Airport-Gopal Gautam Sir

Transportation System
Definition: Consists of functional components:

• Fixed facilities: e.g. Airport
• Flow entities: e.g. Airplane
• Control system: ATC, Visual aids, signs, symbols etc
that permit people and goods to overcome the friction of geographical space efficiently in order to
participate in a timely manner in some desired activities.
Airport Engineering
A branch of Transportation Engineering which deals with the planning, design, construction and
operation and maintenance of facilities providing for landing and takeoff, loading and
unloading, servicing and storage of aircraft.
 Airport engineers design and construct airports.
 These engineers analyze:
 Wind direction to determine runway orientation
 Size of runway border and safety areas
 Different wing tip to wind tip clearances for all gates.
 Clear zones in the entire port
Comparison of Transportation System

Transportation systems can be evaluated in terms of three basic attributes:
• Ubiquity: the amount of accessibility to the system, system flexibility to handle variety of
traffic condition
• Mobility: Quantity of travel that can be handled, Capacity of system to handle traffic and
speed
• Efficiency: Relationship between cost of transportation and productivity of the system
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Time Line of Nepal Aviation: History
Date Event
1949 The date declared the formal establishment of aviation in Nepal with the landing at
Gauchaur of an Indian Ambassador Mr. Sarjit Singh Mahathia in 4-seater, single-
powered engine, vintage Beechcraft Bonanza.
1950 Himalayan Aviation Dakota conducted the first charter flight from Gauchaur to
Kolkata.
1955 King Mahendra inaugurated Gauchaur Airport and renamed it Tribhuwan Airport
to honor his father.
1957 The grassy runway at Gauchaur Airport was turned into a concrete one. Civil
Aviation Department began its service as an agency working under the Ministry of
Work, Communication, and Transport.
1958 Royal Nepal Airlines began scheduled service both domestically and
internationally
1959 HMG/N wholly-owned royal Nepal Airlines Cooperation (RNAC) as a public
undertaking.
1960 Nepal obtained the ICAO membership. Nepal Airlines Douglas C-47A-80-DL
(9N-AAD) crashed at Bhairahawa Airport and caught fire. This incident was the
first air accident in Nepal by a Nepali airline.
1961 Queen Elizabeth II landed on a Dakota plane for her first visit to Nepal, one of the
most popular arrivals at the airport.
1964 Tribhuvan Airport was renamed Tribhuvan International Airport.
1967 The runway of 3,750 feet long was extended to 6,600 feet. German airline
Lufthansa Boeing 707 landed to mark the first jetliner aircraft to land in Nepal.
1968 Thai International introduced its scheduled jet air services at TIA
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1972 Boeing 727/100 of Royal Nepal Airlines, a Nepalese jet aircraft, makes its debut at
TIA. Nepalese workers took over ATC services from Indian technicians.
1975 The TIA runway was expanded to 10,000 feet from the original 6600 feet
1977 Nepal imprinted in the Aeronautical World.
1989/1990 Building of International Terminal Building of TIA was completed.
King Birendra inaugurated the new TIA Building International Terminal.
1993 The government of Nepal introduced its first-ever Civil Aviation Policy.
1996 Buddha Airlines was established on 23 April, and it is the longest surviving private
airlines.
1997 Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) was installed.
1998 Yeti Airlines was started on 17 August. Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal became
an independent Nepali government body.
2007 Royal Nepal Airlines was renamed to Nepal Airlines.
2013 Turkish Airlines launched direct flights from Istanbul to Kathmandu, restoring
Nepal’s link to continental Europe. The European Commission banned all
Nepalese airlines.
2015 The foundation stone of Gautam Buddha International Airport lay down by Rt.
Hon’s PM, Sushil Koirala.
2016 Pokhara Regional/Intl’ Airport Construction foundation Stone set up by Rt. Hon’
PM K.P. Oli on 13 April.
2020 The runway was expanded to 3,350 meters (10,990 ft)
2022 16th May 2022, Inaugural of Gautam Buddha International Airport
2023 1st Jan 2023, Inaugural of Pokhara Regional/Intl’ Airport
Airports in Nepal: Present Status:

• 53 Airports
• 3 international
• 2 regional domestic
• 48 domestic
• 40 paved airports
• 33 regular operating airports
• 20 airports not in operation
• 3 newely asphalt paved airports
• Balewa, Gulmi and Massinechaur
• 3 Under construction
International Air Connectivity
• Bilateral air service agreement – 40 countries
• 3 Nepali carrier – regular flights to 8 countries
• 29 airlines operators from 17 countries providing air service in Nepal
• Direct flight from Nepal to 15 countries
• Direct flight from Nepal to 4 SAARC Countries
• One Way Annual available Seat numbers-8 million
• Annual used seat numbers- 3.46 million(43%)
• Annual Used seats by National Flag Carriers – 11.92%
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• Nepal Airlines- 0.593 Million (7.4%)
• Himalayan Airlines- 0.387 Million (4.84%)
Development of New Airport:
Consists of following steps:
1. Traffic forecast
2. Determination of the capacity of existing airport
3. Improvement of airport capacity
4. Planning of new airport
1. Traffic forecast
Following data is needed for the traffic forecast:
 Area to be served
 O&D of the residents and non residents of the area
 Population growth of the area
 Economic character of the area
• Income level per capita
• Types of business activities and the labor employed
• Trends in existing local air traffic
• Trend in national air traffic volume
• Population growth and economic standards of adjacent areas.
2. Determination of the capacity of existing airport:
 Suitability of approaches for the type of airport
 Capacity of runways and taxiways to handle the peak hour traffic
 Adequacy of terminal building of handling passengers and cargo
 Adequacy of aprons and serving facilities
3. Improvement of airport capacity:
 Runway extension, new or parallel runway and high speed exit taxiways
 Rearranging or increasing the size of terminal building
 Improving traffic control devices
4. Planning of new airport:
• If airport cannot handle the air traffic, a new airport should be proposed.
Master Plan of Airports:
• An airport master is the planner’s conception of the ultimate development of a specific
airport.
• Displays the plan in a graphic and written report
• Applied to modernization and expansion of existing airports and to the construction of new
airports
• Inclusion of the entire area of the airport both aviation and non-aviation uses
Airport Master plan includes:
– Plan of physical facilities of an airport
– Land use plan for areas surrounding an airport
– Environmental effects of airport
– Access requirements of the airport
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• Airport Master plan are reviewed at least annually and thoroughly evaluated and modified
every five year.
Master Plan of Airports: Stages:
1. Policy/coordinative planning
• setting project objectives and aims
• preparing project work programs, schedules and budgets
• preparing an evaluation and decision format
• establishing co-ordination and monitoring procedures
• establishing data management and information system
2. Economic planning
• preparing market outlooks and market forecasts
• determining cost benefit of alternative schemes
• preparing assessment of catchment area impact study of alternative schemes
3. Environmental planning
• preparing of an environmental impact airport assessment
• project development of the impact area
• determining neighboring communities’ attitudes and opinions
4. Physical planning
• system of air traffic control and airspace organization
• airfield configuration including approach zones
• terminal complex
• utility communication network and circulation
• supporting and service facilities
• ground access system
• over-all land use patterns
5. Financial planning
• determining of airport development financing
• preparing financial feasibility study of alternative
• preparing preliminary financial plans for the finally approved project alternative
Level of Planning:
1. Strategic Planning:
• Examines long-term structures and determines how well various structures fit with
identified goals and objectives.
• A strategic plan sets out procedure to follow which will lead to an optimal long term
structure
2. Tactical Planning:
• Determines short-term and medium term courses of action which best fit into overall
strategic plans and goals
• Identify the best manner of carrying out these short and medium term courses of action.
Levels Activities Planning
Strategic planning • Set goals and objective Aviation system planning
level • Inventory of existing strategic
system
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• Demand analysis
• Postulate options or scenarios
• Evaluation
• Selection of future strategic system
Tactical Planning • Inventory of existing system Airport system planning
Level • Scenario and demand analysis
• Postulate options for the system
development
• Evaluation
• Select optimal airport system
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Forecasting for Planning Purpose:
To assess the characteristics of future demand, the development of reliable predictions of airport
activity is necessary. There are numerous factors that will affect the demand and planners who are
preparing forecasts of demand or updating existing forecasts should consider:
• local and regional socioeconomic data and characteristics,
• demographics,
• geographic attributes, and
• External factors such as fuel costs and quality of service parameters.
• Political developments, including rising international tensions,
• changes in security, airline delays and congestion, and
• Travel attitudes, will impact demand.
Forecasting for Planning Purpose: Principles
 The type of forecast and the level of effort depend on the purpose for which the forecast is
being used.
 Forecasts are typically prepared for short-, medium-, and long-term periods.
 Short-term forecasts, upto 5 years, are used to justify near-term development and support
operational planning and incremental improvements or expansion of facilities.
 Medium-term forecasts, a 6- to 10-year time frame, and long-term forecasts of 10 to 20
years are used to plan major capital improvements, such as land acquisition, new runways
and taxiways, extensions of a runway, a new terminal, and ground access infrastructure.
 Forecasts beyond 20 years are used to assess the need for additional airports or other
regional aviation facilities.
 The forecaster must analyze the errors in the forecast and any trends that may be apparent
in the errors.
Forecasting Techniques:
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Air Travel demand Forecasting:
1. Trend Forecasting Method
• Based on the past travel pattern.
• Forecaster assume that the traffic will continue to develop in the future as in the past
• All factors affecting air traffic in the past will continue to operate in the same way in the
future too
• Growth pattern considered over time is usually a straight line
• A time series of historical data has to be smoothed to account for unusual effects such as
strikes, special events etc.
• Reliable for forecasting over a short period.
2. Base Forecast Method

