your interest in
history.

We are going to introduce you to another graphic material which is suitable in History
and Government teaching/learning. This is a picture. A picture is a painting, a drawing
or a photograph of a person, object or a scene. There is a wide variety of pictures for
history teaching which can be obtained from textbooks reference books, historical picture
books, postcards, newspapers, magazines etc. These sources are available in places such
as, travel agents, embassies, business firms, chamber of commerce, government
information offices, libraries, commercial publishers and distributors, archives, museums
and galleries. They could also be obtained from individuals.

6.4 Uses of pictures

Pictures are essential in the teaching/learning of History and Government because they
can be used:
 as a basis for a lesson, i.e. lesson can be built around one single picture.
 to illustrate something in order to make it appear real and accurate. This makes it
a useful tool for studying reality especially if the information depicted is full of
human activity.
 to stimulate the learners’ imaginative powers by turning unfamiliar words, places
and people into clear and accurate images.
 to sharpen critical thinking as the learners use pictures to prove points at issue.
They also encourage learners to discover information for themselves.

68
  to break the class monotony by holding attention, arousing curiosity, creating
interest, stimulating constructive discussion, and providing opportunity for the
teacher to guide the whole range of activities associated with them.
 to help students of low ability to follow the lesson better when pictures are used
than when explanations are used alone.
 to substitute field trips thus saving time and money. A teacher can visit these
places, take photographs and bring them to the classroom for observation and
discussion.
 to bring past events, distant places and people into the classroom.

6.4.1 Criteria for good pictures

A picture selected for history teaching and learning must be:
 truthful and accurate: a picture which portrays any event or subject in history
must represent it truthfully.
 clear and easy to understand: important parts of the picture must stand out clearly.
It must also portray one dominate idea.
 interesting: since the aim of using a picture is to arouse interest and stimulate the
mind, it must be attractive in its artistic form and colour.
 clean and in good condition: not faded and crumpled on the edges.
 suitable: a picture should be suitable for a particular purpose or objective.
 visible: it should be large enough and easily visible to the entire class.
 relevant and useful: a picture must have some educational value making an
important contribution to the lesson.
 pleasing and harmonious: it must have original colours accurately and vividly
reproduced.
 artistically and technically of high quality.

It is one thing to have good pictures and another to utilize them effectively. You will
find the following suggestions useful when using pictures in a History and Government
lesson.:

69
  You should prepare questions in advance which will guide learners into
interpreting pictures to direct or challenge their observation.
 You should guide the learners to ensure that they not only look at pictures but also
look into, them criticize, interpret and explain their significance.
 Select and arrange pictures carefully to form a sequence so that significant
questions can be raised as the learners examine them.
 Loose and large pictures should be displayed at a strategic point for every learner
to see.
 Small pictures should be projected so that the entire class see them. In the
absence of a projector, enough copies should be produced using a duplicator or
photocopier and distributed to the whole class.
 Provide pictures for individual, small group study and whole class study.
Students should be taught how to use pictures for various purposes.
 Use a few pictures at a time, holding back pictures on topics which will arise later
in the unit. Such a procedure is a good way to move learners from one unit to
another. As the unit progresses, new pictures can be introduced in connection
with specific questions and problems.
 Use labels and captions, coloured paper, arrows and strips (in drawn pictures) to
highlight items in pictures. This will add to the instructional value of pictures
through improvised eye appeal.
 Keep pictures clean and untattered. Transparent plastic papers can be used to
reserve them for future use.

?
When do you use pictures in History and Government lessons?

Most of the topics in History and Government invite the use of pictures whether they are
drawn, painted or taken by means of a chemical action of light (photography). The
following are some of the situations which call for use of pictures e.g.

70
  When introducing a lesson in order to stimulate interest in the learners. This is
very essential for instance when teaching about Kenyan leaders: Jomo Kenyatta,
Ronald Ngala and Tom Mboya. A picture of each of these personalities will be
produced at the beginning of the lesson.
 When illustrating and clarifying a point during the lesson. To make the point
under discussions vivid and interesting, pictures can be introduced in the lesson
development stage. For instance when teaching about ‘Development of
Agriculture in Egypt, show a picture of farming tools such as plough, shadoof
etc.
 When dealing with a topic/a theme in history, pictures dealing with specific
points (features) of the topic are produced as each feature is discussed. For
instance when discussing pre-historic man, the teacher can show learners pictures
of man at each evolution stage. Similarly, those pictures covering all stages of
evolution could be arranged in a chronological order and mounted on a chart for
the class to study or look at later. In a topic like transport, the class can make use
of pictures showing early forms of transport to those indicating the most
advanced mode of transport.
 When following up a lesson. After conducting a lesson with picture (s) , the
teacher can display the pictures on the wall with written questions underneath.
Students can be given time to study the pictures and try to answer the questions.

Note

Use of pictures in the teaching and learning of history has some limitations:
 A picture is static and gives only one isolated viewpoint whereas the movement
of learners give them constantly changing viewpoints.
 A picture is only two dimensional and therefore it does not give the depth of
whatever it is trying to portray.
 It is lacking in the texture (feel) of whatever it is supposed to portray.
 At times it is not possible to have enough copies for the whole class due to lack
of a photocopying or duplicating facilities and this makes their utilization
ineffective.
 Effective utilization of pictures need resourcefulness and competence on the part
of the teacher. Not many teachers have acquired these skills nor are they able to

71
Activity

(i) Get pictures from newspapers and magazines cuttings, study them
carefully and
Write titles or captions for them.
Discuss in groups of 4(four) what they portray
(ii) Identify and list topics from History and Government syllabus
which could be taught through the use of pictures and suggest suitable
pictures which go with each topic.

6.5 Summary

In this lesson you have been introduced to various graphic material suitable for
teaching History and Government. You have also been given suggestions on how to
utilize them effectively. In the next lesson you will learn about objects and models.

6.6 Definition of key words

 Diagram – A simple plan which is drawn to represent an idea.

 Graph – A picture which shows how two sets of information or a variable
amounts are related, usually by lines or curves.
 Pictorial – presented in form of a picture
 Picture – Representation f someone or something produced by drawing, painting
or taking a photograph.

6.7 Further Reading

 Crookall, R. E. (1972). A Handbook for history teachers in Africa, Evans
Brothers, London.
 Dickson, A. K. (1972) “The role of Audio-visual Material” in Burston . W>H.
and C. W. Green (Eds). Handbook for History Teachers, Metheun Education
Ltd., London.
 Mehlinger, H. D. Ed. (1981). Handbook for the Teaching of Social Studies,
UNESCO.

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 LESSON SEVEN: USE OF OBJECTS AND MODELS IN HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT LESSONS

7.0 Introduction
In the previous lesson we dealt with the use of charts, maps and pictures in History and
Government teaching/learning. Specifically, the lesson examined the importance and
utilization of the named resources. In this lesson we are going to discuss the importance
and utilization of objects and models in History and Government lessons.

7.2.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 explain the difference between objects and models.
 discuss the importance of using objects and models in History and Government
lessons.
 describe characteristics of good models.

7.2.1 Objects
An object is a visible or tangible thing to which attention or action is directed. In history
teaching, it refers to a real thing which has some historical importance. Examples of
objects which can be used in history teaching and learning are: tools, weapons, household
articles, stones, shells, instruments, pottery, remains of food,, skulls of early main, caves,
iron implements, horns, scrolls, stone tablets, currency, drums, etc.

7.2.2 Importance of objects in history teaching

Use of objects enables learners to:
 develop critical thinking and imaginative minds as they are encouraged to figure
out how the objects were made and utilized.
 identify with a given historical period as they interact with tools and objects used
at that time adding realism in a lesson
 develop certain skills through interaction with the objects, e.g. observation,
analysis, interpretation.

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  utilize more senses, e.g. sense of seeing, touching, smelling, tasting. This makes
learning more effective and learnt material retainable

7.2.3 How to utilize objects in a history lesson

To utilize the objects effectively in a teaching/learning situation, the following should be
done:
 Introduce the object to the learners.
 If it is big enough display it in a strategic place so that all learners can see it at the
same time.
 If it is small pass is round, if you want to encourage closer inspection, comments,
but do not continue talking as the object is being inspected as this will divert the
learners’ attention.
 Identify questions that can be answered by use of the object.
 When you are giving an explanation or answering questions, make sure that all
the learners can see the object at the same time
 Draw students’ attention to study the physical qualities of the object and
specially identify what you want the students to study about the object.
 The link between the object and your message must be perfectly clear. This
means that the learners should be able to see the relationship between the object
and the content being taught.
 Use the chalkboard to emphasize the main features of the object.
 Keep it away safely after use to avoid breakage.

7.2.4 Some of the topics where objects could be used in a history lesson
The following are some topics which could be taught using objects:
 Early man – e.g. tools, remains of food, just to mention a few.
 Development of transport and communication up to the 19 th century. In teaching
forms of communication, drums, horns, scrolls and stone tablets could be used for
illustration. Under forms of transport, the following items could be useful: boats,
rafts, canoes and sailing ships etc.

74
  Development of early agriculture. You could use farming tools and samples of
food crops.
 Development of transport and communication from mid 18th century to the
present day. Under transport we could make use of ships, trains, motor vehicles,
aeroplanes. In communication you could use things like newspapers, magazines,
telephones, telegrams, radio, television, cinema, etc.
 Trade: You could use examples of currencies and some items of trade.
 One can make use of documents containing Bill of Rights, Constitution of Kenya,
etc. In a topic like National Integration, the flag and coat of arms could be useful.

Activity

Identify and list at least five other topics in History and Government which
could be taught using objects. For each topic list down suitable objects which
could be used to teach it.

7.3 Models
a model is a copy or a representation of a real thing or object on a smaller scale. Just like
an actual object or thing it has breadth, length and depth and can be viewed from other
sides. Usually, models are not true to scale miniature but the more accurate ones are
better teaching aids because the learners are able to visualize them as they would have
visualized the real objects.

7.3.1 Importance of models

Models are essential in teaching and learning of history because:
 they represent the real object which may not be available or could be too bulky to
be brought to the classroom.
 they add meaning and realism to the explanation about an object.
 they make the learning interesting as the learners participate in the preparation of
the models.

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  learners become creative and initiative as they are expected to come up with good
models.
 use of models can sometimes be economical in terms of time and finance. For
example, instead of taking the class to a historical site, the models of objects on
the site could be made by both learners and the teacher and then be brought to the
classroom for use.

Note

Whether teacher-made or manufactured, models should be of good quality.

7.3.2 Characteristics of good models

Models qualify to be good if they have these qualities:
 They are three dimensional with depth, height and width providing interior views
of the objects which are normally covered or otherwise invisible.
 They are large enough to be seen readily by the whole class.
 They are historically true.
 They are well-furnished.
 They make use of colour and texture to highlight features. Parts which are not
essential should be in less conspicuous colours.

