Faculty of

Engineering

Signals Theory

Fourier Series
of CT signals
Signals Theory
Dr. Ahmed Abdelhaleem
Fall 2022/23
 2

Dr. Ahmed M. Abd El-Haleem

Associate Professor in
Communication and Electronic Department
Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University

E-mail: [email protected]
 Outline
1) Time domain & Frequency domain
2) Trigonometric Fourier Series (TFS)
3) Exponentials Fourier Series (EFS)
4) Discrete amplitude and phase spectrum
5) Compact Fourier Series (CFS)
4 Time domain & Frequency domain
 Time domain & Frequency domain
5

Time domain :
❑ Every point on the time domain plot represents
the amplitude at a particular time
Frequency domain:
 Every point on a frequency spectrum
represents the power or amount of energy at
that frequency over a finite time window
 Amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
 Time domain & Frequency domain
6

 Signal is made up of
components at
various frequencies,
in which each
component is a
sinusoid.
 By adding together
enough sinusoidal
signals, each with the
appropriate
amplitude, frequency,
and phase, any signal
can be constructed
 Spectrum
7

 Frequency domain view of a signal is far more

important to an understanding of data transmission
than a time domain view.

 The frequency domain of a signal is called a

spectrum and it is the range of frequencies that it
contains
 Spectrum
8
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
9
for sin wave
 A complete sine wave in the time domain (amplitude- versus-
time plot) can be represented by one single spike in the
frequency domain (amplitude- versus- frequency plot).

1
𝑓0 =
𝑇0
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
10
for sin wave
 The frequency domain is more compact and useful when
we are dealing with more than one sine wave.
 For example, shows three sine waves, each with different
amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
11
for Composite Signals
 A single- frequency sine wave is not useful in
communications;
 we send a composite signal, a signal made of many sine
waves.
 A composite signals is made up of many sine waves with
different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
 Decomposition of Periodic signals gives a series of sine
wave signals with discrete frequencies;
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition
gives a combination of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
12
for Composite Signals
Example 1 :
 shows a periodic composite signal with :

 sine wave with frequency f → is called the fundamental

frequency, or first harmonic.
 sine wave with frequency 3f → is called the third harmonic.
 sine wave with frequency 9f → is called the ninth harmonic.
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
13
for Composite Signals
Example 2:
 Nonperiodic composite signal. It can be the signal created
by a microphone or a telephone set when a word or two is
pronounced.
 In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic,
because that implies that we are repeating the same
word or words with exactly the same tone.
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
Bandwidth
14

 The range of
frequencies
contained in a
composite signal is
its bandwidth.
 the difference
between the
highest and the
lowest frequencies
contained in that
signal
 B. W. = fh – fl.
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
Bandwidth
15

Example 3:
 If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
 Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

 The spectrum has only

five spikes, at 100, 300,
500, 700, and 900 Hz
 Time- domain / frequency- domain
16
17 Trigonometric Fourier Series
 Fourier series
18

 The Fourier series is a representation for periodic

signals.
 Instead of viewing a signal as having information
distributed with respect to time (i.e., a function
whose domain is time), we view a signal as having
information distributed with respect to frequency
(i.e., a function whose domain is frequency).
 With a Fourier series, a signal is represented as a
linear combination of complex sinusoids.
 Approximating a periodic signal
19
with trigonometric functions
 The French mathematician Fourier found that any
periodic waveform, can be expressed as a series of
harmonically related sinusoids, i.e., sinusoids whose
frequencies are multiples of a fundamental frequency
(or first harmonic).
 The first two questions that need to be answered are:
1. Should we use a sine or a cosine?
2. How should we adjust the parameters of the
trigonometric function?
 Approximating a periodic signal
20
with trigonometric functions
 We define the fundamental period T0 as the minimum
value of the period .
2𝜋
 The fundamental frequency is defined as 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 = .
𝑇0
 For the units of 𝑇0 in seconds, the units of 𝜔0 are radians
per second (rad/s) and of 𝑓0 are hertz (Hz).
 Let us define the approximation error as the difference
between the signal x(t) and its approximation:
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝐵1 sin(𝜔0 𝑡)
 Approximating a periodic signal
21
with trigonometric functions
 Then we will try to minimize the mean-square error
function J[e(t)].