Annual passenger volume is obtained as % of national forecasts.
Method A:
• Determine the % of national enplaned passenger that the airport has attracted in the past.
• Adjust this percentage to reflect anticipated abnormal growth trends
• Obtain data for national passenger volume for the design year
• Calculate passenger volume of airport as the product of the % of national enplaned
passenger and national passenger volume.
Method B:
• Obtain Local air passenger per 1000 population of the airport and the number of
nationwide air passengers per 1000 population.
𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1000 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
• Compute the ratio: r = 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1000 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Obtain the national forecast of air passenger volumes per 1000 population for the
design year.
• Local passenger volume per 1000 population is the product of the ratio and the national
forecast per 1000 population
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3. Econometric Method
• Relate demand with the economic variables such as income, demographic variables.
• A statistical relationship demand and a number of independent variables is established by
regression analysis
• Typically the air trip generation regression model would be:
T = a0+a1x1+a2x2+……..+anxn
Where, T = The number of air trip,
• x1, x2, ….xn = independent variables (GDP, Population, national income, import and export
etc.)
• a1, a2, …..an = regression constant
Forecasting Accuracy:
 The validity of a forecasting method depends on how accurately predictions can be made
using that method.
 One approach to estimate accuracy is to compare the actual results with those predicted by
the model.
 An alternative way is to fit the model only to part of the data (truncated analysis) and apply
the model to the rest of the available data to test its accuracy. Since the second subset is
not used to determine these parameters, this is equivalent to an ex-post testing of the
accuracy of the method or model as well as the functional form selected.
Forecasting Limitations:
 Doesn’t take account of unforeseen events like COVID
 Fuel price might always not increase and may get reduced in long term forecasting and
hence may not reflect true forecast.
 Possibility of development other more reliable mode of transport (e.g. MagLev,
Hyperloop) in near future may affect the forecast.
 Unexpected political barrier etc.
Airport:
An area of land or water that is used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of aircraft
and includes its buildings and facilities.
Airport Site Evaluation: Factors Affecting Airport Location:
• Regional plan
• Airport use
• Proximity to other airports
• Ground accessibility
• Topography
• Obstructions
• Visibility
• Wind
• Noise nuisance
• Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
• Future development
• Availability of utilities from town
• Economic considerations
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• Availability of land for expansion
Airport Components:
An airport has two major components:
1. Airfield
The area and facilities on the property of an airport that facilitate the movement of aircraft are
said to be part of the airport’s airfield.
• Runways
• Taxiways
• Hanger
• Navigational Aids
• Lighting Systems
• Facilities for air traffic control and surveillance
• Fueling the aircraft
• Signage and markings
• Weather reporting facilities
• Security and fire control
2. Terminal
Terminal area provides the facilities, procedures and processes to efficiently move crew,
passengers and cargo onto and off of aircraft.
Components of Airport Terminal are:
• Apron
• Gate system
• Passenger Handling System
• Ground Access
Airport Layout:
Layout of an airport is dependent upon the following factors:
1. Number and orientation of runways
2. Number of taxiways
3. Size and shape of aprons
4. The area and shape of land
5. Topography and site soil conditions
6. Obstacle to air navigation
7. Required proximity of land uses within the airport boundary
8. Surrounding land uses
9. Timing and scale of phased development of the airport
10. Meteorology
11. Size and scale of airport facilities being planned
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Typical Layout of Airport:
Aircraft Component Parts:
Its essential parts are as given below:

• Engine
• Propeller
• Fuselage
• Wings
• Three controls
• Flaps
• Tricycle under-carriage
Engine:
The main purpose of an aircraft engine is to provide a force for propelling the aircraft through the
air.
Aircraft can be classified according to their propulsion as follows:
(I) Piston engine
(ii) Jet Engine (Turbo jet, Turbo fan or Turbo prop)
(iii) Ram Jet
(iv) Rocket
Fuselage:
The main body of the aircraft and provides for the power plant, fuel, cockpit, passenger, cargo etc.
All of the other major components are attached to the fuselage
Wings:
• It produces lift that allows a plane to fly
• Also, it support the machine in the air when the engine has given it the necessary forward
speed.
Three Controls:
 There are three axes about which an aircraft in space may move.
 The movement of aircraft about the X, Y and Z axes are called lateral (rolling), pitching
and yawing movements respectively.
 To control these movements, the airplane is provided with three principal controls, viz., (i)
elevator (ii) rudder and (iii) aileron.
o Elevator
 It consists of two flaps capable of moving up and down through an angle of
50o to 60o.
 They are hinged to a fixed horizontal stabilizer (tail plane).
 It controls the pitching or up and down movements of the aircraft.
o Rudder
 It consists of a streamlined flap hinged to a vertical fin provided at the tail
 It can be moved right or left of the vertical axis through an angle of about
300.
 It is utilized for the turning or yawing movement of the aircraft.
o Aileron
 It is a hinged flap which is fixed in the trailing edge of the wing near the
wing tip
 When aileron in one wing is pulled up that in other is pulled down.
 On the wing with aileron deflected downwards, there will be an increased
lift under the wing. Pulling an aileron up reduces the lift on the plane.
Flaps:
• Flaps are located along the trailing edge of both wing typically close to fuselage
• They are similar to aileron in that they affect the amount of lift created by the wing.
Tricycle Under Carriage:
• It is a structure to support the aircraft while it is in contact with the ground, It has two
principal functions are:
(i) To absorb landing shocks while an aircraft lands
(ii) To enable the aircraft to maneuver on ground
Aircraft Characteristics:
These are importance to the airport planner and designer.
• Engine Type and Propulsion system
• Size of aircraft
• Min turning radius
• Min circling radius
• Speed of aircraft
• Aircraft weight and wheel configuration
• Jet blast
• Fuel spillage
• Noise.
Engine type and Propulsion System:
 It affects size of aircraft, circling radius, speed, weight carrying capacity, noise nuisance
etc.
Minimum Turning Radius:

• The line joining the center of rotation and the tip of farthest wing of the aircraft
• Max angle of nose gear limited 500 to 600 for turbo jet.
• the radius of taxiways and to establish the path of the movement of aircraft
• Separation between two near by airports is governed by minimum circling radius
• Small aircraft = 1.6 Km,
• Jet engine aircraft = 80 Km
Aircraft Weight:
Pavement thickness, design, materials etc. of runway, taxiway, apron etc. depend on the weight
and wheel distribution of aircraft.
Different types of weights:
• Maximum take-off weight (MTOW) - Total amount of weight when it is taking off from
runway. It is the heaviest weight of aircraft.
• Maximum landing weight (MLW) - Fuel consumed during transport will be deducted
from take-off weight
• Operating Empty Weight (OEW) -weight of airplane structure and all parts of its
configuration. Weight operating at zero pay load
• Pay load - Load for which revenues are generated (passengers + freight)
• Zero-fuel weight – weight of the aircraft less all usable fuel and other specified usable
agents
Wheel Configuration:
Wheel configuration defines how the weight will be transferred to the bottom:
• More the no. of wheels, lesser the stress, hence less thickness enough.
• Different wheel combinations available based on size of aircraft.
• Single tandem, duel tandem and multi axle tandems are used based on the size and weight
of air craft.
Jet Blast:
• This is the blast that comes out of jet engine at the rear of aircraft to provide a force for
movement
• Jet blast affects inconvenience to passenger and bituminous pavement
Fuel Spillage:
• It is spilled fuel from the engine or other locations into the aircraft
• It should bring within min limit. Therefore, constant supervision is required
Noise:
• Major sources of noises are Engine, Machinery (more during landing), Primary jet (more
during take-off)
• Disturbances are more during take off
• It should be min as per as possible
Taxiways:
• Taxiways are paths on the airfield surface for the taxing of the aircraft and are intended to
provide linkage between one part of the airfield (runways) and another part of the airfield
(apron).
Rapid exit Taxiways:

• A rapid exit taxiway is a taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to
allow landing aero planes to turn off at higher speeds than those achieved on other exit
taxiways, thereby minimizing runway occupancy time.
Apron:
• An airside area intended to accommodate aircraft for purpose of loading or unloading
passenger, mail or cargo, fueling, parking or maintenance
• Classified according to the purpose and function
• Location and size depend on nos. of aircraft and types, size of aircraft, shape of terminal
and surrounding area available, clearance required, ground servicing requirement etc.
Holding Apron:
• Holding bay or aprons are place adjacent to the ends of runways where aircraft park briefly
before taking off.
• Aircraft is held due to :
• Runway being busy
• Engine warming up
• Cockpit or instruments check-up before take off
Loading (Passenger) Apron:
• This is a paved area adjacent and in front of terminal building
• It is used for loading, unloading, fueling, minor servicing or checkup of aircraft
• Size of loading apron depends upon number of gate position, size of gates, arrangement of
gate positions around terminal buildings, system of aircraft parking
Parking Apron:
• Parking apron is the apron where aircrafts can be parked for a specific period of time.
• The airplanes are berthed on the aprons before they are loaded and unloaded.
• It may be used for light periodic servicing and maintenance.
• Parking aprons are located as close to the terminal apron as possible.
Cargo Terminal Apron:
• Separate apron for aircraft that carry only freight and mail
• Adjacent to cargo terminal building
Service and Hanger Aprons:
A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent to an aircraft hanger on which aircraft maintenance
can be performed, while hanger apron is an area on which aircraft move into and out of a storage
hanger.
Terminal:
• An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground
transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft.
Functions:
• Change of mode i.e. Transfer from car, train, or bus to the air plane
• Passenger processing such as ticketing, check in , security check
• Provide passenger facilities such as shopping, toilets, eating, meeting & greetings etc.
Requirements of Terminal Building:
• Passenger check in area and baggage handling counter
• Baggage claim section
• Waiting hall for passenger
• Shop retails
• Security Check & passport control
• Custom control
• Lounges of business class
• Passenger meet and greet area
• Airline offices and counters
• Travel and tour agencies counter
• Restaurants & bars
• Toilets
• First aid room
• Post office, Bank
Airport Capacity:
• Airport Capacity refers to the ability of an airport to handle a given volume or magnitude of
traffic (demand) within a specified time period.
• Four distinct elements in a capacity analysis:
• Airspace
• Airfield (Runway, Taxiway, Apron)
• Terminal Building
• Ground access
Factors Affecting Runway Capacity:
• The configuration, number, spacing and orientation of the runway system
• The configuration, number, spacing and location of taxiways and runway exits
• The arrangement, size, number of gates in the apron area
• The runway occupancy time for arriving and departure aircraft
• The size and mix of aircraft using the facilities
• Weather, particularly visibility and ceiling, since air traffic rules in good weather are
different than in poor weather.
• Wind conditions which may preclude the use of all available runways by all aircraft
• Noise abatement procedures which may limit the type and timing of operations on the
available runways
• Within the constraints of wind and noise abatement, the strategy which air traffic
controllers choose to operate the runway system
• The number of arrivals relative to the number of departures
• The number and frequency of touch and go operations by general aviation aircraft.
Runway Capacity:
• The number of aircraft movements which aeronautical authorities determine can safely be
operated, usually stated as the total number of landings and take offs per hour.
Factors Affecting Runway Capacity:
• Airfield layout and runway configuration
• Number and location of exit taxiways
• Runway use restrictions
• Runway use as dictated by wind conditions
• The percentage of time the airport experiences poor weather conditions
• The level of touch and go activity
• Types of aircraft that operate at the airport
• Surrounding terrain/local geography
• Changes in air traffic control procedures
Taxiway Capacity:
• Taxiway capacity is the maximum number of aircraft operations accommodated on the
taxiway component of airfield
Gate Capacity:
• Gate capacity can be defined as the maximum number of aircraft that a fixed number of
gates can accommodate during a specified interval of time when there is a continuous
demand for service.
• Gate capacity can be calculated as the inverse of a weighted average gate occupancy time
of all aircraft being served.
Factors Affecting Gate Capacity:
• The number and type of gates available to aircraft.
• The mix of aircraft demanding apron gates and the gate occupancy time for various aircraft.
• The percentage of time gates may be used, which reflects the fact that time is required to
maneuver aircraft into and out of gate positions and the delay often restricts the amount of
time actually available for aircraft gate occupancy.
• Restrictions in the use of any or all gates.
Example: If an aircraft occupies a gate for an average 30 min, what is the capacity of the gate?
Solution:
Capacity of gate = 1/30 aircraft/min/gate
= 60/30 aircraft/hr/gate
= 2 aircraft/hr/gate
Example: If there are 10 gates available with following aircraft mixes, determine the gate capacity.
Aircraft Class Percent Mix Average occupancy time (min)
1 10 20
2 30 40
3 60 60
Solution:
Capacity of gate = 1/ (0.1*20+0.3*40+0.6*60) = 0.02 aircraft/min/gate = 1.2 aircraft/hr/gate
Since there are 10 gates available,

Total Capacity = 1.2 *10 = 12 aircrafts/hr.
Factors Causing Delay:

• Airfield Characteristics: runways, taxiways, and aprons
• Airspace Characteristics: nearby airports, natural obstacles etc.
• Air Traffic Control: runway occupancy, spacing of arrivals and departures, and the use
of parallel or converging runways
• Meteorological Conditions: Airport capacity is usually highest in clear weather, when
visibility is at its best.
• Demand Characteristics: as demand approaches capacity, delays increase sharply
4.2.2.6
Environment and aviation activities: aircraft noise, air quality in the vicinity of airports,
global environment problem arising from airport use, water and soil pollution in the vicinity
of airports.
Aircraft Noise:
The noise generated from the aircraft during its operation (takeoff and landing) is called aircraft
noise.
The impact of aircraft noise on a community is dependent upon several factors including the
magnitude of the sound, the duration of the sound, the flight paths used during takeoff and landing,
the number and types of operations, the operating procedures, the aircraft mix, the runway system
utilization, the time of day and season, and meteorological conditions.
The effects of noise on people can be classified into one of two categories, namely, behavioral
effects and health or physiological effects.
Behavioral effects: annoyance, interference with communication, mental activity, rest, and sleep.
Health effects: hearing loss or nonauditory effects such as cardiovascular disease and hypertension.
Air Quality:
Air pollution is defined as the introduction of foreign substances or compounds into the air or the
alteration of the concentrations of naturally occurring elements. Hub airports with a considerable
volume of commercial jet aircraft traffic may contribute substantially to this problem.
The amount of a particular pollutant produced by an aircraft is a function of the type of engines
and the mode of operation of the aircraft. An analysis must include a consideration of aircraft
idling at the gate and runway threshold, engine power run-ups, taxiing, takeoff, climb-out,
approach, and landing.
Water Quality:
Water is one of the most valuable resources on earth. The construction and operation of airport
facilities can contribute to the degradation of the quality and reduction of the quantity of ground-
waters or surface waters.
During construction of an airport ground water table may be affected, may include construction
waste in the streams.
During operation water may get polluted due to washing of rubber of pavement surface into natural
streams, fuel spilled from aircraft etc.
Effects of airports on water quality:
Soil erosion, runoff, turbidity, imperviousness of the soil, water storage capacity, aquatic life etc.
Global environmental problem arising from airport use:
Airports of all sizes have an impact of some kind on the environment, both locally and potentially
globally.
This can include:
 Emissions from aircraft and ground vehicles, as well as from power use in buildings, all
contributing to climate change and local air quality issues
 Noise from aircraft for local residents
 Potential to damage local wildlife and habitats and water courses
 Waste generation
These effects can be controlled by adopting some of these measures:
 Investing in noise barrier and screening
 Encouraging airlines to use quieter aircraft through charges or incentives
 Investing in energy saving buildings
 Installing renewable energy power systems
 Optimizing the efficient flow of aircraft to prevent unnecessary aircraft idling and taxiing
 Provision to reduce the risk of groundwater or surface water pollution
 Developing biodiversity strategies that balance the need to protect aircraft safety but
maintain a positive natural environment.
4.2.2.7 Land use planning: assessing noise for land use planning, risk of accident around
airports
Land-use planning and management is an effective means to ensure that the activities nearby
airports are compatible with aviation. Its main goal is to minimize the population affected by
aircraft noise and accidents by introducing land-use zoning around airports.
a) Locate new airports at an appropriate place, such as away from noise-sensitive areas;
b) Take the appropriate measures so that land-use planning is taken fully into account at
the initial stage of any new airport or of development at an existing airport;
c) Define zones around airports associated with different noise levels taking into account
population levels and growth as well as forecasts of traffic growth and establish criteria for
the appropriate use of such land, taking account of ICAO guidance;
d) Enact legislation, establish guidance or other appropriate means to achieve compliance
with those criteria for land use; and
e) Ensure that reader-friendly information on aircraft operations and their environmental
effects is available to communities near airports
4.2.1.2 Role and functions of Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoCTCA)
and Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal:
MoCTCA:
Ministry of Tourism first came into existence in 2035 BS (1978 AD). In 2039 (1982 AD), Civil
Aviation was also merged into the Ministry of Tourism and it became the Ministry of Tourism &
Civil Aviation. In 2057 (2000 AD), Cultural sector was also integrated in the Ministry and called
the Ministry of Culture, Tourism & Civil Aviation (MOCTCA).
In August 31, 2008 (B.S. 2065-5-15) the ministry was divided into two ministries, i.e. Ministry of
Tourism and Civil Aviation and Ministry of Culture and State Restructuring. The name of the
ministry became the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MOTCA). The cultural sector has
been integrated with the tourism and civil aviation on May 18, 2012 (2069-02-05 BS). The name
of the ministry has now become the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation.
It consists of 4 divisions:
 Tourism Division
 Administration and Planning Division
 Civil Aviation Division
 Culture Division
Role of MoCTCA:
 वायुयान ननर्ाा ण तथा निजाइन, संचालन र र्र्ात सम्भार, नवर्ानस्थल ननर्ाा ण तथा संचालन,
एयर नेनिगेस सेवा तथा उड्डयन तानलर् संस्था आनिको इजाजत र ननयर्न
 हवाइ िािा, नवर्ानस्थल शुल्क, एयर नेनिगेशन सेवा शुल्क र ननयर्न
 वायुसेवा कायासंचालन अनुर्नत, इजाजत र उिान अनुर्नत
 नागररक उड्डयन सम्बन्धी नीनत, कानून, र्ापिण्ड र ननयर्न
 नागररक उड्डयन व्यवसाय तथा पेशानवि् हरुको अनुर्नत, स्तर ननर्ाा रण र ननयर्न
 हवाइ सुरक्षा सम्बन्धी अन्तराा नरिय संगठनबाट प्रनतपानित स्तर, र्ापिण्ड, र्ागािशान र
कायाा न्वयन
 एयरनेनिगेसन र एयर टि ानिक सेवा
 हवाईक्षेत्रको व्यवस्थापन,
 उड्डयन सेवाको लानग र्ौसर् सम्बन्धी सूचना सेवा
 उड्डयन खोज तथा उद्धार कायार्ा सहयोग तथा सर्न्वय
 अन्तराा नरिय, क्षेत्रीय र आन्तररक नवर्ानस्थल ननर्ाा ण, सञ्चालन र व्यवस्थापन,
 वायुयान िु र्ाटना जााँ च सम्बन्धी,
 अल्ट्ि ालाइट, प्याराग्लाइनिं ग, हृयाङ्ग ग्लाइनिं ग जस्ता हवाई खेल/शाहानसक
उड्डयन/र्नोरन्जनात्मक उड्डयन नियाकलाप सम्बन्धी नीनत र र्ापिण्ड
Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal:
The Government of Nepal introduced its first ever Civil Aviation Policy in 2050 B.S. (1993 A.D.).
This policy made the provision of transformation of Department of Civil Aviation into an
autonomous Civil Aviation Authority. Accordingly, Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN)
was established as an autonomous regulatory body on 31 December 1998 under Civil Aviation
Act, 1996. CAAN is the regulator of civil aviation as well as the service provider in the areas of
Air Navigation Services and Aerodrome Operations.
Mission: Ensuring Safe, Secured, Efficient, Standard and Quality Service in Civil Aviation and
Airport Operations.
Vision: Making Air Services an Effective Vehicle of high Economic Growth through Wide Scale
Tourism Promotion and Accessibility
Functions:
Permittng Airlines Operation
Airworthiness Certification and Manpower Licensing/Ratingng
Regulating Air Transport, Air Navigation on Services (ATM/CNS), and
Aerodromes as per ICAO.
Constructing, operating and maintaining airports
Equipping and maintaining airports with necessary communication and navigational
facilities.
Operation of safe, efficient & expeditious flight.
Income Resources:
Landing, Parking, Housing, Over-flying Navigation Charges, Security Charges, Charter
Charges, Flight Catering Charges, Passenger Service Charges, Concessionaries; Vehicle
Entry & Parking Charges, Advertisement Charges, Oil Throughput Charges, Terminal
Rent, Land Rent, Royalty, Cargo Charges, Regulatory fees, Ground Handling Charges, etc.
4.2.1.3 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

The most important international agency concerned with airport development is the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which is now a specialized agency of the United Nations
with headquarters in Montreal, Canada.
There are currently 193 member states of ICAO (as of 2019).
The ICAO concept was formed during a conference of 52 nations held in Chicago in 1944. This
conference was by the invitation of the United States to consider matters of mutual interest in the
field of air transportation.
Objectives:
 Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world.
 Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes
 Encourage the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities for
international aviation
 Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient, and economical air
transport.
 Prevent economic waste by unreasonable competition.
 Ensure that the rights of contracting states are fully respected and that every contracting
state has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines.
 Avoid discrimination between contracting states.
 Promote safety of flight in international air navigation.
 Promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil aeronautics.
4.2.1.4 The economic, political and social roles of airports

Economic Role:
 Air transport generates employment and wealth
 Air transport generates wider catalytic (spin-off) benefits
o Ability to serve larger markets Impact on business operations
o Influence on investment
o Impact on the labour market
o Value of air transport’s wider catalytic impacts
 Air transport contributes to world trade
 Air transport stimulates tourism
 Air transport is a significant tax payer
Social Role:
 Contributes to sustainable development
 Provides access to remote areas
 Delivers humanitarian aid
 Contributes to consumer welfare
 Improves quality of life
 Poverty alleviation through employment and trade and tourism
 Facilitates emergency and humanitarian aid.
 Time and cost savings
Political Role:
 Exchange of culture and social values between countries
 Generates trade opportunities
 Exchange of technology
 Political stability
4.2.3 Geometric design of Aerodrome
4.2.3.1 Design of Runways
Runway:
A runway is a rectangular area on the airport surface prepared for the takeoff and landing of
aircraft.
An airport may have one runway or several runways which are sited, oriented, and configured in
a manner to provide for the safe and efficient use of the airport under a variety of conditions.
Aerodrome:
An aerodrome is a part of an airport used by an aircraft.
Aerodrome Reference Code:
A system of code numbers and letters selected for aerodrome planning purposes in accordance
with the characteristics of the airplane for which an aerodrome facility is intended.
For e.g. Aerodrome Reference of Some airports of Nepal

s.n. Airport Reference Code Critical Aircraft
1 TIA 4E Airbus 330
2 Biratnagar Airport 3C ATR 72
3 Nepalgunj Airport 3C ATR 72
4 Jomsom Airport 1B DHC 6
5 Lukla Airport 1B D 228
Factors Affecting location, orientation and number of runways:

• local weather conditions: particularly wind distribution and visibility,
• topography of the airport and surrounding area,
• the type and amount of air traffic to be serviced at the airport,
• aircraft performance requirements,
• aircraft noise
Runway configuration:
Refers to the number and relative orientations of one or more runway on an airfield. The basic
configuration are:
 single runways
 parallel runways
 intersecting runways
 open-V runways
Runway Orientation:
The orientation of a runway is defined by the direction, relative to magnetic north, of the operations
performed by aircraft on the runway.
Runways are typically oriented based on the area’s wind conditions.
Runway Orientation: Wind Factor
• Head wind is a wind which is coming from the front side that is just opposite to the
movement of the aircraft.
• Tail wind is a wind which is coming from the tail side, then that is known as tail wind.
• Cross Wind: The normal component of the wind (V Sinθ) acting at right angle to the
direction of aircraft is Cross Wind. Air craft will drift from the runway if cross wind is
very larger
 The FAA recommends that runways should be oriented so that aircraft may be landed at
least 95 percent of the time with allowable crosswind components.
Wind Rose Diagram:

• The wind data (Direction, duration and intensity) graphically represented by a diagram
called Wind Rose.
• Design Data should be collected for the period of 5 to 10 year
• Two Types:
• Type-I (Direction and Duration)
• Type-II (Direction, Duration and Intensity)
• Gives direction with respect to true north.
Runway Designation:
• Because true north is used for published wind data, this bearing usually will be different
from that used in numbering runways since runway designations are based on the magnetic
bearing.
• Q. From a Wind Rose Diagram a proposed runway is determined to be N54030’W, with a
magnetic variance of 14045’ West. What should the runway designation be?
• 1st Convert to Degrees
• 2nd Adjust for Magnetic Variance
• 3rd Divide the bearing by 10
• 4th Round to the nearest whole number (if the answer is 0 use 36)
• N54030’W Bearing Angle = 305.500 w.r.t. True North
2. 14.75 Magnetic Variance west
305.500 + 14.750 = 320.250
3. Divide the Bearing by 10
320.250 / 10 = 32.025
4. Round to the nearest whole number
32.025 => 32
5. Runway designation 14-32
Basic Runway Length:
It is the length of the runway under following assumed conditions of the airport:
– Airport altitude is at sea level
– Temperature at airport is standard (15°C)
– Runway is leveled in longitudinal direction
– No wind is blowing on runway
– Aircraft is loaded to it’s full loading capacity
– There is no wind blowing en-route to the destination
– En-route temperature is standard
According to ICAO guidelines, the minimum basic runway length requirements for A and E type
airports are:
A Type Airport: An airport with approach speeds of less than 91 knots (168.52 km/h) requires a
minimum basic runway length of 1,500 meters and 600 meters for takeoff and landing,
respectively.
E Type Airport: An airport with approach speeds of more than 166 knots (307.12 km/h) requires
a minimum basic runway length of 2,100 meters and 600 meters for takeoff and landing,
respectively.
Factors affecting Basic Runway Length:
– Aircraft characteristics
– Power and propulsion system
– Gross take-off and landing weights of the aircraft
– Type of aircraft
– Safety requirements
– Normal landing case
– Normal takeoff case
– Engine failure case (Continued takeoff, Aborted takeoff)
– Airport Environment
– Elevation
– Temperature
– Gradient
Corrections for Basic Runway Length:
Elevation Correction:
• ICAO recommends that basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per
300m rise in elevation above MSL.
• Elevation correction factor, kh = (1+ 0.07 *H/300), H= airport elevation in meters
Temperature Correction:
• ICAO recommends that basic runway length after correction for elevation should be
further increased at the rate of 1% for every 10 C rise of airport reference temperature.
• Temperature correction factor, kt = 1+0.01*(tart – tat )
• Tart = airport reference temperature = ta + (tm – ta)/3
• Tat = standard atmospheric temperature at given elevation = 15 – 0.0065 *H
• Ta = monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year
• Tm= monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature.
Gradient Correction:
• The slope computed by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum
elevation along the runway centre line by the runway length is called effective gradient.
• As per FAA, the runway length having being corrected for elevation and temperature
be further increased at the rate of 20% for each 1% of the runway effective gradient.
• Gradient correction factor, kg = 1 + 0.2 ((RLmax – Rlmin)/L)*100%, L is the runway
length after elevation and temperature correction.
**Note: the runway length corrected for elevation and temperature should be less than 35% of
basic runway length. Else, ICAO recommends these corrections should be further checked by
specific studies.
Question: The runway length required for landing at sea level in standard atmospheric condition
is 3000 m. The effective runway gradient is 0.5% and the aerodrome elevation of 200m, the
mean of max daily temperature and average daily temperature of hottest month are 43.730C and
26.210C respectively. Determine the corrected length of runway after correction recommended by
ICAO and FAA.
Turning pad on runways with stop-ways and clearways:
The turn pad is a defined area adjacent to the runway for aircraft to safely complete 180 degree
turn on a runway.
Turn pads are generally provided when exit taxiway is not available at the end of runway.
Runway End Safety Area (RESA):
An area symmetrical about the extended runway centre line and adjacent to the end of the strip
primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to an aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the
runway.
 RESA is located after the runway stripe.
 Length 90m minimum recommended is 240m.
 Width of RESA should be twice the width of runway.
 No objects should be situated in RESA that may endanger planes.
Physical characteristics of runways:

Runway Width:
 It depends upon type of airport and the biggest aircraft in operation.
Runway Shoulder:
 Lesser strength pavements and are provided on both sides of the runway
 Provide sense of openness to pilot
 Runway shoulders are paved to resist jet blast or maintenance equipment
 About 7.5 m both sides of runway
Longitudinal slope:
 The difference between the maximum and minimum elevation along the runway centre line
by the runway length should not exceed:
o 1% where the code number is 3 or 4
o 2% where the code number is 1 or 2
Transverse slope:
 The runway is cambered to promote rapid drainage of water as:
o 1.5% where the code letter is C, D, E or F
o 2% where the code letter is A or B
Runway Strips:
 A defined area including the runway and stopway, if provided, intended:
o To reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off the runway
o To protect aircraft flying over it during take-off or landing operations.
 Length of Runway strip shall extend before the threshold and beyond the end of the runway
or stopway for a distance of at least:
o 60m (code no: 2,3 or 4)
o 60m (code no:1 instrument runway)
o 60m (code no:1 non instrument runway)
 Width of runway strip from center line of runway in both sides:
o 150m (code no: 3 or 4)
o 75m (code no: 1 or 2)
Clearway:
 A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the appropriate
authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an airplane may a portion of
its initial climb to a specified height.
 The origin of a clearway should be at the end of the take-off run available
 Length of clearway should not exceed half the length of the take-off run available.
 Width at least of 75 m from extended center line of the runway.
 Constructed at an upward slope of maximum 1.25%.
Stopway:
 A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of takeoff run available prepared as a
suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take off.
 Width of stopway same as runway.
 Yellow markings
Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS):

 The airspace around aerodromes to be maintained free from obstacles so as to permit the
intended airplane operations at the aerodromes to be conducted safely and to prevent the
aerodromes from becoming unusable by the growth of obstacles around the aerodromes.
4.2.3.2 Design of taxiways, aprons and holding bays:
Functional/Principle Requirements of Taxiway:
 The components of the taxiway system should serve to link the aerodrome functions and
are necessary to develop optimum aerodrome utilization.
 The taxiway system should be designed to minimize the restriction of aircraft movement
to and from the runways and apron areas.
 For any given aerodrome, the taxiway system should be able to accommodate (without
significant delay) the demands of aircraft arrivals and departures on the runway system.
 Taxiway system should be developed to operate at the highest level of both safety and
efficiency.
 Taxiway routes should be as simple as possible in order to avoid pilot confusion and the
need of complicated instructions.
 Straight runs of pavement should be used wherever possible. Where changes in direction
are required, curves of adequate radii, as well as fillets or extra taxiway width should be
provided.
 Taxiway crossing of runways and other taxiways should be avoided for safety and reduce
delay.
 Taxiway system should be connect various elements of aerodrome by shortest distance to
minimize taxiing time and cost.
 All sections of taxiway should be visible from ATC.
Taxiway Width:
 Taxiway width are based on adding clearance distance from wheel to pavement edge to the
maximum outer main gear wheel span for the selected code letter.
Taxiway Curves:
 Changes in direction of taxiway should be as few and small as possible.
 The design of the curve should be such that when the cockpit of the airplane remains over
the taxiway center line marking, the clearance distance between the outer main wheels of
the airplane and the edge of the taxiway should not be less than those specified in above
table.
 If curves are unavoidable, the radii should be compatible with the maneuvering capability
and normal taxiing speed.
Junctions and Intersections:

 To ensure that the minimum wheel clearance distances specified in above table are
maintained, fillets (or extra taxiway width) should be provided at junctions and
intersections of taxiways with runways, aprons and other taxiways.
 The strength of fillets should be the same as that of the taxiways.
Rapid Exit Taxiways (RETS):
 A rapid exit taxiway is a taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to
allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher speeds than those achieved on the other exit
taxiways, thereby minimizing runway occupancy time.
 As different types of aircraft require different locations for RETS, the expected aircraft
fleet mix will be an essential criteria for location.
 The threshold speed, braking ability and operational turn-off speed of the aircraft will
determine the location of the exits.
 Three segment method can be used to identify the location of rapid exit taxiways based on
4 classes of aircraft from Group A to Group D (based on landing speed: 169 to 306 kmph).
Passenger Terminal Apron:
 The passenger terminal apron is an area designed for aircraft maneuvering and parking that
is adjacent or readily accessible to the passenger terminal facilities.
 This area can also be used for aircraft fueling and maintenance.
Cargo Terminal Apron:

 Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may be provided a separate cargo terminal
building.
Design Requirements of Aprons:
 Safety:
o Should take into account safety procedures for aircraft maneuvering on the apron.
o Should maintain specified clearance between fixed facilities.
o Pavements should slope away from the terminal buildings and other structures to
prevent the spread of fuel fires on the apron.
 Efficiency:
o Should contribute to a high degree of efficiency for aircraft movements.
o Freedom of movement, minimum taxi distance, and delay are the measures of
efficiency.
 Geometry:
o Should consider aircraft size, clearance requirement, number of aircraft expected
etc.
 Flexibility:
o Range of aircraft sizes
o Expansion capability
Size of Apron:
 The amount of area require for a particular apron layout depends upon the following
factors:
o The size and maneuvering characteristics of the aircraft using the apron
o The volume of traffic using the apron
o Clearance requirements
o Basic terminal layout
o Aircraft ground handling requirements
o Taxiway and service roads
Need of Holding Bays and Bypasses:
 Will allow a large degree of flexibility in generating the departure sequence.
 This provides air traffic services units with greater flexibility in adjusting the take-off
sequence to overcome undue delays, thus increasing the capacity of an aerodrome.
 Engine warm up for piston engines.
Types of Bypasses:
 Can be divided into three types:
o Holding Bays: A defined area where aircraft can be held or bypassed.
o Dual Taxiway: A second taxiway or a taxiway bypass to the normal parallel

taxiway.
o Dual runway entrances: A duplication of the taxiway entrance to the runway.
Size and Location of Holding Bays:

 The space required for a holding bay depends on the number of aircraft positions to be
provided, the size of the aircraft to be accommodated and the frequency of their utilization.
 The dimensions must allow for sufficient space between aircraft to enable them to
maneuver independently.
 Most advantageous location for a holding bay is adjacent to the taxiway serving the runway
end.
 The distance between a holding bay and the center line of a runway should not be less than
30m (for code 1 and increases accordingly as specified).
Isolated Parking Bays:
 An isolated aircraft parking position shall be designated area for the parking of an aircraft
which is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference, or which for other
reasons needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities.
 Recommendation:
o Should be located at a maximum distance practicable and in any case should not be
less than 100 m from other parking positions, buildings or public areas.
o Care should be taken to ensure that the position is not located over underground
utilities such as gas and aviation fuel, electrical or communication cables.
4.2.6 STOLPort and Heliport
4.2.6.1: STOLport:
 A STOLport or STOLPORT is an aircraft designed with STOL (Short Take-Off and
Landing) operations usually for an aircraft of certain weight and size.
 A stolport is an airport whose physical characteristics, visual and non-visual aids and total
infrastructure are created to support safe and effective public air transport in and out of
densely populated urban areas as well.
 It is designed with reference field length less than 800 m.
Importance of STOLport in the context of Nepal:
 Majority of the country’s land area is mountain. The rugged terrain and fragile geology has
made the road transport unsafe and time consuming as well as the construction and
maintenance of road is a challenging job. So, stolports are being effective mode of
transportation in otherwise inaccessible part of the country.
 Promoting internal as well as international tourism
 Generates employment opportunities in remote areas.
 Reduce poverty through employment and tourism.
 Provides access to remote areas.
 Delivers humanitarian aid and rescue operation.
 Exchange of goods and services to and from urban areas.
 Establish the presence of government in remote areas.
Physical Characteristics of STOLports:
Runway:
 The length of a stolport runway should be based on take-off and landing data obtained from
the aeroplane flight manual of the stolport design aeroplane and considered together with
the following factors:
o whether the approaches are open or restricted;
o longitudinal slope of the proposed runway;
o elevation of the site;
o temperature and humidity of the site;
o nature of the runway surface
Runway Width:
 A runway width of 23 m has been considered generally suitable for aeroplanes like the
stolport design aeroplane for use in visual meteorological conditions. However, the width
of a precision approach runway for such an aeroplane should be not less than 30 m.
Longitudinal and Transverse Slopes:
 Any excessive longitudinal slope on a runway will adversely affect both the landing and
take-off roll of an aeroplane. For this reason wherever possible, the longitudinal slope of a
stolport runway should be held to 1.0 per cent or less, not to exceed 2.0 per cent.
 In cases where the longitudinal slope of a stolport runway exceeds 2.0 per cent, it may be
necessary to advise the operators that operations are restricted to landing uphill and taking
off downhill.
 A transverse slope should not exceed 2 per cent.
Runway Strip Width and Length:
 A stolport runway strip width of at least 45 m on either side of the centre line is adequate
for day-time operations in visual meteorological conditions. However, for operations at
night or in instrument meteorological conditions, a width of 75 m on either side of the
centre line is recommended.
 A stolport runway strip length of 60 m beyond the end of each runway or stopway is
recommended.
Taxiways:
 The likely configuration of a stolport is a single runway served by a single taxiway. A
runway should have sufficient entrance and exit taxiways to expedite movement of
aeroplanes to and from the runway.
 Where the end of a runway is not served by a taxiway, it may be necessary to provide
additional pavement at the end of the runway for aeroplanes to turn.
 A taxiway should be designed so that when the cockpit of the design aeroplane is over the
taxiway centre line markings, the clearance distance between the outer main wheel of the
aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway is not less than 3 m.
Apron:
 It will be necessary to provide an apron to permit the loading and unloading of passengers
and cargo as well as aircraft servicing without interfering with stolport traffic.
 A stolport apron’s size should be sufficient to contain an adequate number of gates or
parking spaces to cater to the stolport’s traffic volume at its highest level.
Heliport:
 An aerodrome or a defined area on a structure intended to be used wholly or in part for the
arrival, departure and surface movement of helicopters.
Site Selection for Heliport:
 Possible air traffic conflicts between helicopters using a heliport and other air traffic should
be avoided.
 The selected site should be conveniently situated as regards to ground transport access and
adequate vehicle parking facilities.
 Site should be away from large structures i.e. beneath the high rise buildings, that might
create wind turbulence.
 High terrain, or other obstacles especially power lines, in the vicinity of the proposed
heliport should be avoided.
 Heliport design and location should be such that downwind operations are avoided and
cross-wind operations are kept to minimum.
Physical Characteristics of Heliport:
 Final Approach and Take-off Area (FATO):
o A defined area over which the final phase of the approach manoeuvre to hover or
landing is completed and from which the take-off manoeuvre is commenced.
o All final approaches shall terminate at the FATO and all take-offs to climb shall
start there.
o A FATO may be of any shape but it must be able to accommodate a circle whose
diameter is at least equal to the diameter of the rotor for which heliport is intended
plus rejected take-off area required.
o The overall slope of FATO in any direction shall not exceed 3%.
o The surface of FATO shall be resistant to the effects of downwash, be free of
irregularities and have sufficient bearing strength.
 Touchdown and Lift-off Areas (TLOFs):