Many times you and your learners will be forced to make your own models in the
absence of ready made models. Therefore you will find the following guidelines useful:
 Introduce the object to be modelled, highlighting its main physical features;
 Identify the materials to be used;
 Supply the material or ask the learners to look for materials;
 Assign roles to individuals or groups;
 Guide them on how to prepare models;
 Ensure that the amount of detail included depend on the age of the learners;
 Supervise the work and give guidance where necessary;

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  Evaluate the finished product using the qualities discussed above.

Note

(i) You may make the model and then present the finished article to the class
or group.
(ii) In utilizing the model you should use the same procedure used in
utilization of objects.

Activity

(i) Make a model which you can use in teaching history topic of your choice
and write a utilization guide on how you are going to utilize it.
(ii) What advantages do models have over real things?
(iii) Collect various types of currencies and identify their countries.

7.4 Summary

In this lesson we have discussed the importance of using objects and models in History
and Government lessons. We have also learnt how we could use these resources
effectively in the course of instruction. In the next lesson we are going to learn how we can
make use resource people to enrich History and Government lessonss

7.5 Definition of key words

 Object – a real thing, a solid thing which can be seen or felt.

 Model – a representation of something which is usually smaller or bigger than the
real object.

7.6 Further Reading

 Aggarwal J. C 1982. Teaching Social Studies. Vikas publishing House Pvt Limited
 Crookall R. E. 1972- Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. Longon: Evans Brothers
Ltd, Montague Russel Square. 7
 Farrant J. S. 1980 Principles and practice of Education Longman Group Ltd.
 Greig T. O. and J. C. Brown 1975. Activity Methods in the Middle Schools. Oliver and
Boyd London
78
 LESSON EIGHT: USE OF RESOURCE PEOPLE IN HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT TEACHING/LEARNING

8.0 Introduction
In the last lesson we dealt with the use of real things or representation of real things in
History and Government lessons. In this lesson we are going to learn about the use of
resource people in teaching/learning History and Government.

8.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 explain the importance of using a resource person in History and Government
teaching/learning.
 discus the criteria of selecting of a resource person.
 explain the procedure to follow when using a resource person in History and
Government lesson.
 discuss the limitations of using a resource person in History and Government
teaching/learning.

Note

A resource person is anybody who can supply learners with useful information not available
in textbooks. The person could be either a professional or a non-professional. Examples of
resource people are: civic leaders, government officers, village elders religious leaders, war
veterans, fellow teachers in the school, students, parents, craftsmen and blacksmiths.

8.2.1 Importance of resource persons in history teaching and learning

Resource persons are useful sources of history because of a number of reasons:
 New life is breathed in the subject (history) when learners get first-hand
experience direct from the source.
 They inspire learners by making them to identify with national and international
speakers or with the issues which they have presented.

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  Resource people influence the future careers of these students. After getting a
lecture from prominent persons, the learners may be inspired to be like those
persons.
 Use of resources people motivates the learners to learn with the hope that the
resource person has something special to offer.
 They provide new information to the learners and teachers which might not be
available in history books.
 They provide interaction between the school and the wider community thus
preparing the child for outside life.

8.2.2 Selection of a resource person

In the selection process, you should be guided by the following questions:
 Does the resource person have something of value to share with learners?
 Will the person be willing to accept the invitation?
 Will the presence of the visitor disrupt school activities? If so avoid him/her.
 How is the personality of the person?
 Will he/she be able to communicate the information effectively considering the
age and the language level of the learners?
 Will the speaker be able to keep time in class?
 Is the individual a controversial figure?

8.2.3 The procedure to follow when using a resource person

The following steps could be utilized when making use of a resource person:
 Write or visit the identified resource person, introducing the intended invitation to
your school. Mention about the topic, the objectives of the talk/lecture and what
is expected during the talk.
 Interview the resource person in advance.
 Try to include questions which the learners are likely to ask so that the resource
person prepares on how to respond to them.
 Talk something about he nature of the students (age, ability, level), behaviour.

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  Find out if any learning resources are required and also if the class needs to be
arranged in a particular way, e.g. in a circle or groups.
 Prepare the learners with questions to ask the resource person.
 Arrange time for the lesson (when the resource person will present the talk and
the duration of the talk.
 Give direction to the resource person as to how to get to the school and where to
get you in the school.
 Meet the resource person and walk to the classroom together.
 Introduce the resource person to the learners.
 Control the discussion between the learners and the resource person. Check on the
digression and maintain discipline.
 Put down important points which might need clarification and also note any errors
(misconception) made by the resource person for correction later.
 After the presentation invite questions from students to facilitate discussion.
 Thank the resource person for the visit/contribution.
 Make a follow-up in form of an activity.

8.2.4 Follow-up activity

After the resource person’s visit and subsequent lecture, you should,: allow students to
ask questions on areas which they did not understand, correct any errors made during the
discussion; ask learners questions to ascertain that they understood the talk; tell the
learners to discuss or write about the talk and finally find out whether he learners are in
favour of such an approach if not find out why.

Note
It is important to note that use of a resource person has its limitations. Some of
these limitations are outlined below.

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8.2.5 Limitations of Using a resource person

 It is not always easy to get a reliable resource person.

 It is time-consuming: identifying, inviting and using a resource person is a long
process.
 It involves extra costs because at times, one has to cater for transport, meals and
sometimes accommodation.
 The resource person involved may lack methodology of teaching.
 One might give irrelevant, distorted, exaggerated and biased information.
 During the talk/lecture the learners might not take the resource person seriously
and treat the visit and talk as a form of entertainment.
 The visitor might not keep time, thus interfering with other lessons.
 The resource person may fail to turn up.

Activity

- Group yourselves according to your ethnic background, choose a group

leader and discuss among yourselves your communities stories of creation.
After discussion let the leader act as a resource person for the rest of the
class.
- Identify topics in the History and Government syllabus which can best
be handled by a resource person .

8.3 Summary

In this lesson we have seen the importance of using resource people in History and
Government lessons. We have also been warned of the limitations of using the
resource people in teaching-learning History and Government. In our next lesson we
are going to discuss the use of audio-materials in History and Government lesson.

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8.4 Definition of Key words

- Resource person –a person who has useful information to offer to learners

which is not otherwise available in books.
- Professional an expert, a specialist in a certain field.

8.5 Further Reading

- Bourdillon, H. (Ed). 1994. Teaching History. Open University Press London.

- Mehlinger, H. D. (Ed). 1981. Handbook for the Teaching of Social Studies,
UNESCO.
- Mtunda, F. G. 1986 and S.D.D. Safuli an Introduction to the Theory and Practice
of Teaching. Dzuka Publishing co., Ltd.
- Mutebi, P. M and M. Y. Matovu 1993 (Eds). Environmental Education for
Sustainable Development for Primary School teachers and Educators in Africa.
The ASESP, Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya.

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 LESSON NINE: USE OF AUDIO-MATERIALS IN HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT LESSONS.

9.0 Introduction
As introduced earlier, audio materials are those materials whose messages are directed to
the ear. These are basically the radio and the tape recorder. We are going to discuss how
we could use audio materials in History and Government lessons.

9.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson you should be able to

- explain the importance of using audio materials in History and government lessons.
- explain how to use the radio effectively in History and Government lessons.
- explain various ways of using the tape-recorder in History and Government lessons.

9.2 Radio
The radio has been described as one of the most effective systems or methodology of
imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes to the learners. Farrant (1980) describes it as
one of the cheapest and common media. Crookall (1972) sees it as an essential
educational tool because ‘a good educational broadcasting quickens the imagination and
stirs the emotions of the listener by bringing past to life, by clothing old records with the
warmth and reality missing from even he best written books’.

9.2.1. Uses of the radio

In history teaching and learning the radio can be used in various ways. For example, it
can be used to inform and motivate the history student on the local, national and
international issues. There are radio programmes which could be very useful in creating
awareness to history teachers and learners about world issues. Such progammes are:
Wazee Ukumbuka, Africa perspective, Yaliyotufikia, Yaliyotokea, Journey Through
Africa, A Healthy Nation, Africa and the World, Parliament, Road Safety.

Note

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 Although these programmes are not addressed to the classroom audience, the history
teacher can make use of any relevant ones. A keen and dedicated teacher can record the
programmes, replay them to sieve what is of use to the learners. If it is a pure historical
programme it can be replayed in class. In such a case the teacher can prepare a series of
questions in advance to know exactly what they are required to extract from the
programme. This could be identifying certain ideas, writing summaries or comparing.
The teacher can also alert the learners about the programme and the time it will be on air,
and then as part of homework, ask the learners to listen to it. As a follow-up, the teacher
should ask them questions related to the programme.

There are also radio programmes to schools produced by K.I.E., addressed to various
subjects of the curriculum. The radio programmes are usually prepared by a team of
highly qualified personnel in their respective subjects who ensure that the programmes
are supplied to schools free of charge and teachers are advised to make full use of them.
The programmes are accompanied with teachers’ notes which need to be situated
carefully before the programmes are used. There are also audio cassettes on the same
which are available for sale at affordable price.

9.2.2 Qualities of a good radio programme

When choosing a radio programme should check on the following
 Objectives The objectives of the lesson should be clear, measurable, attainable
and appropriate for the intended level.
 Content: The content should be relevant to curricular objectives, adequate in
terms of content coverage, accurate and appropriate to the level of the learners. It
should also be available to the learners and up-to-date.
 Authenticity: The programme producers should be qualified in the field and
should demonstrate competence.
 Organization of the script: The content should be well-organized and
accompanied by appropriate support materials. It should also be convenient to
follow in classroom use.
 Sound and Voice Quality: The sound and voice should be audible to the entire
class, clear and fluent. The pronunciation should be good.

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  Presentation: This should involve a good introduction, logical lesson
development and a conclusion. The conclusion can be a summary of the main
points of the lesson or questions on the content covered.
 Learners’ involvement: This should be reflected in the learning activities which
should be appropriate and challenging enough for the intended class level.
 Follow-up: The follow should be in form of assignments e.g. project work,
written questions, library work etc.

9.2.3 Preparation for a radio lesson

Farrant (1980) has a given the following suggestions on how to get the most out of the
educational broadcasting:
 Get in advance details of the programme to be broadcast.
 Select the programmes that have positive value for your students.
 Judge how to make the best use of each programme you have selected, whether
live, recorded in full or in part.
 Make whatever administrative preparation are necessary to obtain the equipment
and accommodation needed for the lesson.
 Prepare the students before the broadcast in accordance with any suggestions
contained in the printed teachers’ notes.
 Plan timing and physical arrangements so that the students receive the
programmes clearly.
 Carry out whatever follow-up is necessary to derive full benefit from the
programme

9.2.4 How to conduct a radio lesson

When conducting a radio lesson, you should:
 prepare the learners for the lesson. This can be done by introducing the topic and
informing the learners of what is expected of them during and after the lesson,
e.g. they should be told to be attentive, to write new terms and concepts, to make
notes, to follow instructions given by the radio teacher;

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  tune the radio before the lesson begins to ascertain that the volume is high
enough for all to hear (this should be tested before the teacher goes to the
classroom);
 ensure good sitting/seating arrangement;
 display the necessary instructional materials before the lesson starts;
 place the radio at a strategic place in the class to enable learners to hear without
straining;
 turn on the radio at the right time (when the lesson is beginning);
 turn on the right volume;
 listen and obey instructions of the radio teacher; and
 make a follow-up to the lesson by organizing a discussion, asking the learners
questions, or giving a related assignment.