 For minimization (find the sinusoidal amplitude

which minimize the error), we differentiate and set
the result to zero:
 Approximating a periodic signal
22
with trigonometric functions
 This equation is rearranged to yield

 Using the trigonometric identity

 Approximating a periodic signal
23
with trigonometric functions
 To check if the mean-square error is minimized (not
maximized), the second derivative of the cost function is
calculated.

 The second derivative is positive; this satisfied, the mean-

square error is minimized (not maximized).
 So,
 Approximating a periodic signal
24
with trigonometric functions
 Note that this result is general and is not limited by
the functional form of x(t).
 Given a periodic function with the period 𝑇0 the best
approximation, in a mean- square- error sense, of any
periodic function by the sinusoid 𝐵1 sin(𝜔0 𝑡) is to
choose 𝐵1 to satisfy

𝑇0
2
𝐵1 = න 𝑥(𝑡) sin 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
0
 Approximating a periodic signal
25
with trigonometric functions
 The best approximation of a square wave with unity
4
amplitude, is to choose 𝐵1 = .
𝜋
 Approximating a periodic signal
26
with trigonometric functions
 The square-wave signal x(t) and its three-frequency
approximation

𝑥෤ 𝑡 = 𝑏1 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏2 sin 2𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏3 sin(3𝜔0 𝑡)

 Trigonometric Fourier Series
27

 The Trigonometric Fourier series lets us represent a

periodic signal as a weighted sum of harmonically related
cosine and sine waves.

x(t ) = ao +  an cos(nwot ) + bn sin( nwot )
n =1
 where
 ωo=2π/To and To is the period of the fundamental frequency fo
=1/To.
 ao, an and bn are the Fourier series coefficient
 an and bn are the amplitudes of the cosine and sine terms
given by:
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
28

1
ao =
To  x(t )dt ao → the signal average or DC
value of x(t).
To

2
an =
To  x(t ) cos(n t )dt
o an → the even coefficient (=0
if x(t) is odd signal)
To

2
bn =
To  x(t ) sin(n t )dt
o bn → the odd coefficient (=0 if
To
x(t) is even signal)

Where 
To
represents integration over any interval of length To.
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
29

Existence of the Fourier Series

𝑇
 Existence → ‫׬‬0 0 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 < ∞

𝑇0
so ‫׬‬0 𝑥(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡 < ∞

Which mean that 𝑥(𝑡) is a power signal → Periodic signal

 Note that: the integration of sinusoidal signal over one
cycle (2, T) is equal zero
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
30
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
31

Example 5:
 Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the periodic
signal
𝑥 𝑡 = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ 0,2𝜋
Solution
 We first compute the integrals for the Fourier
coefficients, where 𝑇0 = 2𝜋
1 𝑇0
𝑎0 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0
1 2𝜋
= න 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
2𝜋 0
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
32

Example 5: Solution
2 𝑇0
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0
2𝜋 2𝜋
Where 𝜔0 = = =1
𝑇0 2𝜋
2𝜋
1
𝑎𝑛 = න 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 cos 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝑛≠2
𝜋 0
1 2𝜋
𝑎2 = න 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 cos 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 0
1 2𝜋
= න 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 3
𝜋 0
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
33

Example 5: Solution

1 2𝜋 3 3
𝑎2 = න 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋 = 3
𝜋 0 2 2𝜋
2 𝑇0
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0
1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = න 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 sin 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0, ∀𝑛
𝜋 0
Finally 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
34

Example 6:
 Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the periodic signal

𝑇𝑝
𝐴, |𝑡| ≤ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = 2 , − <𝑡≤
𝑇𝑝 2 2
0, |𝑡| >
2
Solution
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
35

