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Computer Hardware Lecturer - 2

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36 views8 pages

Computer Hardware Lecturer - 2

Uploaded by

RC Sharma
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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A block diagram is a visual representation of a system that uses

simple, labeled blocks that represent single or multiple items,


entities or concepts, connected by lines to show relationships
between them.

Digital
Computers
A Digital computer can be considered as a digital system that performs various
computational tasks.

The first electronic digital computer was developed in the late 1940s and was used
primarily for numerical computations.

By convention, the digital computers use the binary number system, which has two
digits: 0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit.

A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware and


Software.

The hardware consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical


devices that comprise the physical entity of the device.

The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that the computer
manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.
o The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and logic unit for
manipulating data, a number of registers for storing data, and a control circuit
for fetching and executing instructions.
o The memory unit of a digital computer contains storage for instructions and
data.
o The Random Access Memory (RAM) for real-time processing of the data.
o The Input-Output devices for generating inputs from the user and displaying
the final results to the user.
o The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include the keyboard,
mouse, terminals, magnetic disk drives, and other communication devices.

Hardware
Computer hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can use to control
computer’s operation, input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU, keyboard, mouse,
hard disk, etc.
Hardware Components
Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts are
essential and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU and
peripherals as shown in image below.

Software
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a program. Software
instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine language, and
executed by computer. Software can be categorized into two types −

 System software
 Application software
System Software
System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides a platform to
run an application. It provides and supports user functionality. Examples of system software
include operating systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
Application Software
An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or more tasks.
Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, etc.

Differences between Software and Hardware are

Sr.No. Software Hardware

1 It is a collection of programs to It includes physical components of computer


bring computer hardware system system.
into operation.

2 It includes numbers, alphabets, It consists of electronic components like ICs,


alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, diodes, registers, crystals, boards, insulators,
keywords, etc. etc.

3 Software products evolve by Hardware design is based on architectural


adding new features to existing decisions to make it work over a range of
programs to support hardware. environmental conditions and time.

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is
working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)


 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as
cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start
a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)


PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only


Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge
is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because
the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable
Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased
one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
Magnetic memories :
In a computer system, several types of secondary storage devices like HDD, CD, DVD, etc.
are used to store permanent data and information. These devices can be categorized into two
types namely – magnetic memory and optical memory.
A magnetic memory like HDD consists of circular disks made up of non-magnetic materials
and coated with a thin layer of magnetic material in which data is stored. On the other hand,
optical disks are made up of plastic and consist of layers of photo-sensitive materials in
which the data is stored using optical effects. A major advantage of the magnetic disk and
optical disk is that they are inexpensive storage devices.

What is memory hierarchy?


The Computer memory hierarchy looks like a pyramid structure which is used to describe
the differences among memory types. It separates the computer storage based on hierarchy.
Level 0: CPU registers
Level 1: Cache memory
Level 2: Main memory or primary memory
Level 3: Magnetic disks or secondary memory
Level 4: Optical disks or magnetic types or tertiary Memory
In Memory Hierarchy the cost of memory, capacity is inversely proportional to speed. Here
the devices are arranged in a manner Fast to slow, that is form register to Tertiary memory.
Let us discuss each level in detail:
Level-0 − Registers
The registers are present inside the CPU. As they are present inside the CPU, they have least
access time. Registers are most expensive and smallest in size generally in kilobytes. They
are implemented by using Flip-Flops.
Level-1 − Cache
Cache memory is used to store the segments of a program that are frequently accessed by the
processor. It is expensive and smaller in size generally in Megabytes and is implemented by
using static RAM.
Level-2 − Primary or Main Memory
It directly communicates with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through an I/O
processor. Main memory is less expensive than cache memory and larger in size generally in
Gigabytes. This memory is implemented by using dynamic RAM.
Level-3 − Secondary storage
Secondary storage devices like Magnetic Disk are present at level 3. They are used as
backup storage. They are cheaper than main memory and larger in size generally in a few
TB.
Level-4 − Tertiary storage
Tertiary storage devices like magnetic tape are present at level 4. They are used to store
removable files and are the cheapest and largest in size (1-20 TB).

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