9.2.5 Advantages of using the radio

The radio is important in history teaching because of these reasons;
 It motivates the learners to learn by providing a variety of voices, e.g. radio
teacher, radio students, thus breaking the classroom monotony.
 It has power to stimulate the learners’ imaginative ability.
 It provides learners with recent information not available in books.
 It provides for individual learning and independence in cases where the learners
listen to the radio programmes during their free time.
 It improves learners’ listening skill which is important in any learning process.
 Radio programme can be tape-recorded and preserved for future use.

Activity

Make a suggestion on how to overcome each of the above limitations.

9.3 The tape recorder

A tape recorder could be defined as a device used to record speech, music, etc. on
electromagnetic tape. It is a very useful tool in history teaching and learning because it
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can be used and reused over and over again; it is easy to operate e.g. to tape record, to
start, edit and to erase; it has high fidelity and lastly it adds authenticity and reality by
bringing the actual person under study to the learners.

9.3.1 Use of tape-recorder in teaching

Tape recorders could be used during:
 Interviews: In teaching a topic such as functions and duties of provincial
administration, the area chief, assistant chief and village elders could be
interviewed directly by either the teacher or the learners. Other people of interest
who could be interviewed include church leaders, politicians, lawyers etc. The
learners could also conduct imaginary interviews with historical figures dead or
alive, e.g. Harry Thuku, Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi, Kwame Nkrumah, Tom
Mboya, Nelson Mandela, D’Klerk, etc..

89
  Speeches: The teacher and the learners could record live speeches, by the
president(s), members of parliament and administrators (P.C., D.O.) during the
national public holidays. The teacher could also record audio cued (already
recorded) speeches replayed through the radio and television programmes, e.g.
speeches by Jomo Kenyatta, President arap Moi,, Mandela, Julius Nyerere and
other important figures.
 Debates: The tape recorder could be used to record a debate/discussion by a
group of students on important matters from a selected theme/topic, e.g. a topic
like factors promoting national unity, the learners could debate on the importance
of Kiswahili as a national language. The discussion could then be replayed to the
same group or another group of learners for evaluation. The teacher could also
make use of relevant debate in television programmes by taping and replaying
them in class.

Question

?
What other situations do you think invite the use of a tape recorder?

9.2.3 How to use a tape recorder in the classroom

For effective utilization of the tape recorder, you should follow the following steps:
 Preview the audio material
The teacher has to listen to the material critically before taking it to the
classroom. This will help to:
- determine the relevancy of the material
- find out the objectives of the audio material
- identify important terms and concepts used.
- find out other materials required for the lesson, e.g. maps, charts and
pictures.
- find out whether there are activities for the students during the lesson.

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 - know the duration of the programme so that the teacher could make the
necessary adjustment regarding the lesson (timetable).
- decide on how the material will be presented, i.e. whether it will be a
continuous play or there will be pauses to allow for questions and
discussion.
- decide on assessment procedures to use to determine whether the
objectives have been realized.
- test on the condition of the cassette and on the cells (in places with no
electricity) whether they are low or high.
 Prepare the class for listening:
- introduce the programme to the students and explain the objectives;
- write new terms and concepts on the chalkboard and explain them;
- inform the learners what is expected of them during the lesson e.g. making
notes, writing down the main points, etc.
- reorganize seating/sitting arrangement if need be;
- emphasize on class control;
- encourage students to listen quietly and carefully.
 Play the programme
- Place the player in a strategic place.
- Turn on the player and make sure the volume is loud enough for the whole
class.
- Stop and replay where necessary.
- Ensure that the learners are doing the right thing at the right time during
the programme. This is to ensure full participation, e.g. making notes and
answering questions.
 Follow-up activity
As a part of follow-up of the programme the teacher should do the following:
- Fill in gaps where there were omission in the presentation.
- Make clarification on area which were not clear to the learners.
- Invite questions/comments from the students about the programme.
- Ask questions to find out whether the learners understood the lesson.

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 - Give assignment to the learners, e.g. to write notes, work on a project, to
draw a chart, to role play, to write a test.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of the programmes by assessing learners
performance in the given assignments.

9.3.3 Limitations of using a tape recorder in history teaching and learning

A tape recorder has a number of disadvantages as a resource of teaching history:

 The recorded programme lacks the visual image which is very necessary in the
teaching of history.
 The programme does not cater for individual differences.
 Communication is usually one-way from the presenter to the audience and not
vice-versa.
 Sometimes tape recorders are used to substitute the teacher although this should
not be the case as the teacher is expected to guide the learners throughout the
programme.
 Effectiveness of using the tape recorder depends on the listening skills of the
learners, something which is beyond the teacher’s control as one cannot
ascertain that the learners are really listening.
 It is not effective in large classes as the sound may not reach all the students.
 Not every school can afford to buy the machine and its accompaniments.

Activity

Tape record some history programmes from the radio and play them in
class

9.4 Summary

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 In this lesson we have looked at the use of audio materials in History and
Government lessons. We have seen that the radio and the tape recorder are
very useful tools of teaching History and Government because they quicken
learner’s imagination as they listen to people narrating historical events. In
the next lesson we are going to learn about use of audio-visual materials in
History and Government lessons.

9.5 Definition of key words

 Tape-recorder – a machine which is used for recording sound.

 Radio – a device for receiving and broadcasting messages that
travel in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 Script – written or printed record of words to be performed or
presented in a broadcast.

9.6 Further Reading

 Crookall, R. C. 1972 – Handbook for History Teachers in Africa,

Evans Brothers, London.
 Farrant, J. S. 1980. Principles and Practice of Education, Longman
Group Ltd.
 Kocchar, S. K. 1979; Teaching of History 1st Edition, Sterling private
Ltd., New Delhi

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LESSON TEN: USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL, SILENT PROJECTED MEDIA AND A
HISTORY ROOM IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TEACHING/LEARNING

10.0 Introduction
In this lesson we are going to learn about the use of audio-visual resources. These are
resources which promote learning through the sense of hearing and sight. We are also
going to learn about the importance of a history room.

10.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson you should be able to

 identify audio-visual materials which could be used to teach

History and Government
 discuss the procedure used to use each of the resources
identified.
 discuss about the importance of a history room

Apart from using audio materials you could also use audio-visual and silent projected
media to enrich your history lessons. Audio-visual materials included in this group are:
films, televisions, videos and sound slides. Use of audio-visual materials in History and
Government teaching is very important because they:
- extend human perception by revealing the remote, the inaccessible, the
invisible and the inaudible to the learners.
- bring the outside world with its differing cultures to a history classroom more
vividly than any other means under the teacher’s control. This arouses interest
in history learning.
- stimulate thinking among the learners and change their attitudes by providing
another dimension to learners’ view of reality.
- summarize information by allowing time lapse photography; an event which
took many years can be shown in few hours e.g. the first world war.
- clarify new terms and concepts and act as a spring board for further
discussion.

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10.2 Films
You are advised to identify whatever relevant films are available and where to find them.
It is important that they select films that are pertinent to the teaching objectives. Some of
the places where films can be available are British Council Library, National Museums,
American Cultural Centre, Kenya Institute of Education, Kenya National Library
Services, Kenya National Archives, Universities and other institutions of higher learning.

Note:

In some of the above named places for example the Kenya

National Archives, films are not lent out but learners can be
taken there to view them.

In deciding to use films, you should be aware of their limitations such as the following:
- Some films can give learners incorrect notions.
- At times learners treat films as entertainment rather than learning features.
- Films may emphasize elements that should not be emphasized in the course.
- Films are not very adaptable because it is difficult to excerpt what is wanted
or to skip what is irrelevant.
- They are difficult to get and to show when they are required.
- They require special provision for projection.
- They take up a fair amount of time, thought and money

Activity:

List other limitations of using films to teach History and

Government

10.2.1 Procedure for showing a film

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Below are some of the ways you can organize to show a film to your History and
Government students:
- Prepare yourself:
 Select a film related to the study;
 Pay careful attention to the recommended level of use;
 Check the equipment to ascertain that it is in good condition;
 Plan how it is going to be used;
 Use film guides (pamphlets)

- Prepare the classroom:

 Place the title, new vocabulary and main points or questions on the
chalkboard;
 Set up the equipment, thread;
 Check seating, the screen and ventilation.

- Prepare the learners:

 Introduce the film and tell them why they are viewing it – the purpose;
 Display support material if any.
 Explain the new words and terms appearing on the chalkboard.
 Identify the learners’ activities.
 Identify the main points they should look for in the film.
 Let students note down the questions to be answered by the use of a film.
 Give them a study guide to follow if available.

- Present the film:

 When everything is ready maintain silence and start the film.
 Focus and frame the film.
 Check sound level.
 Watch for film failure due to damage.
 Do not make comments while the film is running
 If need arises, stop the machine for comments, discussion or explanation
before you continue.
 After completing showing the film make a follow-up.

- Follow-up:
 Ask students questions about the film.
 Discus the main features of the film.
 Initiate creative follow-up activities, e.g. written work, tests, projects,
reading on the topic, preparing a report.
 If necessary reshow the film.

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Activity:

 Identify and list any relevant history films which can be

obtained from the following places: Kenya National
Archives, Kenya Museum, and the British Council.

 Identify topics from History and Government syllabus that

can be best taught using films.

10.3 Television
According to Binning et al (1952), the television has great possibilities as an educational
medium. It can be a powerful tool in history teaching and learning because there are some
programmes that can be utilized in history lessons. Examples of such programmes are:
- Special days or public holidays, e.g. Kenyatta Day, Madaraka, Moi and
Jamhuri days.
- Religious holidays, e.g. Christmas, Easter and Idd-ul-Fitr.
- Programmes on past events, e.g. Deutche Welle feature which shows first and
second world wars, events following the wars e.g. peace treaty of Versailles,
life history and achievement of certain personalities.
- Cultural programmes, e.g. drama and music festivals, cultural weeks, Kenya
Rhythms which show cultural dances of different communities in East Africa.
- Special world events, e.g. coronation of presidents, presidential elections, etc.
- General programmes, e.g. Face to Face, “Dunia Wiki Hii”, Yaliyotokea and
Agricultural Shows.
- Commercial programmes, e.g. trade fairs, stock exchange, commercial
exhibitions. These can be useful in teaching about economic history of Kenya.