Example 6: Solution
It is an even function with period T. The function is a
pulse function with amplitude A, and pulse width Tp.
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡

𝑛=1
The average is easily found,
𝑇𝑝
1 𝑇0 1 2
𝑎0 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑇 𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0 𝑇 −𝑝
2
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
36

Example 6: Solution
𝑇𝑝
𝑇
1 2 𝐴 2𝑝
𝑎0 = න 𝑇 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 | 𝑇𝑝
𝑇 −𝑝 𝑇 −
2 2
𝑇𝑝
=𝐴
𝑇
The other terms follow from
2 𝑇0
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0
𝑇𝑝
2 2
= න 𝑇 𝐴 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 −𝑝
2
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
37

Example 6: Solution
𝑇
2𝐴 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 2𝑝
𝑎𝑛 = | 𝑇𝑝
𝑇 𝑛𝜔0 −
2

2𝐴 𝑇𝑝 𝑇𝑝
= sin 𝑛𝜔0 − sin −𝑛𝜔0
𝑇𝑛𝜔0 2 2
Since sine is an odd function, sin(𝑎) − sin(−𝑎) = 2sin(𝑎) , and
using the fact that ω0=2π/T and
2𝐴 𝑇𝑝
𝑎𝑛 = sin 𝜋𝑛
𝜋𝑛 𝑇
Because x(t) is an even signal then bn =0
 Trigonometric Fourier Series
38

Example 6: Solution
Consider the case when the duty cycle is 50% (this means that the
function is high 50% of the time, or Tp=T/2), A=1, and T=2. In this
case 𝒂𝟎 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓 and for n≠0:
2 𝜋𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = sin
𝜋𝑛 2
For n=0,1,2,3,4,5 ,….→
𝑛−1
𝜋𝑛
sin = 0, 1,0, −1, 0, 1, … = ൝−1 2 , 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
2 0, 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Then

2 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = ቐ𝜋𝑛 −1
2 , 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
0, 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
39 Exponential Fourier Series
 Exponential Fourier Series
40

 Euler formula: 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 = cos(𝑥) + 𝑗 sin(𝑥)

𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 = cos(𝑥) − 𝑗 sin(𝑥)
So
2 cos(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥
Or
𝑒 𝑗𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥
cos(𝑥) =
2
Also
𝑒 𝑗𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥
sin(𝑥) =
2𝑗
 Exponential Fourier Series
41

 Starting from the trigonometric form

∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡

𝑛=1
 Replacing
𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡
cos(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡) =
2

𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡
sin(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡) =
2𝑗
 Exponential Fourier Series
42

 So
𝑥 𝑡
∞
1 𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡 1 −𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡 1 𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡 1 −𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡
= 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 0 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑒 0 − 𝑒 0
2 2 2𝑗 2𝑗
𝑛=1

∞
𝑎𝑛 𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡 𝑎𝑛 −𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡 𝑏𝑛 𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡 𝑏𝑛 −𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 0 − 𝑒 0
2 2 2𝑗 2𝑗
𝑛=1

∞
𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 −𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + ෍ + 𝑒 0 + − 𝑒 0
2 2𝑗 2 2𝑗
𝑛=1
 Exponential Fourier Series
43

 Let
𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑗𝑏𝑛
𝐶𝑛 = + =
2 2𝑗 2
𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑗𝑏𝑛
𝐶−𝑛 = − =
2 2𝑗 2
𝐶0 = 𝑎0
Then
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 + 𝐶−𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡

𝑛=1
 Exponential Fourier Series
44

 The Complex Exponential Fourier series

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞

 The complex exponentials Fourier series lets us represent

a periodic signal as a weighted sum of complex
exponentials.


x(t ) = n
c e jn0t

n = −
= ... + c −2 e − j 2 0 t
+ c −1e − j 0 t
+ c0 + c1e j 0 t
+ c 2 e j 2 0 t
+ ...
 Exponential Fourier Series
45