o An area on which a helicopter may touch down or lift off.
o Can be of any shape but shall be sufficient size to contain the largest helicopter the
area is intended to serve.
o Slope shall be sufficient to prevent accumulation of water but shall not exceed 2%
in any direction.
o Should be free of loose particles, have sufficient bearing strength.
 Safety areas:
o The FATO shall be surrounded by a safety area.
o It reduces the risk of damage to a helicopter caused to move off the FATO by the
effect of turbulence or cross wind.
o The safety area surrounding a FATO shall extend outwards from the periphery of
the FATO for a distance of at least 3m or 0.25 times the overall length/width of
helicopter whichever is greater.
o No fixed object or mobile object shall be permitted in safety area.
 Helicopter Ground Taxiway:
o Intended to permit the surface movement of a wheeled helicopter under its own
power.
o Helicopter ground taxiway shall not be less than 7.5m.
o Longitudinal slope shall not exceed 3%.
o Should be provided with shoulders.
 Air Taxiways:
o Intended to permit the movement of a helicopter above the surface at a ground
speed less than 37 km/h.
o The width of an air taxiway shall be at least 2 times the greatest overall width of
helicopters.
o The surface of the ground beneath an air taxiway shall be resistant to the effects of
rotor downwash and shall be suitable for emergency landing.
 Obstacle Limitation Surface and Requirements:
o Permit the intended helicopter operations at the heliports to be conducted safely
and to prevent the heliports becoming unusable by the growth of obstacles around
them.
o This can be achieved by establishing a series of obstacle limitation surfaces that
define the limits to which objects may project into the airspace.
o The minimum dimensions required for such surfaces will vary based on the size of
helicopter, its climbing speed and rate of climb.
o Requirements:
 Take-off climb surface
 Approach surface
 Transitional surface
 Conical surface
 Airport Drainage:
o An adequate drainage system for the removal of surface and subsurface water is vital
for the safety of aircraft and for the longevity of the pavements.
o Improper drainage results in the formation of puddles on the pavement surface, which
can be hazardous to aircraft taking off and landing.
 Purpose of Drainage:
o Interception and diversion of surface and groundwater flow originating from lands
adjacent to the airport.
o Removal of surface runoff from the airport
o Removal of surface flow from the airport
 Design Storm for Surface Runoff:
o FAA recommends that for civil airports the drainage system be designed for a storm
whose probability of occurrence is once in 5 years.
o The designs should, however, be checked with a storm of lesser frequency (10 to 15
years). In Nepal it is taken as 10 years.
 Components of Airport Drainage Design:
o Surface hydrology
o Pavement Surface Drainage
o Design of Culvert
o Channel Design
o Drainage Structures
o Sub-Surface Drainage System
 Determination of Run-off (FAA Method):
o The FAA analysis of airport surface drainage revolves about the solution of the rational
method: Q = CIA
o Where, Q = runoff from given drainage basin, ft3/s, C = runoff coefficient, Intensity of
rainfall,in/hr, A= drainage area in acres.
o Assumptions:
 Peak flow occurs when the entire watershed is contributing to the flow.
 Rainfall intensity is the same over the entire drainage area.
 Rainfall intensity is uniform over time duration equal to the time of
concentration (tc). The time of concentration is the time required for water to
travel from the hydraulically most remote point of the basin to the point of
interest.
 The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms of all recurrence
probabilities.
 Suitable only to drainage areas smaller than 200 acres.
o Runoff Coefficient (C): Summation (CxAx)/Atotal
o The Kerby-Kirpich method is used to calculate the time of concentration:
Tc = tov + tch
Where, tov = overland flow time and tch = channel flow time.
 Channel Design:
o Flood Frequency (10 years generally)
o Channel Geometry (Triangular or Trapezoidal sometimes rectangular also)
o Freeboard (15 to 30cm depends on size)
o Generally wide and shallow open channels are preferred and Channel slope
should not be steeper than 2.5:1 (H:V)
o Use Mannings Equations for section design.
 Sub-surface Drainage System:
 Effects of Subsurface Water
o Water has a detrimental effect on pavement performance, primarily by either
weakening subsurface materials or eroding material by free water movement
o Flexible Pavement: the weakening of the base, subbase, or subgrade when
saturated with water is one of the main causes of pavement failures.
o Rigid Pavement: free water, trapped between the concrete surface and an
impermeable layer directly beneath the concrete, moves due to pressure caused
by loadings (called pumping) and erodes the subsurface material, creating voids
under the concrete surface.
 Functions of Sub-Surface Drain:
o To drain wet soil masses
o To intercept and divert subsurface flows
o To lower and control the water table.
4.2.8 Aerodrome Certification and Safety Management System:
Aerodrome Certification:
 Aerodrome Certification is a proven and effective way of ensuring safe and efficient
aerodrome operations, through a defined encompassing process which examines various
components of the aerodrome, with an aim to verifying their compliance with international
Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs).
 During a thorough certification process, aerodrome regulators and operators verify that the
aerodrome’s facilities, design, equipment and operational procedures comply with relevant
SARPs, thereby ensuring safe operations and supporting optimization of aerodrome
capacity and efficiency.
Why Certify Aerodrome?
 Ownership and management of aerodromes differ between states.
 More aerodromes being privatized.
 Standardization of procedures and technical aerodrome elements is critical; without it the
necessary level of standardization is less likely.
 Certification facilitates standardization; and standardization enhances safety.
 ICAO Chicago Convention Article 15 and Annex SARPs.
ICAO Requirements on Certification of Aerodromes:
 Each State agrees to provide airports and air traffic services in conformance with standards
and practices established under the Convention.
 Each State agrees to implement in their national regulations the International Standards
and Recommended Practices (SARPs) and Procedures adopted by ICAO in order to ensure
the highest practicable degree of uniformity.
 Each State is required to notify ICAO immediately if it finds it impracticable to comply in
all respects with any International Standard or Procedure.
Nepal Requirements on Certification of Aerodromes:
 The operator of the airport that may be used for public purpose as per the national need
must obtain the Airport Certificate.
 The Airport Certificate must be obtained to operate international public air transportation
service at any airport of Nepal.
 An operator of an aerodrome intended for international operations shall be in possession
of an aerodrome certificate.
 An operator of an aerodrome intended for domestic operation for public use in accordance
with the national requirements, an Aerodrome Certificate shall be obtained if the maximum
passenger seating capacity of the aircraft employed in the operation exceeds 30 seats as of
31st December 2012.
Audit and Inspections:
 As a part of Certification issuing process, a verification is done. State CAA must verify
aerodrome operator’s compliance with established standard which include established test
and inspection procedure to ensure that aerodromes are operated in a safe manner in
accordance with the regulations.
Types of Audits and Inspection:
 Audits:
o Periodic or special audits
o Review of published aerodrome data
 Inspection:
o Initial / verification
o Periodic
o Special
o Surveillance
 Inspection Phase:
o Preparation for the inspection
o Pre-inspection briefing
o Administrative inspection
o Movement area inspection
o Rescue and fire-fighting inspection
o Fuel facilities inspection
o Night inspection
o Post inspection briefing
o Follow up and paper work.
State Safety Program (SSP):
 An SSP is defined as an integrated set of regulations and activities aimed at improving
Safety.
 It includes specified safety activities that must be performed by the State, and regulations
and directives promulgated by the State to support fulfillment of its responsibilities
concerning safe and efficient delivery of aviation activities of the State.
 SSP Nepal has been developed in accordance with the ICAO SSP framework that consists
4 components and 14 elements:
o State safety policy, objectives and resources:
 Primary aviation legislation
 Specific operating regulations
 State system and functions
 Qualified technical personnel
 Technical guidance, tools and provision of safety critical information
o State safety risk management:
 Licensing, certification, authorization and approval obligations
 Safety management system obligations
 Accident and incident investigation
 Hazard identification and safety risk assessment
 Management of safety risks
o State safety assurance:
 Surveillance obligations
 State safety performance
o State safety promotion:
 Internal communication and dissemination of safety information
 External communication and dissemination of safety information.
Safety Management System (SMS):
 A safety management system (SMS) is defined as an organization-wide process designed
to manage safety risk in the workplace.
 Objectives:
o manage safety to the acceptable level;
o provide for ongoing monitoring and assessment of safety performance;
o make continuous improvements to the level of safety in operations;
o Develop and improve the safety culture within the organization.
 SMS framework consists of 4 components with 12 elements:
o Safety Policy and Objectives
 Management commitment
 Safety accountability and responsibilities
 Appointment of key safety personnel
 Coordination of Emergency Response Planning
 SMS documentation
o Safety Risk Management
 Hazard identification
 Safety risk assessment and mitigation
o Safety Assurance
 Safety performance monitoring and measurement
 The management of change
 Continuous improvement of the SMS
o Safety Promotion
 Training and education
 Safety communication
4.2.5 Visual Aids for Navigation:
Operating Requirements:
The operating requirements for visual aids vary according to the type of aircraft being flown, the
meteorological conditions, the type of navigation aid used for the approach, the physical
characteristics of runway and taxiways, availability of landing information.
The operating requirements are:
a. Airport location
b. Airport identification
c. Landing information
 Wind direction and speed
 Runway designation
 Runway status (closed or usable)
 Runway designation
d. Circling guidance
e. Final approach guidance to touchdown
 Runway edge and threshold delineation
 Approach slope guidance
 Aiming point guidance
 Runway centerline delineation
f. Roll-out guidance
 Runway center line delineation
 Runway edge delineation
 Exit taxiway location
 Exit taxiway edge and centerline delineation
 Runway end indication
g. Taxiing guidance
 Taxiway edge
 Information signs to parking and servicing areas
 Mandatory instruction signs
h. Departure information
i. Take-off guidance
 Runway centerline delineation
 Runway edge delineation
 Runway end indication
Runway, Taxiway and Apron Marking:
 Runway marking shall be white.
 Taxiway markings, runway turnpad marking and aircraft stand marking shall be yellow
 Apron safety lines shall be of a conspicuous color which shall contrast with that used for
aircraft stand marking.
Signs:
 Signs shall be provided to convey a mandatory instruction, information on a specifc
location or destination on a movement area.
 Two types:
o Mandatory instruction signs:
 Provided to identify a location beyond which an aircraft taxing or vehicle
shall not proceed
 White letters with red background
o Information signs
 Shall be provided where there is an operational need to identify a specific
location or routing.
 Black letters on yellow background
4.2.4 Design of aerodrome pavement
4.2.4.1 Procedure for pavement design (Aircraft Classification Number (ACN), Pavement
Classification Number (PCN) Method:
ACN: A number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for specified standard
subgrade strength.
PCN: A number expressing the bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations.
Airport Pavement Management System (APMS):
 Defined as a mechanism for providing consistent, objective, and systematic procedures for
evaluating pavement condition and for determining the priorities and schedules for
pavement maintenance and rehabilitation within available resource and budgeting
constraints.
 Maintains record of pavements inventory.
 Objectives:
o A systematic mechanism for regularly collecting, storing, and retrieving the
necessary data associated with pavement use and condition
o An objective system for evaluating pavement condition at regular intervals
o Procedures for identifying alternative maintenance and rehabilitation strategies
o Mechanisms for predicting and evaluating the impact of pavement maintenance and
rehabilitation strategies and alternatives on pavement condition, serviceability, and
useful service life
o Procedures for estimating and comparing the costs of various strategies and
alternatives
o Techniques for identifying the optimal strategy or alternative based upon relevant
decision criteria.
Pavement Evaluation:
 Pavement evaluation is done to find the present condition of pavement in terms of structural
condition (i.e. structural capacity) and functional condition (SDI, PCI, Roughness, etc.)
 Process:
o Records Research
o Site inspection
o Sampling and testing
 Direct sampling e.g. coring, boring, materials sampling
 Non Destructive testing e.g. Benkelman beam, falling weight deflectometer,
ground penetration radar, infrared thermography.
o Pavement condition index (PCI 0 to 100 ratings)
o Roughness index
o Skid Resistance
o Evaluation Report- analyses, findings, test results.
FAA Recommended CBR Method of Flexible Pavement Design:
 Design charts are available for design of pavements for gross aircraft weight of 30000 lbs
or more for single, dual and dual tandem aircrafts
 It is assumed that 95% of the gross weight of the aircraft is carried by the main landing
gear and 5% by the nose gear
 Three Basic Design Parameter are Sub grade Strength(CBR), Design Aircraft (Gear type
and Gross Load) and Traffic(Annual Departures)
Steps 1:
 Determination of Design Aircraft
o Select the aircraft requiring the largest thickness as the design aircraft.
o The design aircraft is not necessarily the heaviest aircraft in the forecast. It is the
one requiring the greatest pavement thickness
o Due to the differences in stress distribution characteristics, separate flexible
pavement design curves for several gear configurations have been prepared
Question:
Assume an airport pavement is to be designed for the following forecast traffic. Find the design
aircraft.
Hence the design aircraft
is:727-200
Step 2: Conversion into the same landing gear type as the design aircraft
 Since the traffic forecast is a mixture of a variety of aircraft having different landing gear
types and different weights, the effects of all traffic must be accounted for in terms of the
design aircraft.
 First, all aircraft must be converted to the same landing gear type as the design aircraft.
 The following conversion factors should be used to convert from one landing gear type to
another:
Step 3: Determination of Equivalent Annual Departures by the Design Aircraft:

 The conversion to equivalent annual departures of the design aircraft should be determined
by the following formula:
𝑊2
 log 𝑅1 = log 𝑅2 ∗ √(𝑊1)
 Where,
R1 = equivalent annual departures by the design aircraft
R2= annual departures expressed in design aircraft landing gear
W1 = wheel load of the design aircraft
W2= wheel load of the aircraft in question
Step 4:
 Using the landing gear configuration of design aircraft select the appropriate pavement
design chart
 Determine the total thickness of pavement using:
o Design aircraft weight,
o Total Equivalent Annual Departures
o Sub Grade Strength
Step 5:
 With CBR for sub base, determine the pavement thickness to protect the sub base
Step 6:
 Calculate the thickness of the sub base as the difference of the two thickness calculated
Step 7:
 Calculate the thickness of the base by subtracting the minimum surface thickness
Question:
Assume an airport pavement is to be designed for the following forecast traffic. Design Aircraft is
727-200. CBR Value of subgrade = 6%, CBR Value of Sub-base = 20%, Minimum Bituminous
surface = 4”.
Solution:
 Design aircraft is given in question as 727-200 which is dual gear configuration.
 Convert other wheel gear configuration departures into dual wheel gear configuration
departures with given conversion factor.
 For Dual Tandem to design dual gear, conversion factor = 1.7
 Equivalent dual gear departures = 1.7*1500=2550

Therefore flexible pavement should be designed with:
 EAD = 13641
 Weight = 190500 lbs
 From design chart with sub grade CBR = 6 , calculate thickness
For CBR of sub base = 20 % , Gross weight = 190500lbs and EAD = 13641
Thickness required above sub base = 17 in
Therefore thickness of sub base = 39 – 17 = 22 in
Minimum thickness of surface course = 4 in
Therefore thickness of base course = 17 – 4 = 13 in

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Transportation System

Definition: Consists of functional components:

Comparison of Transportation System

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Airports in Nepal: Present Status:

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2. Base Forecast Method

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Aircraft Component Parts:

Its essential parts are as given below:

Minimum Turning Radius:

Rapid exit Taxiways:

Since there are 10 gates available,

Factors Causing Delay:

4.2.1.3 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

4.2.1.4 The economic, political and social roles of airports

For e.g. Aerodrome Reference of Some airports of Nepal

Factors Affecting location, orientation and number of runways:

Wind Rose Diagram:

Physical characteristics of runways:

Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS):

Junctions and Intersections:

Cargo Terminal Apron:

o Dual Taxiway: A second taxiway or a taxiway bypass to the normal parallel

o Dual runway entrances: A duplication of the taxiway entrance to the runway.

Size and Location of Holding Bays:

 Touchdown and Lift-off Areas (TLOFs):

Step 3: Determination of Equivalent Annual Departures by the Design Aircraft:

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