10.3.1 How to get most from television

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A history teacher should identify relevant television programmes from the local dailies
and as part of homework the learners should be asked to view these programmes during
their own free time. In cases where not every student is served with a television set, the
teacher should video-tape the programme and show it to the entire class. This can also be
done as follow-up on what the students viewed on their own. Where a school owns a
television set, the teacher should reorganize the timetable if it is during school hours so
that the students can have a chance of viewing some of these programmes.

In spite of its usefulness, the television as a teaching aid has a number of disadvantages:
- It is expensive for some schools.
- There is poor reception in some parts of the country. Therefore, there is need
for more satellites to be set up.
- Some programmes fall during wrong hours either when the students are
occupied or when the teacher is not available to organize the entire class for
viewing.
- It is difficult to sieve out important information from a programme designed
for a different purpose and addressed to a different audience (public).

Activity:

Show how a television can be used as a visual aid at present

10.4 Video tape

It is useful because one can video-tape some of the television programmes and play them
back in class at a convenient time.

There are activities within the school environment and outside which could be video-
taped and replayed to the learners. They include plays e.g. trials of Dedan Kimathi,
history projects, national days’ speeches and community work. There are also ready made

98
programmes in some agencies which a history teacher can borrow. Such are programmes
on first and second world wars, a film on Idi Amin Dada of Uganda, life and death of
Mzee Jomo Kenyatta, coronation of Nelson Mandela, Sarafina – the struggle in South
Africa for political liberation, heroes of first and second world wars, the conquest of
Berlin, the cold war among others.

10.4.1 Suggestions on how to organize a video lesson

A video lesson could be organized as follows:
 Introduce the video programme. This can be done by giving a brief statement on
the programme, explaining the purpose for watching it, emphasizing on what to
look for.
 Give a predictive exercise which will prepare students for what they are about to
hear and view to familiarize them with the content of the video-tape. It will
involve asking them to predict/imagine what they are likely to see in that
programme.
 Show the video-tape.
 Follow up the predictive exercise by asking questions to compare what they have
viewed and what they had imagined.
 Reshow the video a second time if necessary.
 Organize follow-up activities/exercise. This can be done in many ways e.g.:
discuss the content of the video, students to role play, students to do written
exercise related to what they have seen, or to do further reading on the topic.

Activity:

 Pick some topics from History and Government syllabus which can be taught
using some ready-made video-taped information.
 Identify places where you can obtain relevant video-tape programmes.
 Borrow relevant History and Government video-taped programmes and play
them back.

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10.5 Silent projected media

These are materials which are projected through a projector to the audience and they do
not have sound, hence the term silent. The most commonly used materials for history
teaching and learning in this category are slides, filmstrips and overhead transparencies.

10.5.1 Slides
These are pictures taken through the use of a camera using a special film known as a slide
film. Once the pictures have been taken, they are processed and framed ready for use
through projection using a slide projector.

10.5.2 How to organize for slides

- Decide on the topic to prepare slides on.
- Write down the teaching points you want to get across to the learners.
- Make a list of pictures you will like to take.
- Photograph the scenes you have decided on.
- Send the film for processing, it will come back to you as a set of slides.
- Arrange the slides in the order in which you plan to show them
- Project them for a friend to evaluate them.
- After projection discuss with your friend the effectiveness of the pictures and
make any necessary adjustments e.g. re-arranging the order of the slides.
- After re-arranging, number them in order in which they will be shown.
- Pick them in the order you have arranged them.
- Project them when required.
- If necessary give comments on each slide as it is projected. In this case,
commentary roles should be prepared in advance as this makes teacher’s work
easier.

10.6 Filmstrips
These are a continuous series of films of uniform size which are shown in a fixed order.
They are shown on a filmstrip projector.
There are two main types of filmstrips:

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Story-telling filmstrips: These are a series of pictures which tell a story. They are
usually accompanied by a written script which can be read by a teacher as the pictures are
being shown.

Study filmstrips: It is not shown in the same manner as story-telling type instead each
picture is used for detailed observation and study on areas of historical importance. The
aim is to spark discussion among learners and arouse interest of learning the area under
study

Note:

Some of these filmstrips are commercially produced. In

such a case, the learners are supposed to study
accompanying notes for effective utilization.

10.7 Over-head transparencies

A transparency is a material used to write on and the written word is projected on an
overhead projector. There are different types of transparencies, but commonly available
ones are acetate, Cell-film or polythene sheet. The overhead transparency can be used as
the chalkboard where the teacher writes on the transparency as the lesson proceeds
gradually building up a lesson summary as the work is projected. There is also another
resource which does fall under of the resources discussed. This is the history room.

10.8 History room

If the teaching and learning of history is going to be interesting and effective, it is
strongly felt that there should be a room set aside for that purpose. This will mean either
converting one room available in the school or if finances allow putting up a new one.
This room should be large enough to accommodate tables, shelves, chairs, cupboards and
drawers for storage purposes. The room should serve as:

- A centre of history learning in the school.

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 - Accommodation or stockroom for all the necessary materials used in history
teaching and learning, e.g. charts, globes, maps, pictures, models, objects, text
and reference books, projects, films, tapes, slides, newspapers, newspaper
cuttings, files, magazines and pamphlets.
- A history library.
- A history workshop for preparation of instructional materials.
- A history theatre for showing plays, films, slides, etc.
- A departmental headquarters.

10.8.1 Importance of a history room

It is an essential facility in a school because it:
- gives the teachers more time to prepare their lesson(s), to organize their
material and clear up the material after the lesson without interruption.
- makes history learning interesting because of the inviting, stimulating and
conducive environment and materials present. This provides motivation to
learners.
- saves the teacher the bother of carrying materials from one class to another
during history lessons.
- facilitates the use of child-centred methods of teaching since it encourages
learners’ participation in the learning process.
- offers security to the teaching materials against vandalism.
- makes the learners to develop a sense of responsibility and cooperation
especially when they are involved in preparing the materials and cleaning of
the room.

10.8.2 Organization of a history room

It should be organized in such a way that:
- There are specific areas set aside for various resources
- Resources are properly arranged in their respective places.
- It has soft boards for pining charts, maps, pictures, etc.

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 - It has portable chalkboard(s) and the usual permanent chalkboard as in other
classrooms.
- It has good ventilation and enough light.

10.8.3 How to maintain a history room

The room should be furnished by the learners with your help. After furnishing it, it
should be maintained in the following ways:
- You should assign duties to learners to:
 clean the room;
 care for the furniture, books and other displayed materials in the room;
 arrange and file documents.

- You should encourage learners to equip the history room by collecting and
preparing materials to be used so that the room can grow steadily and
constantly with time.
- You should change material when it has served its purpose.
- You should make sure that whatever is there serves a purpose.
Note:

In our schools, this provision for a history room is not there, but
it is the duty of a history teacher to campaign for one. One has
to convince the administration that it is a necessity for effective
history teaching and learning.

Activity:

Draw a sketch showing how a history room should look like.

Prepare a comprehensive list of items which can be
accommodated in a history room.
“A history room is an effective tool in history teaching and
learning.” Discuss.
Identify various ways of raising money to construct a history
room.

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10.9 Summary:

In this lesson we have discussed the importance of using audio-

visual and silent projected media to enrich History and
Government lessons. We have also discussed about the
importance of a history room. In the next topic we are going
through three important documents which every teacher should
arm himself/herself with for effective teaching/learning of
History and Government

10.10 Definition of Key words:

 Films – Moving pictures usually shown in a cinema or

television and often telling a story.
 Television – a box-like device with a screen which receives
electrical signals and changes them into moving images and
sound.
 Video-tape – A machine used for recording moving pictures
and sound.
 Slides – A small piece of photographic film in a frame
which when light is passed through it shows a large image
on a screen
 Filmstrip – a series of films which are presented in an
organized/fixed manner.

10.11 Further Reading:

 Atkinson, H.J. and J.N. Atkinson (1975) Modern Teaching

Aids, MacDonald and Evans Ltd., London.
 Burston, W.H. and C.W. Green (Eds.) (1972) Handbook for
History Teachers, 2nd Edition, Methuen, London.
 Farant, J.S. (1980) Principles and Practice of Education.
Longman Group Ltd.
 Majasan, J.A. (1995). The Teacher ‘s Profession: Manual for
Professional Excellence. Spectrum Books Ltd., Ibadan,
Nigeria.
 Mtunda, F.G. and S.S.D. Safuli, An Introduction to the
Theory and Practice of Teaching. Dzuka Publishing Co., Ltd.
LESSON ELEVEN: PREPARATION FOR TEACHING - SCHEMES OF WORK

11.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last lecture you were exposed to a variety of learning resources which could be
used in teaching and learning of History and Government. This lecture will focus on
preparation, which you should make before teaching. Specifically, the lecture will deal
with the scheming process.

In order for the teaching of History and Government to reach its highest degree of
success, the history teacher should have adequate knowledge about the nature of the
History and Government syllabus. At the same time thorough preparation of schemes of
work and lesson planning, should be done prior to teaching. This will equip the teacher
with the necessary tools needed to handle the subject with ease.

11.1 Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

- Discuss the importance of a History and Government scheme of work.
- Identify factors to consider before scheming.
- Justify the inclusion of the elements of a History and Government scheme of
work.
- Prepare a scheme of working lasting one month on a topic of your choice from
history and government syllabus.

11.2 Schemes of work.

A scheme of work can be defined as a breakdown of the syllabus into manageable units,
which could be covered in a specific period of time. It could last for a week(s), month(s)
or a whole year.
 11.2.1 What is the importance of a scheme work?

Scheming is essential in teaching because:

- it makes teaching both systematic and orderly.

- it gives the teacher a forward insight in teaching by enabling one to identify
content, methods and relevant instructional materials which are going to be used
in the lesson. The teacher thus plans the work ahead of time.
- it enables the teacher to see lessons in a broader perspective thus guiding one
during lesson preparation.
- it enables the teacher to budget for time wisely giving room for events and
activities which might interfere with the school calendar e.g. public holidays,
prize giving day, outings, etc. Also time is budgeted according to the level of
difficulty of the content.
- it checks the teacher’s pace of teaching.
- it enhances smooth handling over in case of transfer of a teacher, thus ensuring
continuity in teaching.

?
What problems are you likely to face if you use a scheme work
prepared by another teacher?

11.2.2. Factors to consider before scheming.

Among the factors to be considered by the teacher before scheming are:

- Resources: These refer to the materials within the reach of the teacher. They
include equipment, printed media, audio, visual, audio-visual and community
resources.
 - Characteristics of the learners: These should be considered in the light of the
following factors:
(i) Number of students,
(ii) Their entry level,
(iii) Their academic background and aspiration,
(iv) Mental ability.

- Constraints within the school system: These include time for achieving the goals
and objectives, the restriction placed on the teacher by the school system, e.g.
examinations and other interruptions.
- Teaching environment: This includes the classroom, its size, environment in the
classroom and the relationship between history and other subjects in the
curriculum.

