General Register Organization

General register organization refers to the structure and management of the CPU
registers that can be accessed by the instruction set architecture (ISA). It
includes a set of registers that are used for various purposes such as holding
operands, intermediate results, and addresses. The general register organization
can be classified into three types:

1. Single Accumulator Register: This has one main accumulator and all
operations are performed with the accumulator.
2. General Register Organization: Multiple registers are available, and
any register can be used in an instruction.
3. Stack Organization: Uses a stack where data is pushed and popped
from the top of the stack.

Hardwired Control Unit

A Hardwired Control Unit is a sequential circuit that generates control signals

based on the given instructions. It uses fixed logic circuits to control
signals.

Advantages:

1. Speed: Faster than microprogrammed control units because control

signals are generated directly by combinational logic.
2. Efficiency: Optimized for specific tasks and can be very efficient
in execution.

Differentiate between RISC and CISC

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing):

1. Instruction Set: Fewer, simpler instructions.

2. Execution Time: Most instructions execute in a single cycle.
3. Pipelining: High degree of pipelining.
4. Memory Operations: Only load and store instructions access memory.
5. Design Complexity: Simpler hardware design.

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing):

1. Instruction Set: Larger set of more complex instructions.

2. Execution Time: Instructions can take multiple cycles.
3. Pipelining: More challenging due to complex instructions.
4. Memory Operations: Many instructions can access memory.
5. Design Complexity: More complex hardware design.

One and Zero Address Instructions

One Address Instructions:

• Operands are implicitly and explicitly specified.

• Example: ADD A (adds the value at memory location A to the
accumulator).

Zero Address Instructions:

• Uses a stack for operations where the top elements of the stack are
implicitly used.
• Example: ADD (pops the two top elements of the stack, adds them, and
pushes the result back).

Memory Hierarchy

Memory hierarchy in a computer system is structured to enable faster access to

frequently used data and instructions. It includes:

1. Registers: Smallest, fastest, and most expensive.

2. Cache Memory: Larger than registers, faster than main memory.
3. Main Memory (RAM): Larger and slower than cache.
4. Secondary Storage: Even larger and slower (e.g., SSDs, HDDs).
5. Tertiary Storage: Used for archival and backup (e.g., tapes).

Direct vs. Indirect Addressing Mode

Direct Addressing Mode:

• Address of the operand is given explicitly within the instruction.

• Example: LOAD A (loads the value at address A into the accumulator).

Indirect Addressing Mode:

• Address of the operand is held in a pointer.

• Example: LOAD (A) (loads the value at the address found in memory
location A into the accumulator).

Magnetic Disk

A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses magnetic storage techniques to

read and write data. Common examples include hard drives.

Characteristics:

1. Capacity: Large storage capacity.

2. Speed: Slower than primary memory.
3. Durability: More durable and reliable over time.

Optical Memory

Optical memory refers to storage media that uses lasers to read and write data.
Examples include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.

Characteristics:

1. Durability: Long-lasting and less susceptible to environmental

damage.
2. Capacity: Varies (up to 128 GB for Blu-ray discs).
3. Portability: Easy to transport and store.

Associative Memory

Associative memory, also known as content-addressable memory (CAM), allows data

retrieval based on content rather than address.

Characteristics:

1. Speed: Faster data retrieval.

2. Efficiency: Ideal for applications requiring quick searches and
retrievals.

BIOS and POST

BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): A firmware that initializes and tests hardware
during the booting process and provides runtime services for operating systems.

POST (Power-On Self-Test): A diagnostic testing sequence run by the BIOS to

check the functionality of the hardware components.

Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Data Transfer

Synchronous Data Transfer:

1. Timing: Data transfer is synchronized with a clock signal.

2. Speed: Generally faster.
3. Complexity: Requires clock management.

Asynchronous Data Transfer:

1. Timing: Data transfer is not dependent on a clock signal.

2. Speed: Potentially slower.
3. Flexibility: More flexible in timing.

Microprogrammed CPU Design

Microprogrammed CPU design uses a sequence of microinstructions stored in a

control memory to generate control signals. This allows for more flexible and
easier updates of the control unit.

Advantages:

1. Flexibility: Easier to modify and update.

2. Complex Instructions: Can implement complex instruction sets.

Crossbar Switch

A crossbar switch is a network switch that connects multiple inputs to multiple

outputs in a grid-like manner, allowing simultaneous data transfers.

