COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Lecture 5

Dr. Andrew Y. A. Oyieke

Mangosuthu University of Technology (MUT),
ADV. DIP
FLUID MECH IV (FLuM-471)

May 22, 2024

Contents
Overview
Introduction
Basic thermodynamics
Sonic velocity, Mach number and Stagnation properties
Normal shock waves
Isentropic ow through a nozzle
Compressible ow with friction and constant area - Fanno ow
Compressible frictionless ow with heat transfer - Rayleigh ow
Compressible ow at constant temperature
Introduction
Compressible ow
▶ Occurs in ow of air and other gases inside conduits or
over objects involving density changes.
▶ At low speeds;
◦ the eect of velocity is minimal
◦ no major change of density occurs
▶ Towards velocity of sound;
◦ signicant changes in density, temperature and pressure
occur
◦ eect of velocity is major (pronounced)
▶ In long pipelines;
◦ the eect of friction on pressure and density is much and
needs further investigation.
Basic thermodynamics
Ideal gas law
⇒ Valid for all gases under all conditions and dependent only
on the prevailing conditions.
P
=R (1)
ρT

Where: P = Pressure of gas; R = Gas constant (287); ρ =

Density of air and T = Temperature (constant)
Enthalpy (H) or specic enthalpy (h)
⇒ Combines the pressure energy and internal energy into a
single property.
h = u + Pv (2)
Where: P = Pressure (Pa); u = specic internal energy
(j/kg); v = specic volume (m3 /kg)
The specic heat at constant volume

u = Cv T (3)

The specic heat at constant pressure

h = Cp T (4)

The specic heat at constant volume and pressure are related

to the gas constant as follows;
R = Cp − Cv (5)

For an adiabatic process;

P1 V1 γ = P2 V2 γ (6)
Where;
Cp
γ= (7)
Cv

γR
Cp = (8)
γ−1
Therefore,
  γ−γ 1
P1 T1
= (9)
P2 T2

Entropy
▶ Associated with the amount of energy available from the
gas and amount of change in chaos of the molecules.
▶ An increase in entropy of a gas involves conversion of
pressure energy into heat energy under the inuence of
friction.
Sonic velocity, Mach number and Stagnation
properties

Control Volume

P+∆P P
Fluid here Fluid here
ρ +∆ρ ρ
∆V a stationary moving back
a -∆V a

A sound wave travelling in a Stationary wave with moving fluid

stationary fluid

Consider a steady system of the models provided in gure 7.

Taking the conservation of mass (mass ow in = mass ow
out ).
ρaA = (ρ + ∆ρ)(a − ∆V )A (10)
Expanding and ignoring higher order product terms, we get;
a∆ρ
∆V = (11)
ρ
Since the net force causes a change in momentum, the
momentum equation can be developed and combined with
equation 11 to give;
∆P
a2 = (12)
∆ρ

The speed of sound (a)

Combining equations 12 and 1 we obtain;

(13)
p
a= γRT

▶ The speed of sound (a)is not constant but depends on;

the type of uid, temperature, density and pressure.
Mach number (Ma)
⇒ The ratio of relative velocity V to the velocity of sound a
in the atmosphere expressed as;
V
Ma = (14)
a

Ma <1 → Subsonic ow

Ma ∼
=1 → Transonic ow
Note :
Ma >1 → Supersonic ow
Ma >5 → Hypersonic ow

Stagnation properties
⇒ The stagnation point (stationary point) is some small
narrow area on the leading edge of the wing of an aircraft,
where there is no relative ow between air and the wing
 Stagnation point

⇒ At the stagnation point:

• the pressure Po is higher than the free stream pressure
since kinetic energy changes to pressure energy in a
reversible adiabatic process.
• the temperature To is higher than the free stream
temperature due to the compression eect.
⇒ The stagnation properties are thus the sum of static and
dynamic properties
Stagnation temperature (To )

V2 γ−1
 
To = T + or To = T 1 + Ma 2
(15)
2Cp 2

Stagnation Pressure (Po )

 (γ−γ 1)
γ−1

Po = P 1 + Ma 2
(16)
2

Stagnation density (ρo )