11.2.3. The scheming Process

As a part of the scheming process the teacher should do the following:

- Obtain the most current History and Government syllabus.
- Have thorough knowledge of the syllabus requirement from where to get the
topics.
- Do proper research into the area to be taught in order to identify suitable texts and
learning resources.
- Read systematically on the topic(s) to be taught in order to establish facts and
principles in the light of the prescribed syllabus.
- Collect and write the relevant information.
- Organize the information as per scheme.
- Know the number of periods per term allocated to the subject.
- Fit the topics stated in the syllabus in the lesson period. To do this, the teacher
must consider the background knowledge of learners, ability and the learning,
which each topic involves in extent (width) and complexity (depth). The teacher
 should also consider the content at hand, method and learning activities because
these will affect the amount of time taken.
- Collect relevant instructional materials in readiness for use during the lesson.

11.2.4 Elements in a scheme of work

A good scheme of work should contain the following components:

- Week: This is the week of the school term when a particular topic is to be taught.
- Number of periods: Is the number of history lessons per week given the provision
of lessons in the secondary school classes.

- Date on which the lesson will take place.

- Content: It includes topic, subtopic, and the subject matter to be taught.

o Topic
- could be thought of as a unit of study to be taught within a given number of
periods. It indicates the area of the syllabus being dealt with.
o Sub- topic
o – It breaks down the topics into suitable units and forces the teacher to
decide what can be handled in one lesson.
o Subject Matter
o Is the actual content of the lesson? This is where the teacher notes down a
summary of the main teaching points. It specifies what learners are
expected to achieve at the end of the lesson.

- Objectives: They are in most cases specific and stated in behavioral terms of what
the teacher expects students to do at the end of the lesson.
- Teachers activities: what the teacher will be doing during the lesson.
- Learning activities: These are activities which the students should carry out in
order to learn the content presented to them by the teacher.
- Teaching and learning resources: These are non-printed materials used to
facilitate learning. They make explanation and description more real, lively and
interesting for the class. Examples include pictures, real objects/specimen, charts,
maps, etc.

- Assessment: This is how you would establish if you have achieved your objective.
- References: These are books that a teacher uses or consults when planning a
lesson. They are both the textbooks and any other printed materials that a teacher
reads to look for facts and information about a certain topic. The following
information should be included in this column: the title of the book and its
author’s name, publisher and place of publication, chapter and page.
- Remarks: This column is provided so that the teacher can note whether the
lessons planned in the scheme are taught. There should be a reason to miss any
class, for example, by virtue of sickness, public holidays or other related reasons.
The teacher should indicate this and suggest when such a lesson will be taught.
Lessons that need to be repeated should also be shown in this column. The
remarks are important because they assist in future planning and teaching. They
should be written immediately after a lesson has been taught. The following is a
format of a History and Government scheme of work.
 A format of a History and Government Scheme of Work
Week Dat Less Topic Sub topic Objectives Teachers Learning activities Resources
e on activities
6 1 Introduction to The meaning By the end of the -Explanation Defining the term The chalk for summary board
History of of History lesson the learner -asking history.
Government. should be able to questions Answering questions
explain the meaning of -guiding on
history discussion definition.
Asking questions on
the meaning Writing
down
points on
definition.
2 The By the end of the Discussing in groups Pictures of
importance of lesson the learner of 5 the importance people of different nations and races
History should be able to of history. Asking together in harmony.
explain the questions for
importance of History. clarification.
Writing down
points on
importance

3 The By the end of the Answering questions The chalk

lesson the learner e.g. board for summary.
meaning should be able to: I) what is A picture of the president
of define the term government? What
Government Government II) is the

110
ctivity
Prepare a scheme of work lasting for one month on a topic of your choice from the current
History and Government syllabus.

In order to come up with an adequate scheme of work you need to:

- follow the scheming process discussed earlier.
- Organize the information as per the format shown above.

11.3. Summary

In this lecture we have dealt with the scheming process as part of preparation for teaching. The
key areas discussed in the lecture include:
- The importance of a scheme of work
- Factors to consider before the scheming process.
- Elements in a scheme of work.

In the next lecture we will discuss another important tool to be prepared prior to teaching. This is
the lesson plan.

11.4. Definition of Key Words:

- a scheme of work – a breakdown of the syllabus into manageable units which could be
covered in a specific period of time such as a school term or a whole year.
- Elements - various components which form a scheme of work.
- Syllabus – a prescribed course of study in a given subject or level.
- The scheming process – the procedure used to prepare a scheme of work.

11.5. Further Reading

- Crookall R.E. (1972) Handbook for History Teachers in Africa. Evans Brothers,
London.
- Carey E.F. (1957) Teaching Notes for Teachers in African Schools. Highway
Press Nairobi.
- Claessen, et.al (Eds.) 1995. Teaching Practice Handbook. A text for students-
teachers and supervisors, Kenyatta University

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 LESSON TWELVE: PREPARATION OF A HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT LESSON
PLAN

INTRODUCTION

In the previous lecture we introduced you to some aspects of preparation for teaching History and
Government. In this lecture you are going to learn how to prepare your own history and
Government lesson plans.

Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

- define the meaning of a lesson plan and explain its importance.
- identify and explain the major elements in History and Government lesson plan.
- describe characteristics of History and Government lessons instructional
objectives.
- prepare a suitable History and Government lesson plan.

12.2 Lesson plan

A lesson plan can be defined as:

- a formulated approach to teaching an learning which shows clearly all activities that are
going to take place during the lesson and the order in which they are going to follow.
- a systematic sequence of activities, which are designed to lead to the achievement of a
given objective or objectives.
- a work plan covering details of what to be covered in a lesson.

112
12.2.1 Importance of a lesson pla

113
A lesson plan is important in teaching and learning of history because:
- it serves as evidence of careful pre-thinking and preparation by the teacher because the
lesson plan is used as a basis for the lesson to be presented.
- it enables the teacher to be familiar with the teaching content and to visualize the best way
of covering it using appropriate methods and materials.
- it serves as a summary, guide/road map to the teacher on the content to be taught and
action to be taken at various stages of the lesson in order to avoid vagueness and
irrelevance.
- it acts as a reference/a memory bank to the teacher because it reminds one of the main
points to focus on during the lesson.
- it gives the teacher security and confidence so long as there is something to refer to during
the lesson.
- it improves the teacher ‘s performance by acting as a basis for future planning.

Question

? What do you think are the shortcomings of a History and Government taught without
adequate lesson preparation?

We are now going to outline the main elements of a lesson plan. These are:

3. Administrative details:
These include the name of the school one is teaching; personal details of the teacher, e.g. one’s
name and registration number; the specific class to be taught, six of the class, the subject, the
time the lesson will be taught, topic and sub-topic.

3.1. Instructional Objectives:

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Instructional objectives are also known as: specific objectives, learning objectives, behavioral
objectives and educational objectives.

These are learning objectives which describe what one can do as a result of having learnt and
what an observer can see the learner doing in order that one can judge whether or not learning has
been successfully achieved. They also forecast on what the teacher intends the student to do by
the end of 40 minutes. A good instructional objective is made up of three aspects: terminal
behaviour, test conditions and level of performance or indication of a standard of performance.

We are now going to give you reasons why instructional objectives are important.
- They provide a guide for choosing content to be taught, as well teaching methods and
learning materials to be used.
- They help in allocating teaching time.
- They help in deciding on criteria for evaluating the quality of teaching and learning.
- They control the behaviour of the learners and the teacher.

12.3.2. Characteristics of well constructed instructional objectives

A good instructional objective is made up of the following characteristics:

 Terminal behaviour
The objective should be behavioral, measurable and observable. It should describe the
learning outcome that the teacher intends to produce as a result of his/her instruction. It states
what the learner should be able to do after the instruction. The objectives must be in terms of
the learner not the teacher.

 Test conditions:
Conditions are limitations or restrictions placed on the student i.e. the conditions under which
the experience should occur. They could also be materials or aids given to the student when
he/she is being evaluated to determine whether the objective has been achieved or not. Some

115
 of the phrases used are: “ by the end of the lesson” “ using a map the learner should be able
to…”.

 Level of performance or indication of a standard of performance.

This is an acceptable level of learning at which a student proves that he/she has mastered the
subject. It is the degree or standard expected and must specify the appropriate level for the
performance indicated in the behaviour, e.g the learners should be able to explain at least four
factors out of six, that led to partition of Africa..

Note:

You should note that the objective should refer to content and skill coverage in the lesson
and should describe what student activity is to be applied.

12.3.3 Factors to consider when writing objectives for a history lesson

You should consider the following factors when writing objectives:

- The state of the learners in terms of what they already know. The teacher must be aware
of what they have covered before and what they should learn.
- What you want the learners to achieve.
- The choice of verbs to use. You should use explicit verbs such as the following

Select Identify List Apply

Describe Explain Choose Analyze

Trace Discuss Name Dramatize

Compare Contrast Differentiate

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To arrive at the above action verbs one needs to ask these questions:
- What do I expect the learner to be to do?
- In what way should the learner show that he/she has learnt?
- What level of performance will be acceptable as evidence that he/she has learnt?

When stating objectives, you should avoid implicit or vague verbs. Some of the implicit verbs
you should avoid are:

know grasp understand

appreciate think learn

In writing an objective avoid will and use should i.e. by the end of the lesson the learner should
be not will be.

We will give you three examples of well-stated instructional objective after which you will
attempt to construct yours.

Below are examples of objectives, which could be achieved in a 40 minutes lesson: By the end of
the lesson the learner should be able to:

- state at least five results of the settlement of Agikuyu in the mount Kenya region during
the pre-colonial period.
- describe the political organization of the Ameru during the pre-colonial period.
- explain how the harambee movement has contributed to the development of Kenya since
independence.

117
Activity:

Construct two good instructional objectives from a topic of your choice taken from the
History and Government syllabus.

12.3.4. Time:
In a lesson plan, time refers to the duration the lesson will take at introduction, development and
conclusion levels. Proper timing of a lesson simply involves a consideration of:
o how much content can be covered in a given teaching period
o what audio and visual resources are available.

Time factor will dictate the kind of activities the learners will be involved in, and the method and
resources you as a teacher will use to cover given content or topic.

12.3.5 Content:
This column includes the historical information, which the teacher wants to pass to the learner.
You should select an adequate amount of facts that would give the student a sound picture or
understanding of the event, period or the situation of the lesson.

The content column consists of three main steps of a history lesson: Introduction, Lesson
Development and conclusion.

 Introduction
This provides for organization of a favourable learning atmosphere. You should think of
something to stimulate the learners’ interest and capture it for the new material about to be
delivered.

A lesson could be introduced in any of the following ways:

- Brief review of the previous work and a quick introduction of new work. The two should
be linked.