 Where cn are called the Fourier coefficients and given by:

1
𝐶𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0

 Where ‫𝑇׬‬ represents integration over any interval of

0
length T0.
 Sometimes, if you used the formula of cn to calculate co, you
will get an undefined value, in this case you can calculate co
as follows:
1
𝐶0 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0
 Exponential Fourier Series
46

 The relation between the complex exponentials

Fourier series coefficients, cn, and trigonometric
Fourier series coefficients is as follows:

𝑎𝑛 − 𝑗𝑏𝑛
, 𝑛>0
2

𝐶𝑛 = 𝑎0 , 𝑛=0

𝑎𝑛 + 𝑗𝑏𝑛
, 𝑛<0
2
 Exponential Fourier Series
47

 Because
2𝐶𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑗𝑏𝑛
Then
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒{2𝐶𝑛 }
and
𝑏𝑛 = −𝐼𝑚{2𝐶𝑛 }
 Exponential Fourier Series
48

 Example: let
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
Then
 Amplitude =A mz
 Phase: Θ = ωt A ω radian per second
 ω : Angular Velocity
rotation speed
◼+ : counterclockwise ez
-A A

-A
Phasor Representation
 Exponential Fourier Series
49

 Example: let
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
Then
 = 2πf
 Frequency: f (Hz)

Frequency Domain Representation

 Exponential Fourier Series
50

 Example: let
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
Then
 Amplitude =A A
 Phase: Θ = -ωt
 -ω : Angular Velocity
rotation speed
◼- : clockwise -f
 Frequency: -f (Hz)
Frequency Domain Representation
 Exponential Fourier Series
51

 Example: for
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔0 𝑡)
𝐴 𝑗𝜔 𝑡 𝐴 −𝑗𝜔 𝑡
= 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 0
2 2

𝐴 𝐴
2 2

Frequency Domain Representation

 Exponential Fourier Series
52

 Note:
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞

 In this way, we can use |𝑪𝒏 | as a measure of how much

information a signal 𝑥 𝑡 has at the frequency 𝑛𝜔0 .
 The Fourier series coefficients 𝐶𝑛 are referred to as
the frequency spectrum of 𝑥 𝑡 .
 Exponential Fourier Series 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑗𝑏𝑛

𝐶𝑛 = 𝑎0 ,
2
, 𝑛>0
𝑛=0
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑗𝑏𝑛
53 , 𝑛<0
2

𝐶𝑛 is a complex number and conjugate symmetric

𝐶𝑛∗ = 𝐶−𝑛
 The magnitudes |𝐶𝑛 |of the Fourier series coefficients

are referred to as the magnitude spectrum of 𝑥 𝑡

(always even).
|𝐶𝑛 | = |𝐶−𝑛 |
 The arguments θ𝑛 of the Fourier series coefficients
are referred to as the phase spectrum of 𝑥 𝑡
(always odd).
θ−𝑛 = −θ𝑛
Note: 𝐶0 is real value, so its angle is “0” or “π”
 Discrete magnitude and phase
spectrum
54

 Normally, the spectrum of a signal is plotted against

frequency 𝑛𝑓0 instead of 𝑛.
 Since the Fourier series only has frequency
components at integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency, the frequency spectrum is
discrete in the independent variable (i.e., frequency).
 Due to the general appearance of frequency-
spectrum plot (i.e., a number of vertical lines at
various frequencies), we refer to such spectra as line
spectra.
 Discrete magnitude and phase
spectrum
55

Discrete magnitude spectrum

 A plot of 𝐶𝑛 against frequency shows the
spectrum of x(t). Since it is discrete it is
called discrete magnitude spectrum

cn
c− 2 c2
c−1 c c1
c− n o cn

[nfo]
-nfo -2fo -fo fo 2fo nfo
 Discrete magnitude and phase
spectrum
56

Discrete phase spectrum

 A plot of 𝐶𝑛 phase (θn) against frequency
shows the phase spectrum of x(t). Since it is
discrete it is called Discrete phase spectrum
n
2
1 n
-nfo -2fo -fo
fo
2fo nfo
[nfo]