 γ
γ − 1 2 (γ−1)

ρo = ρ 1 + Ma (17)
2
Normal shock waves
⋆ These are wave fronts that are normal/perpendicular to
the ow direction.
⋆ Occur when supersonic ow is reduced over a very small
distance (fraction of a millimetre) to subsonic ow with
an associated increase in static temperature, pressure and
density.
⋆ Apply conservation laws to the incoming and outgoing
streams of uid in the control volume around the shock
wave in the gure below.
Control volume around
a shock wave

Ma > 1 Ma < 1
P1 P2
Upstream Downstream
before shock T1 T2
after shock
V1 V2
ρ1 ρ2
■ Mass conservation ⇒ mass ow in = mass ow out

ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2 V2 A2 (18)
■ Momentum equation ⇒ Net force causes a change in
momentum
(P1 − P2 )A1 = ρ1 V1 A1 (V2 − V1 ) (19)
■ Using the speed of sound , the gas law and continuity,
equation 19 can be modied as;
P1 P2
(20)
p p
M1 KRT1 = M2 KRT2
RT1 RT2

■ Introducing the Ma in equation 20 and rearranging, we

get;
P1 P2
P1 + V1 2 = P2 + V2 2 (21)
RT1 RT2
 ■ Inserting the speed of sound and Mach number, equation
21 becomes;
P1 (1 + γMa1 2 ) = P2 (1 + γMa2 2 ) (22)
⋆ The static pressure ratio (will always be > 1)
Po 2 (1 + γMa1 2 )
= (23)
Po 1 (1 + γMa2 2 )
⋆ The static temperature ratio
To 2 (1 + γ−1
Ma1 2 )
= 2
(24)
To 1 (1 + γ−1
2
Ma2 2 )
⋆ The Mash numbers over the normal shock wave can be
obtained by combining equations 20, 23 and 24;
 12  21
γ−1 γ−1
 
Ma1 Ma2
1+ Ma1 2
= 1+ Ma2 2

1 + γMa1 2 2 1 + γMa2 2 2
(25)
 ⋆ Subsonic conditions If we solve equation 25 and get a
trivial solution Ma1 = Ma2 , then the ow is subsonic.
⋆ Supersonic conditions If we solve equation 25 we get;

(γ − 1)Ma1 2 + 2
Ma2 2
= (26)
2γMa1 2 − (γ − 1)

and
(γ − 1)Ma2 2 + 2
Ma1 2
= (27)
2γMa2 2 − (γ − 1)
⋆ For equations 26 and 27 if Ma1 = 1, then Ma2 = 1 which is
true for a sound wave
Example 5.2
A normal shock wave occurs in air owing at a Mash number
of 1.6. The static pressure and temperature is 100 kPa and
20o C. Determine the; (i) Mach number,(ii) pressure, and (iii)
temperature of the air downstream.
Solution ▶ the downstream Mach number,

(γ − 1)Ma1 2 + 2 (1.4 − 1) × 1.62 + 2

Ma2 2 = = = 0.447
2γMa1 2 − (γ − 1) 2 × 1.4 × 1.62 − (1.4 − 1)
▶ the downstream pressure
(1 + γMa1 2 ) 1 + 1.4(1.6)2
 
P2 = P1 . = 10 ×
5
= 287000 kPa
(1 + γMa2 2 ) 1 + 1.4(0.447)
▶ the downstream temperature
(1 + γ−1
Ma1 2 ) (1 + 1.42−1 (1.6)2 )
T2 = T1 . 2
= 293× = 405.67 K
(1 + γ−1
2
Ma2 2 ) 1 + 1.42−1 (0.447)2
Isentropic ow through a nozzle
Subsonic ow

V1 V2
A2
A1
P2
P1
ρ2
ρ1

Consider the ow through a venturi shown in gure above, in

the;
⋆ converging part; acceleration (↑), Pressure (↓)
⋆ diverging part; velocity (↓), Pressure (↑) (recovered)
⋆ At high velocity; ∆P and ∆ρ are signicant.
⇒ Assuming an adiabatic process and air compressibility, we
can develop Bernoulli equation between the two points at
the same level (Z1 = Z2 ).