118
 - Asking a question within the learners’ experience in a given setting.
- Reviewing new words, terms from previous lesson and introducing new terms or
vocabulary.

Introduction is important in a lesson because it sets the pace, the tone, the vigour and even quality
of the rest of the lesson.

12.3.6. Lesson Development

It is also referred to as the body of the lesson, the presentation or delivery stage of the lesson. It is
expected to describe the content and sequence in which the information will be delivered. You
should explain what you want to teach and spell out the limit of the expected responses.

At this stage, you should be aware of:

- What principle points to consider.
- What key questions to use.
- What sequence to follow.
- What conclusion the delivery or discussion should focus on.

12.3.7 Conclusion

This is rounding off the lesson. You can conclude your in any of the following ways:
- Summarizing the main points highlighted during the lesson either orally or by use of the
chalkboard.
- Asking questions on the topic covered.
- Giving assignment as a follow up of the lesson just taught.

12.3.8 Learning activities:

Learning activities in a lesson plan are the key to success in all history teaching and learning.
Learner’s participation is what educationists call “educational activity” which calls for learner-
centred approach to teaching.

119
Learning activities are important because of the following reasons:
- They save the learners from the boredom caused by passiveness when they just sit and
listen.
- They fix the teaching more firmly in the learners’ minds, since their involvement arouses
interest in the material of the lesson.
- They train learners to think critically.

Note:

Learners should be involved at the following three levels: introduction, body of

the lesson or lesson development and conclusion. You should plan each activity
around each of the stages such that you have introduction activities, lesson
development activities and conclusion activities. These activities should be
challenging enough depending on the learners’ level and ability. In stating learning
activities, you should explain clearly what the learner will be doing at every level
of the lesson.

The following are some of the activities you could involve your students in.
- Asking and answering of teacher’s questions used in question and answer method.
- Discussing which can either be verbal or written, individual or group work, in the middle
of a lesson or at the end, with a warning or impromptu.
- Writing something on the chalkboard, or pointing at something on a map or chart.
- Drawing a relevant historical map, pictures or diagrams.
- Drawing a time chart to illustrate a particular period.
- Looking up for present day happenings from the newspaper or journals/magazines.
- Role-playing in the lesson. The learners can come to class prepared to act some roles of
great men under discussion. Part or whole lessons could be dramatized.
- Holding debates or seminars or panels. A part or even the whole lesson can be turned into
a debate or seminar with the students playing a major part.
- Note-taking during the lesson. This is important because it starts the learners off in art of
making their own notes which involves a lot of discrimination between the important and
the non-important.

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Activity:

Make a list of at least five other worthwhile learning activities which you
would engage your students in during a History and Government lesson

3.9 Resource material:

This refers to printed and non-printed media, which the teacher intends to use during the lesson.
It involves merging of the reference and resource material columns in the schemes of work into
one column in the material lesson plan. It includes among others: books, journals, newspapers,
magazines, resource people, buildings, places, real objects, specimen, models, the radio, tape
recorder, television, etc.

12.3.10 Self-evaluation
This takes place after teaching when the teacher looks at the lesson already delivered in an
objective manner. The lesson is assessed by asking oneself these questions:
 Have I achieved my objectives?
 Have the learners understood my lesson?

If the answer is yes you should substantiate by explaining how the lesson was understood and
how the objectives were achieved.

If the answer is no, try to find out why the learners did not understand the lesson or why the
objectives were not achieved. You should ask yourself the following questions:
 Where did I fail in my teaching?
 Is it because I was not very well prepared?
 Did I have enough teaching points?
 Did I have enough teaching aids?
 Did I use appropriate teaching methods?

121
Self-evaluation will enable you to discover strengths and weaknesses, in the teaching so as to act
appropriately. This will make you a better teacher day by day.

Activity:

Study the sample of a lesson plan given. It is extracted from the

scheme of work for History and Government, which you studied in
the previous lesson.

A Format of a History and Government Lesson Plan

NAME: Kara Mawe REG. NO.: EDA/004/97

SCHOOL: Zimmer Sec School FORM: IA

SUBJECT: History and Government Roll: Actual ----

Expected --

DATE: 16/1/2004 TIME: 8.00 – 8.40 a.m.

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

SUBTOPIC: Meaning of History

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to explain the meaning of the
term “History”.

Teaching and learning resources:

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LESSON DEVELOPMENT

Time Content Learning activities Resource material

5 min Introduction - Answering
Definition of history the question:
What is
history?
30 min Lesson Development - Discussing R. G.
Various meanings of the Collingwood, The
history various meanings. Idea of History,
- Derived - Asking Oxford, Madras,
from questions 1992. p.3
Greek on the definition
work “historia” Juliet Gardiner
- Aggregate of Note down the (ed) What is
past events variousmeanings History Today?
- Systematic given to history Macmillan Ltd.,
written London, 1988,
narrative of past p.l.
events
- Past worthy of
record
- Dialogue
between the
present and the
past
- Critical study of
man’s past
- Study of
man’s
significant
past
and
present activities
5 min Conclusion - Asking
- Summary on questions
what has been - Answering
covered on questions
meaning of Noting down the
history. assignment
- Assignment: to
read on
importance of history

123
Self-evaluation
The objective was realized because learners were able to explain the meaning of the term “History” in
their own words.

124
Activity:

Choose a topic from History and Government lesson syllabus and

prepare one lesson plan using the format you have just studied.

12.4 Summary:

In this lecture, we have discussed the importance of a lesson plan in

teaching and learning History and Government. We have also discussed
in detail the essential elements of a lesson plan. If it is important for you
to do a lot practice in lesson preparation in order to be adequately
prepared prior to teaching.

12.5 Definition of key words:

 Behaviour – performance or activity, which can be observed.

 Lesson plan – a work plan covering details of what is to be covered
in a lesson showing clearly all the activities that are going to take in
a lesson and order in which they are going to follow.
 Instructional objectives – objectives which describe what the
learner can do as a result of having learned.
 Terminal behaviour – a component of objective, which describes
the behaviour of a learner after undergoing instruction.

12.6 Further Reading

 Aggarwal J. C. (1982) Teaching Social Studies, Vikas Publishing

House Ltd.
 Cohen, L. and L. Manion (1977) A guide to teaching practice,
Metheun Company Ltd., London.
 Moya, O. (1988) Methods of Teaching History, University Press.
 Mtunda F. G. & S.D.D. (1986) An introduction to the Theory and
Practice Teaching, Dzuka Publishing, Co. Ltd.
12
 LESSON THIRTEEN: ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING/LEARNING HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT

13.0 Introduction

The teaching and learning process includes three main elements:

 The determination of both long term and short term objectives – Where are we going?
 The selection and manipulation of appropriate instructional materials and strategies –
How do we get where we are going?
 The assessment of learning outcomes to determine the extent to which the stated
objectives have been achieved – How do we know when we get there?

13.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

differentiate between the terms ‘assessment’ and ‘evaluation’.
identify various methods used to assess learners’ performance in History and
Government lessons.
discuss the importance of assessment in History and Government teaching/
learning.

Assessment is a systematic process used to determine the extent to which educational objectives
are achieved. This is done through measurement and evaluation. Although the terms
“measurement” and “evaluation are often used interchangeably, there is a slight distinction
between the two. Measurement involves the construction, administration and scoring tests in
order to come up with quantitative descriptions of students’ performance and it is more specific
than evaluation. Evaluation on the other hand means the process in which value judgement plays
a key role in such areas as grading and promoting students. Such judgement is based on a
composite of different types of measurements obtained from tests, projects, laboratory work,
reports and examinations.

Note:

125
 The teaching/learning of History and Government is greatly influenced by the
methods of assessment used to monitor learning progress and to guide
teaching. This involves identifying and defining the objectives of instruction
and constructing or selecting evaluation instruments, which best appraise these
objectives.

In this lesson, we are going to discuss methods of assessing learners in History and Government
lessons. There are two types of assessments.
 Formative Assessment – This refers to an assessment of learning while in the process of
teaching/learning e.g. class tasks, assignments and end of term examination. It is used to
identify learners’ needs in order to guide them.
 Summative Assessment – deals with summing up processes of learning at the end of the
course. It is primarily concerned with purpose, progress and outcomes of the teaching-
learning process.

As a teacher, you need to know the functions of assessments.

13.2 Functions of Formative Assessment

The following are some of the functions of formative assessment.

 To provide the teachers with knowledge concerning students’ entry behaviour.
 To provide teachers and learners with specific feedback regarding students’ success in
mastery of skills, attitudes and knowledge.
 To help teachers determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning
materials.
 To help motivate students to learn more when they perform well in a given assignment.
This also encourages students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study habits.
 To encourage healthy competition in learning
 To secure data for students’ records and reports for administrative purposes.

126
  To provide an objective basis for determining the promotion of students from one class to
another.
 To help improve the learning in progress by pinpointing exactly where the learners are
having problems so that the teacher can give remedial work.
 To check the pace of teaching by impelling the teacher to strive to accomplish the desired
objective (s).
 To help the teacher to determine which work to be given to learners at what level (for
differential assignment).
 To furnish parents or guardians with information about their children’s performance.

Activity

Think of other functions of formative assessment and list them down.

Just like formative assessment, summative assessment has several functions. It is used to:
 determine the effectiveness and worthiness of a programme, e.g. 8:4:4 in order to make
reliable decision about educational planning in terms of time, manpower, and other
resources.
 predict the general trend in the teaching/learning process.
 identify problems that might hinder the achievement of set goals of education.
 furnish the public (community) with the information concerning school’s performance.
 provide information to employers in order to determine at what level of education a
certificate holder should enter a career.
 select students for further education.

Note:

Although schools have policies on when students should be assessed, it is

We now suggested that for you
wish to introduce effective teaching
to various and learning
methods, of history,
which you can useassessment should
to assess your Hist ory and
be done continuously.
Government students.

127
13.2.1 Methods of Assessment

Assessment could be done through the following means:

 Direct observation, which is used to evaluate acquisition of attitudes, values and skills.
 Questionnaires, which are used to evaluate attitudes, skills and knowledge.
 Checklists used for observing certain traits exhibited.
 Oral assessment, which is good for students, whose reading and writing abilities are
limited. This form of assessment is used to get immediate feedback.
 Projects/assignments where tasks are given to learners individually or as a group.
 Written tests.
 Examinations.

?
Which of the above types of assignment is suitable in
History and Government?

