This is the final part of an eight-part series of articles, Climate Change

Adaptation in Buildings, examining the impact of climate change on the

built environment, and the responses that can be made to those changes
for both new-build and retro-fitting. Previous articles have covered an
overview of the issues, excess heat, flooding, subsidence and drought.

Background
Unpredictable weather patterns include the capacity for storms. Extreme low
pressure areas generate high wind speeds, particularly during the traditionally-
stormy season of autumn (the Octobers of 1987 and 2013 being two notable
examples). The reason that storms are more frequent during the autumn is that the
jet stream migrates southwards as northerly temperatures cool, and the increasing
temperature difference increases the speed of the jet stream. Low-pressure systems
tend to form over the Atlantic Ocean and move across the UK, with consequential
impacts on the country’s infrastructure. According to the Association of British
Insurers, the October 2013 storm could cost in the region of £130m, although the
October 1987 storm cost the equivalent of £2bn at today’s prices1,2. Although wind
speeds can vary according to terrain, either by height or by topography, the
maximum recorded wind gusts are 228km/h (142mph) in Scotland, and 189km/h
(118mph) in England, though the highest ever recorded wind gust was 278km/h
(173mph) on the summit of Cairngorm in Scotland3. Research is still continuing to
establish a link between climate change and extreme wind events, although
BRE Digest 499 Designing roofs for climate change. Modifications to good practice
guidance4 notes that “there is a higher degree of certainty that winter storms will
increase but extreme events, such as the storm of 1987, may also occur more
frequently”. NHBC NF3 Climate change and innovation in house building. Designing
out risk states that “increases in winter rainfall and wind speeds are predicted and
severe storms may occur more often”5. In addition, a recently-published study in the
USA by Diffenbaugh, Scherer and Trapp has suggested that such a link could
indeed exist, in North America at least6. Furthermore, design wind speeds have been
doubled for certain building types and tripled for others since they were first
published in British Standards in 19447. If no firmer evidence currently exists, then
this at least suggests an increase in the intensity of wind speeds experienced in the
UK in the last 70 years. Whether or not such a link between climate change and
storms is found, however, the effects of severe winds can be catastrophic.

The UK is also prone to tornadoes and, perhaps surprisingly, it is claimed that there
are more tornadoes per square kilometre than in the USA.

The UK is also prone to tornadoes and, perhaps surprisingly, it is claimed that there
are more tornadoes per square kilometre than in the USA8. The most recent notable
tornado struck Birmingham in 2005, reaching intensity T5 (T0=lowest; T10=highest)
and causing £40m of damage along its 12km path, although the strongest recorded
tornado in the UK was in Portsmouth in 1810, reaching T8 strength (wind speed
213–240mph)9.

Issues
Wind speeds of 90km/h (56mph) can impact on human safety and speeds of
126km/h (78mph) can cause damage to buildings, which in turn can endanger
human life. Uprooted trees, loosened roof coverings and unsecured walls
(particularly on construction sites) can all threaten health, cause extensive damage
to property and disrupt services. Power transmission cables can be brought down,
water supplies contaminated and transport services interrupted. High wind gusts can
cause uplift on roofing due to the drop in air pressure caused by the moving air
currents; coupled with rain, then even the under-layers can be vulnerable to damage.
Temporary propping during construction works, particularly gable walls around roof
level, if insubstantial can be insufficient to prevent toppling of freestanding masonry.

Solutions
Siting and orientation of buildings at the earliest planning stages of a project can
often go a long way to militate against the risk of wind damage. In addition, height,
massing and roof form can also play a significant part. Angling roofs so that they
slope down to face the prevailing wind direction can assist in reducing uplift-related
problems, and taking advantage of adjacent shielding, whether in the form of natural
landscapes or other buildings, can also be prudent. Excessive roof overhangs should
be avoided, particularly on elevations facing the prevailing wind direction, and the
proximity of nearby hazards should be evaluated, e.g. mature trees and overhead
distribution cables.

Temporary works, such as gable or parapet walls at or around roof level, should be
propped securely to the requirements of BS 5975:2008(+A1:2011) Code of practice
for temporary works procedures and the permissible stress design of falsework10.

Consideration should be given to specifying single car-width garage doors in

preference to double car-width – the increased size can enhance wind deflection
and, in extreme cases, push the door out of the guide rails. As soon as the door has
been blown in, the interior becomes more vulnerable and in particular the roof can be
subjected to additional uplift action, thereby increasing the risk of the roof being
damaged.

Roof coverings should be secured adequately and in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions: nailing and clipping requirements for roofing tiles and
slates, for example, to BS5534:2003(+A1:2010) Code of practice for slating and
tiling (including shingles)11 and BS EN 14437:2004 Determination of the uplift
resistance of clay or concrete tiles for roofing. Roof system test method12 for site
exposure to wind and rain. Ridges and verge tiles are particularly important in this
respect, as it is the edges of roofs which are the most susceptible to wind uplift.
Similarly, BS EN 16002:2010 Flexible sheets for waterproofing. Determination of the
resistance to wind load of mechanically fastened flexible sheets for roof
waterproofing relates to flexible roofing sheet13 and restraint straps, resist wind uplift,
are covered by BS 8103:2009 Structural design of low-rise buildings. Code of
practice for timber floors and roofs for housing14.

In addition to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures –

Part 1.4: General actions – Wind actions15 and the UK National Annex to BS EN
1991-1-4:2005+A1:201016, Approved Document A of the Building Regulations covers
design for wind loading. Diagram 6, and Diagram 7 Table c, contain the wind speed
data for buildings, including a weighting for site slope and elevation. Interestingly, the
maximum design wind speed is 25m/s or 90km/h (56mph), which as has been seen
can be significantly exceeded in a storm event.

Flying debris can be an issue with glazing – consider avoiding large areas of glazing
on elevations which face the prevailing wind direction (which in the UK is generally
towards the west, and coincidentally would assist in reducing early evening summer
solar gains).

Tall buildings which are sited in vulnerable positions, for example coastal regions,
will need additional consideration given to claddings. Rainscreens will need to have
durable fixings to prevent the wind from blowing panels off, as happened during the
October 2013 storm in Ipswich where the town’s tallest building, situated on the
waterfront, suffered extensive damage when a large quantity of the polystyrene-
based façade cladding panels were blown off17.

Buildings which require continuity of services such as power, for instance financial
institutions, secure facilities or healthcare buildings, will require the provision of
services and other infrastructure which can be protected against interruptions to
power supplies. Careful site design and back-up generators, etc. will minimise risks
accordingly.

Conclusion
Regardless of personal opinion on the validity or otherwise of the theory of climate
change, the fact remains that during extreme weather events buildings have a
tendency to fail. This can be due to a number of factors, and under certain
circumstances can be due to conflicting requirements on the building envelope.
However, as has been identified, there are numerous systems and products
available with which to combat weather and climate extremes. In order to assist in
producing buildings that are better able to withstand the vagaries of the weather over
their design lives, the NBS offers a number of subscription products from which
systems and products may be specified to mitigate the effects of climate change.