1
  
γ P1 P2
− + (V1 2 − V2 2 ) = 0 (28)
γ−1 ρ1 ρ2 2

⇒ But for adiabatic ow P1 /ρ1 γ = P2 /ρ2 γ

    γ−1
P2 P1 P2 γ
= (29)
ρ2 ρ1 P1

⇒ By conservation of mass ρ1 A1 V1 =ρ2 A2 V2

   γ1   
A1 P1 A1 ρ1
V2 = V1 = V1 (30)
A2 P2 A2 ρ2
⇒ The mass ow rate can be obtained by combining and
rearranging equations 28, 29 and 30, taking into account
the eects of friction.
     γ−γ 1 
2 γ
γ−1
P1
P2
1− P2
P1
 21
ṁ = Cd A1 ρ1  2   γ2  (31)
A1
A2
P1
P2
−1

Where Cd is the coecient of discharge given by;

91.74β 2.5
Cd = 0.5959 + 0.0312β 2.1 − 0.184β 8 + (32)
Re 0.75

And  is the Reynolds number of the ow in pipe and

Re 
β= d
D
is the orice diameter to pipe diameter ratio
Example 5.3
A venturi-meter with inlet diameter 75 mm and coecient of
discharge of 0.96 and a throat diameter of 25 mm is used to
measure the ow rate of air through a pipe. A mercury U-tube
used to measure the pressure dierence between inlet and
throat indicates 100 mm. The absolute pressure inside the
pipe is 135 kPa and the temperature of the air in the pipe is
20o C. Determine the mas ow rate of the air.
Solution
The density of air
P 135 × 103 3
ρ= = = 1.605 kg/m
RT 287 × 293
The pressure ratio
P2 135 × 103 − 13600 × 9.81 × 0.1
= = 0.9012
P1 135 × 103
      γ−γ 1 
2 γ
γ−1
P1
P2
1− P2
P1
 21
ṁ = Cd A1 ρ1  2   γ2 
A1
A2
P1
P2
−1

π(0.0752 )
Cd A1 ρ1 = 0.96 × (1.605) = 0.00681 kg/m
4
     1.14.−4 1 
135×103
2 1.4
1.4−1 1.605
1 − 0.9012  12
ṁ = (0.00681)  4   12.4 
0.075
0.025
1
0.9012
−1

ṁ = 0.0927 kg/s
Supersonic ow
▶ If A and V are the area and velocity at point x on the duct
of varying area shown in gure below, then;

1 dv (1/A) dv
= (33)
(M 2 − 1) dx
u
V dx

▶ For subsonic ow:

v
◦ Converging ow: ⇒ (M 2 − 1)
= −ve ; dA/dx < 0; velocity (↑)
◦ Diverging ow: ⇒ velocity (↓)
▶ For supersonic ow:
◦ Converging ow: ⇒ (M 2 − 1) = +ve ; dA/dx < 0;
velocity (↓)
◦ Diverging ow: ⇒ velocity (↑)
(This principle is used in the design of supersonic aircraft )
Chocked ow
▶ A condition where further reduction in the exit pressure of
converging-diverging nozzle have no eect on the mass
ow rate.
▶ The lower pressure cannot be propagated back to high
pressure side because in the throat we already have
(Ma = 1) known as critical state denoted by ∗
⋆ Critical pressure ratio - the ration of the pressure for
chocked ow obtained by substituting Ma = 1 in equation
16
 (γ−γ 1)
P∗ 2

= (34)
P γ+1
⋆ Critical temperature ratio

T∗ 2
 
= (35)
To γ+1
⋆ Critical density ratio
 (γ−γ 1)
ρ∗ 2

= (36)
ρo γ+1

⋆ The area ratio in terms of Ma is:

 γ+1
1 1 + [γ − 1)/2]Ma2 2(γ−1)