Notes:

The form of assessment chosen depends on the objectives set to be

achieved by the individual teacher. There are a series of objectives
which a history teacher might want to be assessed e.g. factual
knowledge, categorization, summarization, criticisms, imagination,
synthesizing, analysing, applications, etc. However, testing is one form
of assessment which is commonly used in our schools. Others are
assignments and examinations

There are certain considerations, which you need to consider when constructing a test e.g.
 Define the learners’ task as completely and clearly as possible ensuring that it measures
the intended objectives.
 Write the items clearly and specifically in order for the learners to know what is expected
of them.
  The expected responses from the students should relate to significant content and
behaviour as indicated in the table of specifications and objectives.
 Restrict the subject matter to be covered by the question.
 The area of emphasis for the question should be indicated either by underlining, writing in
italics, or bold writing.
 The question should be interesting and challenging enough and at the proper level of
difficulty relative to the students and the test purpose.
 Structure the questions in such a way that an overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed.
 Each question should be easy to follow from the learners’ point of view.
 Avoid vague terms that could elicit contradictory responses from the learners by making
sure the questions are not linguistically or conceptually ambiguous.

You also need to come up with a good test. A good test should have the following characteristics:
validity, reliability, objectivity, usability and discrimination.

 Validity
It refers to the degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure. In other
words, it should adequately sample the content and the objectives of the areas the teacher
has taught. In test construction, the teacher should be guided by the following key
questions concerning the validity.
 Does the test adequately sample the content area?
 Does the test involve the skills that are important in the area e.g. cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor.
 Does the test relate to all behaviour objectives for the unit?

Note:
If the test cannot provide this essential information, then it is of little value and
therefore should not be used. The validity depends on the purpose of the test, the
procedure and the interpretation of results.
 Reliability
 This is the accuracy and consistency with which a test measures what it measures. In
other words, the test should generate quite similar scores when it is administered to a
similar group of students on two successful occasions, then it is concluded that it
possesses high degree of consistency and reliability. On the other hand, if it cannot
produce the results that are consistent, then the results cannot be trusted or relied upon.

The reliability of a test depends on:

 The conditions under which it is administered.

 The nature of the attributes being measured.
 The characteristics of the group of students being assessed.
 The way in which the test is scored.

 Objectivity
It refers to freedom from subjective judgment. The test must be as free as possible from
bias. A measuring instrument has objectivity when two or more competent observers can
independently agree whether or not a learner’s test performance meets the standard
criteria stated in the learning objective.

Note:

Objectivity of a test will be affected by: type of tests, mode of scoring and
state of mind and condition of the scorer.

 Usability (Economy)
This refers to the practical aspects of the time and resources required for test compared to
the value of the information obtained. Sometimes, the time and resources involved in
preparing a test compared to the value of the information obtained may render the test
useless.

 Discrimination
 It refers to the ability to test to separate students on how well they perform on the test.
The questions set must be representative of the subject matter taught and should be
sufficiently difficult so that those who know the subject can be separated from those who
do not know it.

We are now going to discuss the commonly used type of tests in History and Government
teaching/learning. These are objective and essay tests.

13.2.3. Objective tests

These are tests, which tend to reduce the amount of subjectivity and human error in scoring. In
objective tests, the learners’ responses are limited to either of the following: single words,
phrases or simple choices from several choices presented to them. Objectives tests have a number
of advantages:
- They allow for a wide content coverage.
- They can be used to encourage learners to learn facts, concepts and principles.
- They encourage students to pay close attention to what they are studying because
the question calls for specific information.
- The answers can be scored quickly and more objectively than in other forms of
testing.
Activity:

Think of more advantages of objective tests and list them

down.

Objective tests have also limitations such as the following:

- Setting is time-consuming and expensive in terms of paper.
- They tend to test recall or factual information rather than creativity.
- They tend to measure partial and superficial knowledge rather than broad
conceptual understanding.
 - They are not effective in testing student’s ability to organize their thoughts or to
write coherently.
- They give room for guessing.

Note:

There are many types of objective questions, among them are: multiple choice
type; supply item category (completion test),; true-false, matching exercise.
You are going to be given various examples from each of the types.

13.3 Multiple choice type

They consist of direct questions followed by four possible answers of which one should be
chosen as the correct answer. Sometimes all the answers are true to a certain extent but only one
is the best. It is important for you to know how to construct good multiple-choice items.

13.3.1 How to construct a multiple choice items

The following steps should be followed when constructing multiple choice items:
- Choose relevant and important topics from which to develop items.
- Design statements that imply situations that students have not previously
encountered.
- Write the stem (the question) first. Try to make it as short as possible and use clear
simple language.
- The stem must be carefully worded to avoid vagueness and different
interpretations.
- State your questions positively because negatives tend to confuse students.
- Look for the key (answer).
- Make sure that there is only one correct answer.
- Look for distractors (wrong options).
 - Distractors should not be obviously wrong but rather they should be plausible.
- Make all the responses almost equal in length or make two responses short and the
other two long.
- Place the correct answer in different positions in each question.
- Make sure all responses fit grammatically with the stem. If only the correct answer
completes the sentence in a grammatical way you are providing a clue to the
student who is guessing.
- Avoid phrases such as none of these or all of them.
- Ensure that the test is not too long otherwise it will become an endurance test
rather than a test of ability.
13.3.2 Examples of multiple choice questions

The following are examples of multiple choice items:

(i) The Akamba interacted with neighbours during the pre-colonial period mainly
through:
A. trade
B. raiding
C. warfare
D. intermarriage
(ii) Which one of the following was a religious practice among the Abaluyia during the
pre-colonial period?
A. worshipping God in shrines.
B. pouring libation to ancestral spirits.
C. sending people out to preach their traditional faith.
D. offering human sacrifices to their god.

(iii) The main economic activity of the Agikuyu in the 19th century was:
A. crop farming.
B. cattle keeping.
C. iron smelting.
 D. basket weaving.

(iv) One of the results of the Abagusii resistance against colonial rule is that:
A. The Abagusii were allowed to retain their independence.
B. The Abagusii land was alienated for European settlement.
C. The Abagusii were allowed to grow coffee.
D. The Abagusii were exempted from paying hut tax.

Activity:

Choose a topic from the current History and Government syllabus

and prepare two multiple choice items.

13.4.1 Supply item tests

The supply item tests are of two types:

(i) Short answer questions.
(ii) Short completion questions.

This form of testing requires the students to provide missing information with a word, phrase or
symbol. Its purpose is to determine the student’s ability to recall or recognize the appropriate
term: concept or phrase to complete a statement. They are recognized by the presence of blanks
in which the students write the answers to the questions. At times, a number of words or phrases
are placed below the question from which the student will be required to choose the most suitable
to complete the sentence or statement.

Below are some suggestions to the teacher on how you could construct supply item tests.
- Give clear instructions for each question.
- Make the wording clear and specific enough in order to avoid ambiguous
responses.
 - Provide for brief responses.
- Provide blanks either at the beginning or at the end of a statement.
- Use only key words for blanks.
- Do not leave many blank spaces in the sentences, as they tend to confuse students.
- Make sure there is only one correct answer.
- Do not make answers too obvious.
- Avoid long and complex statements.
- Avoid vague questions, which may elicit different types of answers from students.
- Avoid using highly technical terms.

13.4.2 Examples of Supply items tests

(a) Short answer questions.

The item is presented in a direct question, e.g.

- In which year did Mzee Jomo Kenyatta die?

- What is the name of the first president of Uganda?
- Which countries formed the East African community?

(b) Short completion items

The learner is expected to fill in the space provided.

- Nyayo as a philosophy was introduced by

- was the second vice president of Kenya.
- Harambee spirit means

Activity:
Prepare at least four supply items from a topic in the current History and Government
syllabus

13.5 True/false items

In true-false items the student is presented with a declarative statement and is supposed to judge
the truth or falsity of the statement. Some of the variations of true-false are yes-no and right-
wrong.

The following are suggestions on how to design true/false items.

- Use statements that are completely true or completely false.

- Avoid copying statements word for word from the text book.
- Avoid statements that are partly true and partly false.
- Avoid ambiguous statements.
- Do not use terms that provide clues about the right answer.
- Do not use negative statements unless it cannot be avoided.
- Avoid rhetorical questions.
- Long statements should not be used.
- Complicated terms should be avoided where possible.

The following are examples of true/false items

(i) East African Community was formed in 1963. T/F
(ii) Kwame Nkrumah was the president of Nigeria. T/F
(iii) Nelson Mandela was a founder member of ANC. T/F

Activity:
Prepare five True/False items on a given topic from History and Government syllabus.

13.6 Matching Exercise

It consists of two columns. The first column consists of a list of items while the second one
consists of a list of responses. Each item in the first column is to be paired with an alternative
response in the second column. In most cases, history learning involves the association of two
things in the learner’s mind. Common examples where this association can be made are: terms
and definitions; events and causes; events and dates; events and places; places and their
significance; countries and their capital cities and lastly events and persons.
The student/ candidate is required to make some association between what is contained in column
1 and responses in column 2. In the simplest matching exercises, the student is presented with
exactly the same number of responses as the number of items. However, complex matching
exercises that provide more responses than items are frequently used because they reduce the
examinee’s success by guessing.

The following suggestions will be useful when you are constructing matching items.

- Give clear and specific instructions explaining how matching is to be done in

order to avoid confusion.
- Limit the number of items in each set (column) to between 15-12 items because
when there are too many, they tend to confuse students and they are also time-
consuming.
- Each set of items should be homogeneous.
- Arrange items in sequential order, either alphabetically or in time sequence..
- Put each set of items and responses on the same page so that the learner does not
have to turn over the page.
- Distribute the responses randomly and do not give clues.
- Keep the responses short to save students from spending a lot of time searching
through responses.
 - Include two or three extra responses to decrease the possibility of guessing.
(i) Events and Causes

Column 1 column 2

1. Abushiri uprising 1. Did not want the British to construct the railway
through their territory.
2. Mau Mau rebellion 2. Resented the idea of providing labour for the IBEA
company.
3. Maji Maji rebellion 3. The peasants wanted back their land.
4. Nandi resistance 4. Resented forced labour and taxation and harassment by
the Germans
5. Taita resistance 5. Resented to be sold as slaves by the British.
6. Wanted the Germans to leave the Coast.
7. Were against the British interfering with their way of
worship.

(ii) Personalities and Achievements

Column 1 Column 2

1. Jomo Kenyatta 1. Defeated the Italians at the battle of Adowa.

2. Kwame Nkrumah 2. Resisted the French for 7 years.
3. Emperor Menelik 3. A leading member of Kenya African Union.
4. Nelson Mandela 4. A trade unionist.
5. Oginga Odinga 5. Founder member of African National Congress.
6. Sekou Toure 6. Led Guinea to independence.
7. Tom Mboya 7. The strongest supporter of Pan Africanism in Africa.
8. The founder of Kenya peoples union.
9. Founder of Pan-African Congress.
 (iii) Countries and their capital cities.

Column 1 Column 2

1. Angola 1. Monrovia
2. Botswana 2. Addis Ababa
3. Burundi 3. Moroni
4. Cameroon 4. Gaborone
5. Chad 5. Luanda
6. Camoros 6. Cairo
7. Egypt 7. Accra
8. Ethiopia 8. Bujumbura
9. Gabon 9. Abidjan
10. Ghana 10. Yaunde
11. Ivory Coast 11. Libreville
12. Liberia 12. N’Djamena
13. Bangui
14. Maseru.