Forms of Parallel Processing

1. Bit-level Parallelism: Processing multiple bits with a single

instruction.
2. Instruction-level Parallelism: Executing multiple instructions
simultaneously.
3. Task Parallelism: Different processors or cores execute different
tasks.
4. Data Parallelism: Same task on multiple pieces of distributed data.

Characteristics of Multiprocessor

1. Performance: Higher performance due to parallelism.

2. Scalability: Can add more processors to improve performance.
3. Reliability: Fault-tolerant, as other processors can take over in
case of failure.
4. Cost: Generally more expensive due to complexity.

RISC Architecture

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) Architecture focuses on a small, highly

optimized set of instructions, all of which are designed to be executed very
quickly (typically in a single clock cycle). Key features include:

1. Simplicity: Simple instructions that execute in a single cycle.

2. Pipelining: High degree of instruction pipelining for improved
performance.
3. Large Number of Registers: Helps reduce the number of memory
accesses.
4. Load/Store Architecture: Only load and store instructions access
memory.
5. Fixed Instruction Length: Simplifies instruction decoding and
execution.

CISC Architecture

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) Architecture aims to reduce the number
of instructions per program, sacrificing the number of cycles per instruction.
Key features include:

1. Complex Instructions: Instructions can execute multi-step operations

or addressing modes.
2. Variable Instruction Length: Instructions can be of different
lengths.
3. Fewer Registers: Relies more on memory operations.
4. Microcoded Instructions: Instructions are often implemented using
microcode.

Differences Between RISC and CISC

1. Instruction Set Complexity:

• RISC: Simple, fewer instructions.
• CISC: Complex, many instructions.
2. Execution Time:
• RISC: Most instructions execute in a single cycle.
• CISC: Instructions can take multiple cycles.
3. Pipelining:
• RISC: Designed for high-degree pipelining.
• CISC: Pipelining is more challenging.
4. Memory Operations:
• RISC: Only load/store instructions access memory.
• CISC: Many instructions can access memory.
5. Registers:
• RISC: Large number of general-purpose registers.
• CISC: Fewer general-purpose registers.

Microprogrammed vs. Hardwired Control Unit

Microprogrammed Control Unit:

• Uses a set of instructions (microinstructions) stored in control

memory to generate control signals.
• Advantages:
• Flexibility: Easier to modify and update.
• Can handle complex instructions.
• Disadvantages:
• Slower than hardwired control units.

Hardwired Control Unit:

• Uses fixed logic circuits to generate control signals based on

combinational logic.
• Advantages:
• Faster execution due to direct signal generation.
• Optimized for specific tasks.
• Disadvantages:
• Less flexible: Difficult to modify.

RAM and ROM

RAM (Random Access Memory):

 • Volatile memory used for temporary storage while a computer is
running.
• Fast read/write speeds.
• Types include DRAM and SRAM.

ROM (Read-Only Memory):

• Non-volatile memory used to store firmware and system software.

• Data cannot be easily modified.
• Types include PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

Types of RAM

1. DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

• Stores data in capacitors.
• Needs periodic refreshing.
• Slower but less expensive.
2. SRAM (Static RAM):
• Uses flip-flops to store data.
• No need for refreshing.
• Faster but more expensive.

Auxiliary Memory

Auxiliary Memory, also known as secondary storage, is used for long-term data
storage. Examples include hard drives, SSDs, magnetic tapes, and optical discs.

Magnetic Disk and Magnetic Tapes

Magnetic Disk:

• Non-volatile storage device.

• Stores data on magnetized surfaces.
• Examples include hard drives.
• Suitable for random access.

Magnetic Tape:

• Non-volatile storage device.

• Stores data on magnetic-coated plastic tape.
• Primarily used for backup and archival.
• Suitable for sequential access.

Virtual Memory

Virtual Memory:

• Technique that uses disk space to extend RAM.

• Allows running larger applications than physical memory can
accommodate.
• Paging: Divides memory into fixed-size pages.
• Segmentation: Divides memory into variable-sized segments.

Cache Memory

Cache Memory:

• High-speed memory located between the CPU and main memory.

• Stores frequently accessed data to speed up processes.
• Levels:
• L1: Smallest, fastest, located inside the CPU.
• L2: Larger than L1, slightly slower.
• L3: Even larger, slower than L1 and L2.
Associative Memory

Associative Memory, or Content-Addressable Memory (CAM), allows data retrieval

based on content rather than address.

Characteristics:

• Fast data retrieval.