 −n
 −1
 −2
 Exponential Fourier Series
57

Example 7:
 Compute the complex exponential Fourier series
coefficients for the given periodic signal, then
sketch the discrete magnitude and phase spectrum

A −T / 2  t  T / 2
x(t ) =  p(t − kTo ) where p(t ) = 
k = −
0 elsewhere
 Exponential Fourier Series
58

Example 7: solution

Clearly To is the period of x(t)

𝑇0
1 2
𝐶𝑛 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 −𝑇0
2
𝑇
1 2
= න 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 −𝑇
2

𝐴 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑇2
= | 𝑇
𝑇0 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 −2
 Exponential Fourier Series
59

Example 7: solution
𝑇 𝑇
−𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑗𝑛𝜔0
𝐴𝑒 −𝑒
2 2
𝐶𝑛 =
𝑇0 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0
𝑇 𝑇
𝑗𝑛𝜔0 2 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 2
𝐴 𝑒 −𝑒
=
𝑛𝜔0 𝑇0 𝑗
𝐴 𝑇
= 2 sin 𝑛𝜔0
𝑛𝜔0 𝑇0 2
2𝜋
Here 𝜔0 =
𝑇0

𝐴 𝑇
𝐶𝑛 = sin 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋 𝑇0
 Exponential Fourier Series
60

Example 7: solution
𝐴 𝑇
𝐶𝑛 = sin 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋 𝑇0

𝑇
𝑇 sin 𝑛𝜋
𝑇0
=𝐴
𝑇0 𝑛𝜋 𝑇
𝑇0
𝐴𝑇 𝑇
= sin𝑐 𝑛𝜋
𝑇0 𝑇0
So 𝐶𝑛 is pure real

𝐴𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑛 = sin𝑐 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑗 (0)
𝑇0 𝑇0
 Exponential Fourier Series
61

Example 7: solution
 Then, the discrete magnitude spectrum is given by the function

TA
cn = sin c(nT / To )
To

𝑇
𝐴𝑇 sin 𝑛𝜋 𝑇0
|𝐶𝑛 | =
𝑇0 𝑇
𝑛𝜋
𝑇0

n Cn
0 𝐴𝑇
𝑇0
1 …
 Exponential Fourier Series
62

Example 7: solution
𝐴𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑛 = sin𝑐 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑗 (0)
𝑇0 𝑇0
The discrete phase spectrum
is given by
Im(cn ) 0
 n = tan −1 = tan −1 = 0 OR 180o
Re( cn ) Re( cn )
−1 0
an = 0 OR 180o
Re( cn )
This is because cn is real, so θn
is 0 if cn is positive and
1 80o if cn is negative.
 Exponential Fourier Series
63

Example 7: solution
for
𝑇=1
𝐴=1
𝑇0 = 2, 5, 10

1 𝑛𝜋
𝐶𝑛 = sin𝑐
𝑇0 𝑇0
Zero crossing
𝑛𝜋
= 𝑘𝜋
𝑇0
𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇0
 Exponential Fourier Series
64

 The average power of x(t) using Complex Exponential

Fourier Series – assuming x(t) is periodic
P= 
2
x(t ) dt
To

x(t ) = C e 
k = −
k
j o tk


x(t ) =  k − jo tk
* *
C e
k = −

P =  x(t ) x(t ) dt =  Ck Ck
* *

To k = −

 2

= C
k = −
k This is called the Parseval’s Identity
 Some useful Relations
65

sin(n ) = 0 cos( n ) = (−1) n

0 n odd 0 n even
   
cos( n ) =  n sin(n ) =  n −1
2 (−1) 2 n even 2 (−1) 2 n odd
 

e  jct = cos( c t )  j sin( c t ) 

cos(( 2n − 1) ) = 0
2