A
= (37)
A∗ Ma (γ + 1)/2

Note ;
⊗ Equation 36 is valid for all Ma; subsonic, transonic and

supersonic

⊗ A/A∗ is the ratio of the area at a point where Mash

number is Ma to the area where Mash number is unity.
⊗ Note - If the value of Ma in equation 37 needs to be
found for a specic area ratio, it must be found by
iteration or interpolation using table A6
Example 5.3
A supersonic wind tunnel is to produce a Mash number of 3.
The throat area has a diameter of 30 mm. What should the
diameter of the test section be?
Solution
 γ+1
1 1 + [γ − 1)/2]Ma2 2(γ−1)

A
=
A∗ Ma (γ + 1)/2
 1.4+1
1 1 + [1.4 − 1)/2](32 ) 2(1.4−1)

A
= = 4.23
A∗ 3 (1.4 + 1)/2
Thus the diameter for the test section should be;
D 2 test √
2
= 4.23 ⇒ Dtest = 4.23 × 0.032 = 0.0617 m
D throat
The mass ow rate
• The ṁ through a convergent-divergent nozzle is found by
taking conditions at the throat, then

(38)
p
ṁ = ρ∗ A∗ V ∗ = ρ∗ A∗ γRT ∗

• In terms of stagnation conditions;

γ+1
2
  2(γ−1)
(39)
p ∗ ∗
ṁ = ρo γRTo A
(γ + 1)

• In terms of the gas law, then ṁ becomes;

γ+1
Po A∗ 1 2
  2(γ−1)
ṁ = √ γ2 (40)
RTo (γ + 1)
Example 5.4
A supersonic wind tunnel with a square test section of 105
mm by 150 mm is to operate at Mach number 3 using air.
The static temperature and pressure in the test section is -20o
C and 50 kPa. Calculate the mass ow rate.
Solution
 γ+1
1 1 + [γ − 1)/2]Ma2 2(γ−1)

A
=
A∗ Ma (γ + 1)/2
 1.4+1
1 1 + [1.4 − 1)/2](32 ) 2(1.4−1)

A
= = 4.23
A∗ 3 (1.4 + 1)/2
0.15 × 0.15 2
A∗ = = 0.00532 m
4.23
The stagnation pressure is obtained from equation 16
 (γ−γ 1)  (1.14.−4 1)
γ−1 1 .4 − 1 2
 
Po = P 1+ Ma 2
= 50×10 1+
3
(3 )
2 2
Po = 1.836 MPa

The stagnation temperature

γ−1 1.4 − 1 2
   
To = T 1 + Ma 2
= (293) 1 + 3 = 708 K
2 2
Thus the mass ow rate is;
γ+1
Po A∗ 1 2
  2(γ−1)
ṁ = √ γ2
RTo (γ + 1)
 02..48
1.836 × 105 × 0.00532 2

1
ṁ = √ (1.4) 2 = 14.84 kg/s
287 × 708 (1.4 + 1)
Compressible ow with friction and constant area -
Fanno ow
⇒ This is compressible ow with friction in insulated ducts
of constant area.
⇒ Characterized by:
◦ pressure drop in the ow direction to overcome friction
◦ density decrease along the pipe due to pressure drop.
◦ unchanged ρV due to constant area and mass ow rate.
◦ negligible heat ow the surrounding
⇒ The velocity of gas increases along the pipeline
⇒ The maximum speed of ow occurs at the speed of sound
i.e Ma = 1 (denoted by * )
⇒ For a very long pipe, the sonic velocity occurs at point *
(not easy to achieve )
 1 2 *

fL*act/Dact fL*2/D
fL*1/D

⋆ Consider the pipeline above, the actual length of the pipe

is simply;
Lactual = L∗1 − L∗2 (41)
⋆ From the normal uid ow characteristics and
thermodynamic laws, we get
4fL∗ 1 − Ma2 γ+1 γ+1 2 γ−1 2
  −1 
= + ln Ma 1 + Ma
D γMa2 2γ 2 2
(42)
Where: f = fanning friction factor; Ma = Mach number at
the reference point of the pipe; L1 ∗ = length of the pipe upto
the point where Ma = 1 (Equation 42)
▶ The ratios of conditions at entrance to the point where
sonic velocity is reached (* conditions) are;
Pressure ratio
− 12
2Ma2 γ−1 2
 