(iv) Countries and their leaders

Column 1 Column 2

1. Burundi 1. Soni Abacha

2. Egypt 2. Sam Nujoma
3. Ghana 3. Robert Mugabe
4. Libya 4. Hussein Mubarak
5. Malawi 5. Yoweri Museveni
6. Namibia 6. Mobutu Sese Seko
7. Nigeria 7. Chiluba Fredrick
8. South Africa 8. Paul Kagame
9. Tanzania 9. Nelson Mandela
10. Uganda 10. Bakili Muluzi
11. Zaire 11. Jerry Rawlings
12. Zambia 12. Mammar Gadaffi
13. King Hassan
14. Thambo Mbeki

13.6.1. Advantages of matching items

The matching exercise is useful in; examining the ability to see relationship between events and
categories of statements, identifying numbered places or parts on a map, charts and diagrams and
testing in ‘who’ ‘what’ ‘when’ and ‘where’ situations.

13.6.2. Limitations of matching items

The exercise has among others the following limitations:

- The learner spends too much time searching for the correct response especially if
it is a complex matching.
- It is difficult to design a matching exercise that will measure genuine
understanding of a high level or the ability to interpret complex relationships.
- If not well constructed, matching item tests are likely to give clues.

Activity:

Using the above examples construct a matching exercise items from various History and
Government topics.

13.7 Essay tests

These are tests which require learners to give lengthy answers by a narrative on a given topic.
The learners are expected to organize ideas or show creativity through writing. There are two
types of essays; extended (open-ended) and restricted response (structured).
In the extended type, no bounds are placed on the student as to the number of points to be
discussed and the type of organization to use. This type of essay question permits the student to
demonstrate his or her ability to call upon factual knowledge, evaluate it, organize ideas and
present them in a logical coherent fashion. The extended response essay questions are suitable at
the levels of synthesis and evaluation. Terms commonly used in these type of questions are
discuss, describe, explain, apply, determine, analyze etc.

In the restricted response essay question, the student is more limited in the form and scope of the
answer because one is told specifically the context that the answer is to take. It is suitable for
measuring learning outcomes at the comprehension, application and analysis levels. Terms
associated with restricted response questions include such words as define, state, identify, give,
name, compare, contrast, classify, illustrate, trace, explain and outline.

13.7.1 Characteristics of essay questions

Essay questions have these qualities:

- They require students to organize and express themselves in their own words.
- They consist of a few questions, which require lengthy answers.
- They are relatively easy to prepare and hard to mark accurately.
- Their quality depends on the skill of the setter and the scorer.

13.7.2 When to use essay questions.

They can be used when:

- the group is small.
- you wish to encourage to the fullest the development of the learner’s skill in
written expression.
- you want students to organize ideas or to show their creativity.
 - you are more interested in exploring the learner’s attitudes than in measuring
achievement.
- you are more confident of your own proficiency as a critical reader.
- the time available for test preparation is shorter than the time available for
scoring.
- evaluating complex or controversial areas of a subject.
- learner’s are expected to apply the acquired knowledge to novel situations.

13.7.3 Examples of essay type questions

The following are sample questions for:

(a) Extended (open-ended) questions.

(i) Describe the political organization of the Nandi during pre-colonial period. (15 marks)
(ii) Explain the causes and results of the ‘Mau Mau war’. (15 marks)
(iii) Explain the factors which hastened the achievement of independence in Kenya after
1945. (15 marks)
(iv) Describe the development of early agriculture in Mesopotamia. (15 marks)
(v) Analyze the factors that led to European colonization of Africa. (15 marks)

(b) Restricted response (structured) questions

(i) Give three reasons why the British government encouraged the development of
agriculture in Kenya during the colonial period. (3 marks)
(ii) Give five reasons why Christian missionaries established schools in Kenya for African
children. (5 marks)
(iii) Name five sources of revenue for Municipal Councils in Kenya. (5 marks).

13.7.4. Advantages of essay questions

It is important that you use essay question to test learner’s understanding of what they learn
because these questions have several advantages some of which are outlined below.

- They provide opportunities for the learner to demonstrate the degree to which one
can analyze a given problem.
- They enable the learner to creatively select relevant information related to the
topic under discussion.
- They can provide good measure of learners understanding of any given area of
knowledge.
- They enable the learner to organize answers in a systematic (logical) and
comprehensive manner.
- They help the learner to improve the skills of writing and logical organization of
thought.
- They provide the learner with opportunity to demonstrate as much as possible
what one knows since there is no absolutely wrong or right answer.
- They give students opportunity to express themselves using their own phrases,
words and expressions and with minimum restrictions.
- They measure more complex higher levels of understanding.

Note:

Although essay questions are useful in History and Government assessment , they have a
number of limitations

- They suffer form content unreliability and inadequate sampling of items because
the teacher can assess on only a limited sample of content covered and on very
few items (questions), given the lengthy answers (responses) expected.
- There is lack of consistency in judgment because scoring depends on the physical
and mental state of the scorer.
 - Scoring is highly subjective because the evaluator can at times be impressed with
the literary skills and handwriting of the learners. This can seriously impair the
validity of marks awarded in essay tests.
- Grading calls for expert judgment because they produce responses which can only
be effectively graded by a competent examiner.
- Learner’s performance in a given item can influence the scorer in other items. The
scorer gives more or less marks depending on the first performance of the
candidate.
- Reliability of most essay tests is low especially where option questions are
allowed. Students answer questions of different content, thus making the results
unreliable because the scores cannot be compared.
- They are time consuming for students because a lot of time is spent thinking and
writing, and for the teacher when grading because one is expected to understand
and interpret the student’s mind when marking.

Activity:

List other limitations of other essay questions.

The above limitations could be reduced if the following suggestions are taken into consideration:

- Restrict essay tests to objectives that are best achieved through this type of testing
e.g. analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
- Avoid vague terms that would elicit contradictory responses from learners.
- Structure items in such a way that an overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed. This can be achieved through the use of questions such as ‘explain why’
‘analyze how’ ‘give reasons for’, etc.
- Score one question at a time for all who attempted it for consistency and flow of
your line of thought.
 - Score every objective that is to be measured independently.
- Mark an essay test when you are physically sound and mentally alert.
- Make sure that the environment you are marking in is free from distractions.
- Prepare a marking scheme based on a valid criteria.

When preparing tests, you should be guided by a table of specification to know which levels of
learning should be tested.

13.8 Table of Specification

This can be defined as a chart for a blue print in which content to be covered in a test as well as
levels of cognitive learning (behavior) are specified. In history testing, behavior relates to six
levels of cognitive development according to Bloom’s taxonomy, namely knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Knowledge: Involves recall of specifics and universals or recognition of facts, terminologies,

dates, persons, etc.

Comprehension: Involves interpretation, translation, extrapolation, imagination, etc. The learners

are expected to put information in their own words, or to paraphrase. The terms used in
formulating such questions are explain, describe, discuss, among others.

Application: Requires one to apply knowledge or make generalization to new situations, e.g.
illustrate, demonstrate and interpret.

Analysis: Involves breaking down knowledge into parts and to show relationship among the
parts, e.g. analyze, compare and contrast.

Synthesis: Requires the learner to put or bring together parts and elements of knowledge to form
a whole and build relationships for new situations, e.g. write, formulate, organize, contrast, etc.
Evaluation: Includes the making of judgments about the value of something on the basis of a
given criteria, e.g. evaluate, choose, compare, etc.

The table of specification consists of one row (vertically) showing the subject matter (content) to
be tested, and six columns defining the different levels of cognitive abilities to be tested in each
subject matter area shown in the row (vertically).

13.8.1. Importance of Table Specification

The table of specification is important in test construction because:

- it identifies as clearly as possible the scope of emphasis of the test.
- it helps the setter to determine the levels of learning (type of objectives) to be
assessed in a given content area.
- it ensures that each content area and levels of learning (instructional objectives)
are given proper amount of attention in the test.
- it guides the setter in devising the type of test to set whether it is (objective or
essay).

13.8.2. How to prepare a table of specification

It can be prepared in the following ways:

- Identify the content area to be covered.
- Prepare a grid chart.
- List the content area to be tested vertically in the chart.
- Across the top of the chart give a breakdown of the six levels of learning.
- Decide on the number of items (questions) to be set in a given content area.
- Decide on the number of items per topic and the appropriate level of testing e.g. is
it knowledge, comprehension, etc.
- Ensure that there is more concentration in the middle levels of learning with a few
questions in the lowest (knowledge) and highest level (evaluation). The
distributions of questions should form a normal curve.
Note

- Content does not always fall in a single cognitive level. Sometimes it cuts
across two or more levels of learning.
- The number of items per learning level depends on the amount of content
covered and the proportion of emphasis given during instruction.
- It is not always easy to differentiate between some levels of learning e.g. it
is difficult to draw a line between analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

The illustration, which follows, is a sample of a table of specification.

A sample of a Table of Specification
20% 60% 20%
Course content S K I L L S
Knowl Compr Applicat Analy Synthes Evaluati Tota
edge ehensio ion sis is on l
n
1. Introduction to 10% 10%
History &
Government
2. Emergence of 10% 10%
Kenyan societies and
their indigenous
institutions up to the
19th century
3. Kenya and the 10% 10%
world up to the 19th
century
4. Establishment of 10% 10%
colonial rule in
Kenya
5. Economic and 10% 10% 20%
social development
during the colonial
period in Kenya.
6. political 10% 10%
developments and
the struggle for
independence in
Kenya 1919-1963
7. international 10% 10%
relations
8. developments 10% 10%
since independence
9. Government of 10% 10%
Kenya
10% 10% 30% 30% 10% 10% 100

13.9 Summary

This chapter highlighted the major features of assessment in History and Government
teaching learning. There are two types of assessment: formative and summative.
Formative evaluation which is guidance oriented aims at ensuring a healthy acquisition
and development of knowledge and skills by students and identifying their needs in order
to guide them towards desired goals. Its ultimate goal is to help students perform well at
the end of the programme. Summative evaluation attempts as far as possible to determine
to what extent the broad objectives of a programme have been achieved, thus it is
judgmental and terminal in nature.

13.10 Definition of key words.

 Assessment – a process used to determine the extent to which

educational objectives are achieved.
 Objectivity – Not influenced by personal beliefs or feelings, based on
real facts.
 Usability – it refers to the practical aspect of amount of time and
resources used for a test in relation to the value of information.
13.11 Further

 Summer R. (1991) The role of assessment in schools.

The Nfer-Nelson Publishing Co. Ltd.
 Suttton R. (1991) Assessment: A Framework for Teachers.
 Moon B. Mayes, A. S. (Eds) (1994)148 Teaching and Learning
in the Secondary School, OUP London
149