• Used in applications requiring quick searches (e.g., cache memory,
translation lookaside buffers).

Virtual Memory: Paging and Segmentation

Paging:

• Concept: Divides physical memory and logical memory into fixed-size

blocks called pages (logical memory) and frames (physical memory).
• Page Table: Maps logical pages to physical frames.
• Advantages: Eliminates external fragmentation, allows for efficient
memory management.
• Process: When a program accesses data, the CPU looks at the page
table to find the corresponding frame in physical memory.

Segmentation:

• Concept: Divides a program into segments such as code, data, and

stack, each of which can vary in length.
• Segment Table: Maps logical segments to physical memory locations.
• Advantages: Supports logical organization of programs, easy to share
code/data.
• Process: Each segment has a segment number and offset, with the
segment table providing the starting address of each segment.

Demand Paging

Demand Paging:

• Concept: Loads pages into memory only when they are needed, not in
advance.
• Page Fault: Occurs when the CPU references a page that is not
currently in physical memory, triggering a process to load the page from disk
into memory.
• Advantages: Efficient use of memory, reduced load times.

Hardware

Hardware:

• Refers to the physical components of a computer system, such as the

CPU, memory, storage devices, and input/output devices.
• Plays a critical role in executing instructions, processing data,
and managing memory.

BIOS and Its Function

BIOS (Basic Input/Output System):

• Function: Initializes and tests hardware components during the boot

process (POST - Power-On Self-Test), loads the bootloader or operating system
from a storage device, and provides runtime services for operating systems and
programs.
• Components:
 • ROM: Stores the BIOS firmware.
• CMOS: Stores system settings that the BIOS uses to configure
hardware.
• Boot Process:
1. POST: Checks hardware components and ensures they are functioning
correctly.
2. Bootloader: Locates and loads the operating system.
3. Runtime Services: Provides interfaces for system software to
interact with hardware.

Programmed I/O

Programmed I/O (PIO):

• Concept: The CPU actively participates in data transfer between

memory and I/O devices.
• Process: The CPU issues commands to the I/O device, waits for the
I/O operation to complete, and then transfers data.
• Advantages: Simple implementation.
• Disadvantages: Inefficient, as the CPU spends a lot of time waiting.

Interrupt-Initiated I/O

Interrupt-Initiated I/O:

• Concept: The CPU issues a command to an I/O device and continues

executing other instructions. The I/O device interrupts the CPU when it is ready
for data transfer.
• Process:
1. CPU Issues Command: Starts an I/O operation.
2. I/O Device Interrupts: Signals the CPU when it is ready for data
transfer.
3. Interrupt Handler: The CPU executes an interrupt handler to transfer
data.
• Advantages: More efficient than PIO as the CPU can perform other
tasks while waiting for I/O operations.

Direct Memory Access (DMA)

DMA (Direct Memory Access):

• Concept: Allows I/O devices to transfer data directly to/from memory

without involving the CPU.
• Process:
1. DMA Controller: Manages data transfer between memory and I/O
devices.
2. CPU Initiates Transfer: Sets up the DMA controller with the transfer
details.
3. DMA Transfer: The DMA controller performs the transfer, freeing the
CPU for other tasks.
• Advantages: Efficient data transfer, reduces CPU overhead.

Parallel Processing

Parallel Processing:

• Concept: Simultaneously processing multiple tasks to improve

performance.
• Types:
1. Bit-Level Parallelism: Processing multiple bits with a single
instruction.
2. Instruction-Level Parallelism: Executing multiple instructions
simultaneously.
3. Task Parallelism: Different processors or cores execute different
tasks.
4. Data Parallelism: Same task on multiple pieces of distributed data.

General-Purpose Multiprocessors

General-Purpose Multiprocessors:

• Concept: Systems with multiple CPUs that can perform various tasks.
• Characteristics:
• Performance: Higher due to parallelism.
• Scalability: Can add more processors.
• Reliability: Fault-tolerant.

Configurations:

1. Time-Shared Common Bus:

• Concept: All processors share a common bus for communication.
• Advantages: Simple and cost-effective.
• Disadvantages: Bus contention can limit performance.
2. Multiprocessor with Memory:
• Concept: Each processor has its own memory but can also access
shared memory.
• Advantages: Reduces memory access bottlenecks.
• Disadvantages: More complex memory management.
3. Crossbar Switch:
• Concept: Uses a grid of switches to connect multiple processors to
multiple memory modules.
• Advantages: High performance, no bus contention.
• Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to implement.