P
= 1+ Ma (43)
P∗ γ+1 2

Temperature ratio

γ+1 γ−1
  −1
T
= 1+ Ma 2
(44)
T∗ 2 2
Velocity ratio
−1 − 12
γ+1 γ−1 2
 
V
= Ma 1+ Ma (45)
V∗ 2 2

Stagnation pressure ratio

γ+1
1 2 γ−1 2
   2(γ−1)
Po
∗ = 1+ Ma (46)
Po Ma γ + 1 2

▶ Note: These are the equations used to compile table A8

in the Appendix (Text book)
Example 5.5
A PVC pipe of internal diameter 20 mm is 150 m long and
conveys air at 100 kPa and 20o C. If the entrance velocity is
30 m/s, determine the conditions at exit. Assume no heat
transfer is taking place but do account for friction.
Solution
From table A2 ⇒ At T = 20o C; µ = 18.22 × 10−6 Pa.s
From gas laws;
P 100 × 103
ρ= = = 1.189kg /m3
RT 287 × 293
The sonic velocity at inlet;
√
a1 = γRT = 1.4 × 287 × 293 = 343.1
p
m/s

V 30
Ma = = = 0.0087 ≃ 0.09
a 341.1
From the Fanno-ow tables, at Ma = 0.09
T1 P1 4fL∗
= 1.198; = 12.1618; = 83.4961
T∗ P∗ D 1

We obtain f from the moody chart (or Churchill-Usagi

formula)
ρVD 1.189 × 30 × 0.050
Re = = = 97886.94 ≃ 105
µ 18.22 × 10−6
On moody charts for smooth pipes and Re = 105 ; f = 0.045
4fLactual 4 × 0.0045 × 150
= = 54.0
D 0.05
4fL∗ 4fL∗ 4fLactual
= − = 83.496 − 54.0 = 29.50
D 2
D 1
D
From the Fanno-ow tables,
4fL∗ T2 P2
= 29.5 ≃ 27.932; ∗
= 1.146; = 7.2866;
D T P∗
T2 T ∗ 1
 
T2 = ∗ .T1 = (1.1946) × 293 = 292.1 K
T T1 1.1981
P2 P ∗ 1
 
P2 = ∗ .P1 = (7.2866) ×100×103 = 59.91 kPa
P P1 12.162
Note: For simplicity and clarity, we didn't interpolate when
using the tables but for greater accuracy one should or use the
formulas.
Compressible frictionless ow with heat transfer -
Rayleigh ow
⇒ This involves constant duct area with compressible
frictionless ow where heat is added or removed.
⇒ The piping is relatively short so friction can be ignored or
heat transferred is far much greater than that developed
by friction.
⇒ Applying the continuity equation, the momentum
equation, the gas laws, the sonic velocity and Mach
number denition, we can arrive at a formula that relates
the static pressure, temperature and velocity at a point
where Ma = 1 (denoted by * ) thus;
Pressure ratio
γ+1
 
P
= (47)
P∗ 1 + γMa2
Temperature ratio

(1 + γ)2 Ma2
 
T
= (48)
T∗ (1 + γMa2 )2

Velocity ratio and Density ratio

⇒ since the mass ow rate (ṁ = ρAV ) stays constant,

(1 + γ)Ma2 ρ∗
 
V
= = (49)
V∗ (1 + γMa2 ) ρ

Total or Stagnation temperature ratio

(1 + γ)2 Ma2 1 + γ−2 1 Ma2

 
To
= (50)
To ∗ (1 + γMa2 )2 1 + γ−2 1
Total pressure ratio
 γ
1+γ 1 + γ−2 1 Ma2 γ−1

To
= (51)
To ∗ 1 + γMa2 1 + γ−2 1

Heat energy ow

Cp (To 2 − To 1 ) (52)

Results of heat addition

▶ Heat addition
• Subsonic - causes sonic conditions and reduction in ṁ.
• Supersonic - causes Ma = 1 and deceleration.
▶ Heat removal
• Subsonic - Mach number reduces
• Supersonic - ow increases with Mach number
Example 5.6
At inlet to a constant area duct, the Mach number is 0.2 and
the static pressure and static temperature are 95 kPa and 30o
C respectively. Heat is added to the air owing in the duct at
a rate of 110 kj/kg. Determine the properties of the air at the
end of the duct if friction is ignored.

1 2 *
P1 = 95 kPa P2 P*
T1 = 30o C T2 T*
Ma1 = 0.2 Ma2 Ma*

Solution
From the isentropic tables A6 ; at Ma1 = 0.2
P1 T1 273 + 30
= 0.9725; = 0.9921; To 1 = = 305.4K
Po 1 To 1 0.9921
From the Rayleigh tables A9; at Ma1 = 0.2
P1 Po 1 To 1
= 2.2727; ∗ = 1.2346; = 0.1736;
P∗ Po To ∗
T1 V1
∗
= 0.2066; = 0.0909
T V∗
The stagnation heat at point 2 can be obtained by the heat
added;
q 110 × 103
To 2 = To 1 + = 305.4 + 414.9 K
Cp 1005
Expressing the stagnation temperature ratio in terms of the
other ratios, we get;
To 2 To 2 To 1 414.9
∗ = . ∗ = × 0.1736 = 0.2377 ≃ 0.24
To To 1 To 305.4
Now check the values in the table and get Mao 2 = 0.24 At
this Mach number we also nd;
T2 P2 Po 2 V2
= 0.2841; = 2.2209; = 1.2213; = 0.1279
T∗ P∗ Po ∗ V∗
Therefore temperature and pressure at exit and inlet are;
T2 T ∗ 1
 
T2 = ∗ . .T1 = (0.2841) (3.03) = 416.7 K
T T1 0.2066
P2 P ∗ 1
 
P2 = ∗ . .P1 = (0.2209) (995×103 ) = 92.83 kPa
P P1 0.2727
Velocities at exit and inlet are;
√
V1 = γRT1 Ma1 = 1.4 × 287 × 303 × 0.2 = 69.8 m/s
p

√
V2 = γRT2 Ma2 = 1.4 × 287 × 416.7 × 0.24 = 98.2 m/s
p
Compressible ow at constant temperature

▶ Constant temperature (isothermal ow) - occurs when

gas ows at low velocity in a long pipe through which
heat energy transfer readily occurs.
◦ Friction is taken as constant and f is constant.
◦ Re is constant since ρV is constant for constant diameter
◦ Viscosity stays constant since it depends on temperature.
▶ The equation for these conditions is given as:

P2 2 − P1 2 P1 2 4f P1 2 V1 2 L
 
P2
− V12
ln = (53)
2 RT P1 2DRT

Where point 1 and 2 are the entrance and exit

respectively and L is the length of the pipe.
Example 5.6
Compressed air is conveyed from a compressor to a water drill
200 mm away. The pipe is smooth and is 40 mm diameter and
at the entrance the pressure is 700 kPa and the volumetric
ow rate 0.21 m3 /s. The temperature is assumed to be
constant at 50o C. Take R = 287 j/kgK and µ for air is
20 × 10−6 Pa.s. Calculate the pressure at the outlet.
Solution
Get the f value by rst getting the Re
4Q1 4 × 0.21
V1 = = = 16.71 m/s
πD 2
π(0.04)2

P1 700 × 103
ρ1 = = = 7.55kg /m3
RT 287 × 323
ρVD 7.55 × 16 × 0.04
Re = = = 2.41 × 105
µ 20 × 10−6
From moody chart or Churchill-Usagi f = 0.0037
P2 2 − P1 2 P1 2 4f P1 2 V1 2 L
 
2 P2
− V1 ln =
2 RT P1 2DRT

P2 2 − (700 × 103 )2 700 × 103 2

  
P2
− (16.71 )
2
ln =
2 287 × 232 700 × 103
4 × 0.0037(700 × 103 )2 (16)2 × 200


2 × 0.04 × 287 × 323

P2 ≃ 624 × 103
(by trial and error approximation)